MECE 3320

MECE 3320 – Measurements & Instrumentation

Measurement System Behavior

Dr. Isaac Choutapalli

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Texas – Pan American
MECE 3320
Measurement System Behavior+

+pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~tarporn
MECE 3320
Response of a Seismic Accelerometer

The response can be modeled by the

following differential equation:
d2y dy dx
m 2  c  ky  c  kx
dt dt dt
Most measurement systems can
be modeled as:
 Zero-Order
 First-Order
 Second Order
 MECE 3320
Zero-Order Systems

Zero-order system model is represented by:

a0 y (t )  b0 x(t ) y (t )  Kx (t ) where K = static sensitivity = b0/a0

The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains constant

regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).

In zero-order systems, the measurement system responds to an input instantly.

It is useful for static inputs or static calibration.

Dynamic signals can also be measured but only at equilibrium conditions.

MECE 3320
Pencil-Type Pressure Gauge

Ky  ( p  patm ) A

Zero-order response equation is given by: y  ( A / K )( p  patm )

 MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Step Input

A first-order system is a measurement system that cannot respond to a change in

input instantly.
dy (t )
  y (t )  Kx(t ) forcing function
dt

0 t  0
x(t )  AU(t )  
A t  0
dy (t )
  y (t )  KAU (t )
dt

y (t )  Ce t /  KA
ycf ypi
Transient Steady state
response response
MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Step Response
Steady-state
Suppose we rewrite the equation as response
Error Fraction

y (t )  KA y (t )  y ()
em (t )    e t / 
y0  KA y (0)  y ()

63.2% response to
input response
y (t )  KA
 e t / 
y (0)  KA

90%
99%
MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Step Response

y (t )  KA t
em   e t /  ln em  2.3 log em  
y (0)  KA 

y (t )  KA
 e t / 
y (0)  KA

Slope = -1/
 Is called the time-constant – time it
takes for the measurement system to
respond to 63.2% of the input signal.
MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Step Response

Thermometer & Energy Balance: Energy Balance:

dE 
Q
dt
 hAs T  T (t )
dT (t )
mcv
dt

Rewriting, we obtain
mcv dT (t )
 T (t )  T
hAs dt

Solving the above differenti al equation gives,

Assumptions: T (t )  T  T (0)  T e t /
 Uniform temperature within the
bulb (lumped analysis)
 Constant mass
 MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Periodic signals are encountered in many applications. Some examples are:

Reciprocating Pumps

Vehicle Suspension System

Pulsed Detonation Engines

 MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Consider a first-order measuring system to which an input represented by the
following equation is applied.
x(t )  A sin t

dy
  y  KA sin t
dt

The complete y (t )  Ce t / 
KA

sin t  tan 1  
solution: 1  ( ) 2

Transient Steady state Frequency

response response = response

y (t )  Ce t /  B( ) sint   ( ) Phase-Shift

Amplitude of steady
state response KA
B( )   ( )   tan 1 
1  ( )  2 1/ 2
 MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
The steady-state response of any system to which a periodic input of frequency, , is
applied is known as the frequency response of that system.
Time-lag

Amplitude-lag input

output
 MECE 3320
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
The ratio of the output signal amplitude to the signal amplitude is called magnitude
ratio.
B 1
M ( )  
 
KA 1   2 1/ 2 The phase angle is  ( )   tan 1 ( )

dynamic error

0.707 -3dB

Cut-off
frequency

Dynamic error, () = M() - 1: a measure of an inability of a system to adequately

reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency.
MECE 3320
First-Order Systems
A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with an
accuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase
shift at 50 and 100 Hz?

 1 

Dynamic error    1  100%
   1 
2 2

From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0.95 
1
 1.05
  1
2 2

But for the first order system, the term 1 /  2 2  1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95  1
  1
2 2

Solve this inequality give the range 0    0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is    0.52 ms
2 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from    arctan 
This gives = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively
MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems

Second order systems are modeled by second order differential equations.

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
a2  a1  a0 y (t )  b0 x(t )
dt 2 dt

1 d 2 y (t ) 2 dy (t )
  y (t )  Kx (t )
n dt
2 2
n dt

where
b0
K = the static sensitivity
a0

a1
  = the damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a2

a0
n 
a2 = the natural angular frequency
 MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems
The solution to the second order differential equation depends on the roots of the
characteristic equation.
1 2 2
D  D 1  0
n2 n

This quadratic equation has two roots:

S1, 2  n  n  2  1

Depending on the value of , three forms of complementary solutions are

possible
    2 1  t     2 1  t
Overdamped ( > 1): yoc (t )  C1e   n
 C2 e   n

 n t
Critically damped ( = 1): yoc (t )  C1e  C2tent

Underdamped (< 1): yoc (t )  Ce

 n t

sin n 1   2 t   
MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems

Undamped & Underdamped Second Order-Systems

Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems: Step Input

1 d 2 y 2 dy
For a step input x(t)   y  KAU (t )
n2 dt 2 n dt

Initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0

Solution:
y (t )    2  1     2 1  n t    2 1     2 1  t
Overdamped ( > 1):  e 
 e   n
1
KA 2  1
2
2  12

y (t )
Critically damped ( = 1):  (1  nt )e nt  1
KA

Underdamped (< 1):

y (t )

e  nt
 
sin 1   2 nt    1   sin 1 1   2  
KA 1  2
MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems: Step Response

2
Ringing period: Td 
d
Ringing frequency: d  n 1   2

 Underdamped systems ( < 1): Small rise time (90 % of input value), Large
settling time
 (10% of steady-state value, KA)
 Overdamped systems ( > 1): Large rise time, Small settling time
 Most measurement systems have damping ratios between 0.6 and 0.8.
MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems: Step Response

Typical response of the 2nd order system

MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Let the input signal to the second-order system be of the form x(t) = Asint

sint  ()
KA
y(t)  yc (t) 
1  /     2/   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2

2
where  ( )   tan 1
 / n  n / 

The steady state response is given by: ysteady (t )  B( ) sint   ( )

KA 2
B( )   ( )   tan 1
1   /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n  n / 

The magnitude ratio is given by:

B 1
M ( )  
 
KA 1   /  2 2  2 /  2 1/ 2
n n 
 MECE 3320
Second-Order Systems: Frequency Response

The magnitude ratio The phase shift

1 2
M ( )   ( )   tan 1
1   /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n  n / 

0 = 0.1
0 0.3
 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20 0.5
0.3 -40

Phase shift, 

Amplitude ratio

1.5 -60 1.0

Decibel (dB)
3
0.5
-80 2.0
1.0 0 -100
1.0 -3 -120
.5 -6 -140
2.0 -10
-15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
n n