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Memory:: Remembrance of Things Past - and Future

This document discusses memory and its various types and processes. It defines memory as the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It describes the three main stages of memory as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses various factors that can influence memory, such as forgetting, interference, encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.

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Jamaika Pace
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54 views39 pages

Memory:: Remembrance of Things Past - and Future

This document discusses memory and its various types and processes. It defines memory as the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It describes the three main stages of memory as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses various factors that can influence memory, such as forgetting, interference, encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.

Uploaded by

Jamaika Pace
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Memory:

Remembrance of
Things Past—and
Future
Learning Outcomes

• Define memory and differentiate between types


of memories.

• Explain the process of memory.

• Explain the stages of memory.


Learning Outcomes

• Identify contributors to forgetting.

• Describe the biological aspects of memory.


Memory Systems
Explicit Versus Implicit Memories

• Explicit memory – declarative memory


– Memory for specific information; that can be
stated or declared
– Information can be autobiographical or general
• Implicit memory – nondeclarative memory
– Memory of how to perform a procedure or skill
– Skill memories
Explicit Memory

• Episodic memory – autobiographical memory


– Memories of things that happen to us or take
place in our presence
– Autobiographical memories
• Semantic memory
– General knowledge
Implicit Memory

• Procedural memory – Skill memory


– Things people do, not things stated clearly
– Things done repeatedly – habits
Priming

• Memory of things that reflect repetition that


makes associations automatic
– Memory of the alphabet or multiplication tables
– Requires less neural activity
Retrospective Memory Versus
Prospective Memory

• Retrospective memory
– Recalling information previously learned
• Episodic, semantic and implicit memories
• Prospective memory
– Remembering to do things in the future
– May fail due to preoccupation or distraction
Prospective Memory

• Prospective memory tasks


– Habitual tasks
• Easier to remember than occasional tasks
– Event-based tasks
• Triggered by events
– Time-based tasks
• Performed at a certain time or after a certain
time has elapsed
Influences on Retrospective and
Prospective Memory

• Age related decline


– More related to speed of cognitive processing
than loss of information
• Moods and attitudes and prospective memory
– Depressed people less likely to push to remind
themselves to do what they intend to do
Processes of Memory
Encoding

• Transforming information into psychological


formulas that can be represented mentally
– Visual – represented as a picture
– Auditory – represented as sounds
– Semantic – represented in terms of meanings
Storage

• Maintaining information over time


• Methods of storing information
– Maintenance rehearsal
• Metamemory
– Elaborative rehearsal
Retrieval

• Locating information and returning it to


consciousness
• Retrieval relies on cues
Definition of Memory

• Process by which information is encoded,


stored, and retrieved
Stages of Memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

• Three stages of memory


– Sensory memory
– Short-term memory (STM)
– Long-term memory (LTM)
• Stages determine whether, and how long,
information is stored
Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory

• First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus


• Holds impressions briefly, but long enough so
series of perceptions become psychologically
continuous
– Memory trace
• Decays within a second
• Visual sensory register
Iconic Memory

• Icons
– Mental representations of visual stimuli
• Brief, but accurate, photographic memories
– Photographic or Eidetic imagery
• mental representations of visual stimuli over
long periods of time
• Iconic memory is common, eidetic memory is not
Echoic Memory

• Echoes
– Mental representations of sounds
• Memory traces of echoes last longer than icons
Short-Term Memory

• Focusing on a stimulus in the sensory register,


retains it in short-term memory (STM) for a
minute or so after the trace decays
– Also called working memory
• Rehearsal allows information to be retained
indefinitely
Serial Position Effect

• Tendency to recall the first and last items in a


series
– May be more attention to first and last items
– May rehearse first item more often and last
most recently
Chunking

• A grouping of stimuli that is perceived as a


discrete piece of information
• Number of items held in STM –
– Seven (plus or minus two)
– Chunking stimuli allows for semantic coding
Interference in Short-Term Memory

• Attention to distracting information interferes with


STM
• Appearance of new information in STM displaces
old information
The Effect of Interference on Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

• Vast storehouse of information


• Long-term memories are distorted
– Schemas bias our memories
• No known limit known for amount of information
stored in long-term memory (LTM)
• Long-term memories may last a life-time
– Not lost by displacement
Levels of Processing Model of Memory

• Memories endure when processed deeply


– Attention, encoding, storing, retrieval all
involved
Flashbulb Memories

• Tend to remember events that are important and


emotionally stirring
– Memories are more distinctive
– Increased networks of association
– Elaborative rehearsal
– Secretion of stress hormones
Organization in Long-Term Memory

• Categorization of information
– Hierarchical structure
• Superordinate classes of information
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

• “Feeling of knowing”
– Acoustic and semantic coding may help
provide a useful retrieval cue
– May reflect incomplete learning
Forgetting
How do We Measure Forgetting?

• Nonsense syllables
– Depend on acoustic coding and maintenance
rehearsal
• Three tasks for measurement
– Recognition
– Recall
– Relearning
• Method of Savings
Interference Theory

• Retroactive interference
– New learning interferes with the retrieval of old
learning
• Proactive interference
– Older learning interferes with the capacity to
retrieve more recently learned material
Repression

• Freudian concept of motivated forgetting


– Automatic ejection of painful memories from
conscious awareness
– Dissociative amnesia
Recovered Memories

• Recovery of repressed memories has little


scientific support
• Implanting false memories
Infantile Amnesia

• Freud – repression
• Immature hippocampus
• Cognitive explanations
– No interest in remembering the past
– Specific episodes versus networks of memories
– Unreliable use of symbolic language
Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia

• Anterograde Amnesia
– Unable to remember events that occur after
physical trauma
• Retrograde Amnesia
– Unable to remember events that occur prior to
physical trauma

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