Electronics/Transformer Design

Practical transformer design requires knowledge of electrical principles,

materials, and economics. Small transformers, under 10 kVA, may be designed
using handbook data and pencil-and-paper calculations, but larger or mass-
produced units are often designed with extensive computer aided modeling
(CAM). and finite element analysis (FEA). However, CAM and FEA are still
based on Maxwell's equations, Ampere’s law, Faraday’s law, and Gauss’s law,
which together with Lenz’s law, are the basis of magnetic circuit analysis.
Ref:[1][2]. Other computer aided design (CAD) software exists that use the basic
equations, and it is used by smaller manufacturers. However, all of this software
still has to adhere to Maxwells' equations, and the before-stated
electrical/magnetic laws, which are the basis for all transformer and magnetics
design.
Single phase transformer.
Power transformer design
The designer first needs several known factors to design a transformer. For a
transformer using a sine or square wave, one needs to know the incoming line
voltage, the operating frequency, the secondary voltage(s), the secondary
current(s), the permissible temperature rise, the target efficiency, the physical
size one can use, and the cost limitations. Once these factors are known, design
can begin.

Three phase, air-cooled, transformer

Initial calculations
The designer first starts with the primary voltage and frequency. Since they are a
known factor, they are the first numbers to be plugged into the equations. One
then will find the power in watts (or volt-amperes) of each secondary winding by
multiplying the voltage by the current of each coil. These are added together to
get the total power the transformer must provide to the load(s).

The transformer losses in watts are estimated and added to this sum to give a
total power the primary coil must supply. The losses are from wire resistance (I2
R loss), loss in the core from magnetic hysteresis and from eddy currents. These
losses are dissipated as heat. Here, the permissible temperature rise must be kept
in mind. Each type of core material will have a loss chart whereby one can find
High voltage, three phase, oil-cooled
the loss in watts per pound by looking up the operating flux density and transformer
frequency. Next, one selects the type of iron by what efficiency is stated, and the
value of losses to the user. Once the iron is selected, the flux density is selected
for that material.

Type of iron (electrical steel)

The relative permeability (μr) of a magnetic material is essentially how easy it
will become magnetized. In this case, one looks for a core material with high
permeability and a high flux density. Of course, the better each become, the
material goes up in price due to the manufacturing cost of the material, and their
different compositions. Some basic values of relative permeability for electrical
steel are: SiFe unoriented 400, SiFe oriented 1500, 50-50 NiFe oriented 2000,
and 79 Permaloy 12,000 to 100,000. In other words, a grain-oriented silicon steel
conducts magnetic flux 1500 times better than a vacuum. Ref:[3].

Each type of iron (steel) has a maximum flux density it can be run at without
saturating. The designer refers to B-H curves for each type of steel. They select a
Hysteresis loop similar to Permalloy
flux density where the knee either starts on the curve, or slightly up on it. The
start of the knee is where saturation starts and permeability is at its highest. As
saturation starts, the permeability curve starts dropping off rapidly to zero, and
the primaries inductance falls rapidly. By selecting this point on the knee, it will
give a transformer with the lowest weight possible for that material. The curve
shows that as saturation begins, the magnetic field strength in Oersteds (H)
raises rapidly as compared to any increase in flux density (B), and so will the
ampere turns. When using the equations, the two most important are the number
of turns (N), and the core area (a). One needs to find the core area in square
centimeters or inches, and match it to the total power in watts or volt-amperes.
The larger the core, the more power it will handle. Once this core size is
calculated, one then finds the number of turns for the primary. One then is
looking at a transformer whose primary voltage will cause a flux density of a
specified amount due to the number of turns in a certain type/size of core.
A normal BH Curve within a Loop
For sine wave operation, the designer then uses either the two short formulas, or
they begin using the long
formulas which are more exact,
and whereby all the factors can
be changed. For square wave
operation, refer to the notes at
the end of the equations section.
Either way, it's time to use a
transformer design sheet. The
design sheet has places to write
B-H Curve for M-19 CRNO Steel.
the details such as the flux
Perm. Vs. Mag. Curve. density, the number of turns,
calculate the turns per layer, and thickness of the coil.

Secondary turns calculation

Once the number of turns of the primary are calculated, the secondary windings numbers can be calculated with the same turns
per volt figure. If the primary has 120 turns for 120 volts input, we would have 1 turn per volt. If we needed a 12 volt secondary,
then we would require 12 turns on it. This is for a perfect transformer without losses though.
In reality, there are losses that have to be added, as the 12 turn coil will not produce 12 volts under load, but a lower voltage. A
rule of thumb is to allow for 5% in losses. (Transformers below 300w often have higher regulation losses). In this case, we would
multiply the 12 turns by 1.05 to get a new number of turns equaling 12.6 turns. Since fractional turns are not possible for line
frequency transformers, 13 turns would be used. It is best to have a slightly higher voltage than one too low. Beware, smaller
transformers which have a higher turns per volt, have higher losses, and the efficiency drops as the size goes down.

The turns per volt figure typically varies from 1 to about 4, with around 4 turns per volt common for small appliance
transformers, and around 1 turn per volt used for intermittent duty fan cooled microwave oven transformers. Volts per turn is
commonly used for larger transformers, since they are less than one turn per volt, or as an example, 1/2 turn per volt, or 'two volts
per turn'. Distribution transformers are often limited by excessive insulation required between each turn, thus they are ran at high
flux densities and oil cooled.

Here is where trial and error still comes into transformer design. Since the primary coil has to be wound with a wire that is large
enough to handle the total power the transformer will handle at a certain flux density, and the secondary or secondaries have to be
wound with heavy enough wire for their loads, the finished coil must still fit within the core's windows once the overall size is
calculated after adding the bobbin and paper thickness of each layer. Most of the time, the design has to be modified or adjusted
several times over this, because the coil is too big for the windows. If the coil does not fit, there are a few options. A larger core
with larger window openings having the same core area can be used, or the flux density can be raised by reducing the turns on the
primary. Once these turns are reduced, the turns in the secondary will be reduced. This since the number of volts per turn in the
primary equal the number of volts per turn in the secondary minus losses. However, this is at the expense of raising the flux
density, the magnetizing current, the temperature, and lowering the efficiency. It's much better to select a larger core which has
larger windows to accept the coil. The depth or thickness of the new core can be adjusted to equal the old core area in square
centimeters or square inches. This measurement is the cores tongue width multiplied by its depth or thickness. As the core size
goes up, so does the tongue width, which would add to the core area.

Thickness of coil windings

When calculating the coil
thickness, several things need to
be considered. The voltage that
each winding sees will
determine the wires insulation
thickness. Once this voltage is
known, the diameter of the
selected insulated wire can be
Coil Within Window Of A Transformer used. By knowing the wire
diameter, the number of turns
Random Wound Transformer Coils
per layer can be calculated, and
on plastic bobbin.
the number of layers by using the window height and winding margins. The
windows are the openings on either side of the core. The window area is simply
found by multiplying the window width by its height. Next, one adjusts the thickness of the insulation paper for the layers of each
winding due to the voltage between the coils. This thickness is added to the total coil thickness by multiplying the paper thickness
by the number of layers. The paper that separates two different windings is always thicker than the layer paper to match the
voltage difference between the windings and must support the wire. Last, the bobbin, (13B on drawing), thickness is added. All is
then added to the design sheet and the total calculated. This total thickness is compared to the window dimensions for a fit. The
design should not exceed 80-85% of available opening to allow for manufacturing tolerances. In certain circumstances, it
may be better to reduce the number of windings in the coil, and use another smaller transformer to supply them. This can actually
save money in the long run by reducing the possibility of coil failure over heat.
 A smaller coil with few layers
is always recommended. A coil
with a large number of layers
will run hotter than one with a
few. Each winding has a "hot
spot" which is always located
mid-way at its center. If the
winding has a number of layers,
the heat will increase at this hot
Transformer Section For Cooling spot. The hot spot is almost
always where the winding will
fail due to heat. The heat from
A Through Section Of A Transformer
each winding has to travel through each layer and is dissipated from the outside
of the coil. This means that the winding, (13 on drawing), closer to the core, (12
on drawing), will be hotter than the outer ones. Since this is the case, and most of the time the winding closest to the core is the
primary, the largest wire that will fit for the current drawn should be used. The exception to having the primary here is using a
winding with very small diameter wire. Since the coil will expand due to heat, a small wire coil on the outside could break
because of the expansion. Being at the core, it would expand less and not break the wire. Most small bias windings, rated at a few
milliamperes, and used in vacuum tube circuits are wound in this manner. A good rule of thumb is to use 1000 circular mills per
ampere for the wire selection, when designing the primary winding. (in metric units half a square mm per amp) This value should
be reduced for small transformers wound with fine wire - for example a 10VA transformer may have a 55C rise in temperature at
half this value (one square mm per amp), while a 100VA transformer could withstand 750 circular mills per ampere ( ~0.7 square
mm per amp) for a similar temperature rise.

It should be noted that some small transformers fail, when the wire coming up from the bottom of the coil, breaks near the
terminal post. This could be due to expansion of the coil, or from the connection between the wire and terminal not being
soldered properly.

Referring to the transformer sectional cooling drawing in this section, the spacer, (14 on drawing), is added to each side of the
coil to separate the two windings, thus allowing a cooling vent to cool the coils. This is done in some small power and large
distribution transformers. There is also a special insulation paper that has wood slats glued to the surface to hold the windings
apart. If the windings are separated completely, it also raises the electrical insulation between the two windings by adding an air
gap.

For using a two section bobbin (for a two winding transformer), the above is not necessary. These are used by jumble or random
winding the wire on each section of the bobbin. Jumble-winding by definition means that the wire is wound on the bobbin in a
random way without layers separated by paper. However, the amount of wire used for each winding has to fit within the bobbin
so it too will fit inside the cores windows. Most small transformers are manufactured this way to save cost, as it would be very
difficult to neatly stack extremely fine wire.

Insulation
The insulation materials used in transformer construction varies, but are mainly the finish applied to the laminations, varnish or
coated insulation on the wire, paper (fish paper, crepe paper, etc.), or plastic film for the coil, cardboard or plastic for the bobbin,
and the varnish that the completed transformer is dipped into at the end of construction. Though this all works well for electrical
insulation, it is also a thermal insulation, and causes the coil to hold in heat. This being the case, the thinnest insulation should be
used that will supply the correct electrical insulation for the transformer.
The varnish dip that is applied, is generally done in a vacuum chamber. Most
varnish is a clear color, but some is dyed black. The vacuum atmosphere assures
that the coil is totally saturated with varnish, as the vacuum removes any bubbles
or air pockets that could form without it. After the dip is completed, the
transformer is placed into an oven, and is baked until the varnish is dry. The
main purpose of the varnish, besides increasing the electrical insulation, is to
keep any form of moisture from affecting the coil, and to stop the windings from
humming or vibrating when magnetized.

Typical Plastic Bobbin

Wire selection
The wire generally used in small transformer coils is magnet wire. Magnet wire is generally a solid copper wire with an insulating
jacket such as varnish. Other wires such as litz wire are common use for r.f. transformers. Large power transformers use stranded
wire, which may be rectangular in cross-section, with periodic transpositions in the strands to equalize current and reduce loss.
Windings for large currents may be made in strip form, or have a square or rectangular cross section. Aluminum is sometimes
used in power transformer windings to reduce costs. The connections on smaller transformers are soldered, but larger transformer
connections, especially ones handling high current, are brazed or welded.

The wire is selected by its ability to carry the proper amount of current without getting hot enough to melt the insulation or wire
itself. It is sized by its cross sectional area measured in circular mils per ampere (CGS measurement system), or more commonly
in engineering design circles, amperes per square meter (MKS measurement system). In transformer use, the circular mils per
ampere runs anywhere from 500 cir. mils for intermittent operation, to 1500 cir. mils for heavy duty continuous operation. For
most applications, 800 to 1000 cir. mils is a good starting point. The real value chosen is iterative, because heat is often not the
limiting factor, as the desired regulation often puts the temperature rise well below insulation limits. Most wire charts have the
wires cross sectional area in circular mils to make selection easier.

The core stack

The core stack is the total amount of the steel laminations needed to produce the
correct core area for the power in watts, or volt amperes that the transformer is
required to handle.

The core can be stacked in two different ways when using steel laminations. The
most common is the interleaved fashion where each lamination is staggered
opposite to the other (turned 180 degrees opposite the other). This provides for
the least amount of air gap in the core, and the highest efficiency. The other way Heavy windings in an Electric Arc
Furnace transformer.
is butt stacked. In this way, all the E type lams are stacked on one side, and all
the I type lams are stacked on the other. This way though creates an air gap
where the butt joint is created thus increasing the losses. However, when a DC
current is superimposed on an AC current as in an audio transformer or filter
choke, the air gap can stop the core from saturating. A combination of the two
stacking types can be used with good results obtaining the best properties of
both.

Stacking Factor Winder checking insulation at lathe.

When using the formulas on this page to calculate the core area, a stacking factor
should be included. The stacking factor is given by the lamination manufacturer
on the individual specification sheet for each size lamination. It varies by the thickness of the material, type, and whether it is
either butt stacked, or interleaved. This factor ranges from around 0.80 to 0.98.
The formulas here can be used as is, but one will have a slightly smaller core if
the factor is not added.

The stacking factor is needed due to each iron lamination having a thin coating
of insulation on each face. This coating thereby insulates each lamination from
the other minimizing eddy currents. The stacking factor adjusts the core size due
to the extra thickness of this insulative coating so that the proper amount of iron
is used in the core. Without this factor placed into the equations, the core would
be slightly under-sized in iron content, even though the core stack equaled the
calculated measurement. The core in mention, not using the stacking factor,
would then have a slightly higher flux density than what was wanted. It is the
EI Lamination Pair.
ratio of sum of pure steel length to the designed length of laminated core.

Scrapless Laminations
When EI and other laminations are produced, they are literally punched out of a
coiled strip of electrical steel with a punch press. To reduce the amount of scrap
as much as possible, the lamination is dimensioned in such a way that if one
placed two E laminations with their open ends toward each other, the two
sections that make the windows would make the two I's needed when all four
pieces are punched out at once. Due to this, the window width, and the leg width
is generally 1/2 the width of the tongue. The window height would be equal to
1/2 the width of the whole E lamination. The lamination height would be equal
to the window height plus the width of the window or leg. There are exceptions
to this rule, as a few shapes have wider or taller windows such as custom
laminations. These measurements are handy to know, as once one knows the
tongue width, they will know the window width by dividing the tongue width in
half. One could simply work out the total dimensions of a lamination in their Eddy Currents Inside Laminations.
mind when design time comes.

Core Stack Assembly

There are several ways that the core stack is held together after assembly. One
way, is using mechanical fasteners, but this can promote a problem, if the
fastener is made of a magnetic material, and the screw hole in the lamination is
too far into the flux path of the lamination. If the magnetic flux cuts through a
magnetic fastener, it causes the fastener to heat up, acting like a short-circuit,
which in reality, is what happens, allowing the flux lines to mingle between the
laminations as if they were shorted together. To cure this, the fastener holes in
the laminations are generally placed in the far corner of the laminations, where
the least amount of magnetic flux travels. Also, magnetic fasteners have been
Interleaved Transformer Core
used by adding a paper sleeve over the screw, to insulate it somewhat, or a non-
Diagram.
magnetic fastener, such as made from Aluminum or Brass, have been used.

Some transformers, today, have a welded seam placed on the outside of the
laminations to hold them together, but this can cause a small amount of loss, the same way a magnetic screw would allow the
magnetic flux to mingle between the insulated laminations. Since it is on the outside surface of the lamination, though, and away
from the majority of the magnetic flux toward the center and coil, the loss is generally low.
Small power transformer are sometimes held together with a formed sheet metal
housing, which encapsulates the circumference of the core stack, and this stops
the need for using mechanical fasteners to hold the cores laminations together.

Watts versus volt-amperes

A transformer's power handling ability is determined in two different ways. If
the transformer's secondary is supplying a totally resistive load, one can simply
use wattage, or the voltage multiplied by the current. However, if the
transformer's secondary is supplying a reactive load, containing capacitance and
EI-2 Scrapless Lamination
or inductance, such as in most DC power supplies, one must use volt-amperes in
Dimensions.
place of watts. Volt-amperes, (S) or (VA), is simply the RMS voltage times the
RMS current, or, equivalently, wattage (P), divided by a power factor, or P / PF
= VA; for example: 1000 watts (P) / 0.80 (PF) = 1,250 Volt-amperes (VA). The power factor for the better transformer circuits is
around 0.80 to 0.85. However, some are lower, with a PF of around 0.60, especially in some appliance transformers.

When calculating the power required in Volt Amperes for the secondary windings in DC power supplies, one must take into
account the equivalent series resistance of the capacitors, and or the way they, or any inductors act in the filtering circuits. This is
due to the current either leading or lagging the voltage in reactive circuits, and or any harmonics. The type of rectifier circuit also
comes into play, and is described in the following section. Also, please see this section for the formulae for the power, in volt
amperes, of each rectifier circuit.

Rectifier transformers
Rectifier transformers are transformers used to feed a rectifier circuit which converts an AC current into a DC current. Due to the
small conduction angle when feeding a rectifier & reservoir (capacitor), the rms AC current in the transformers secondary is
somewhat higher than the DC load current. Each rectifier circuit has different conduction angles, and thus different rms current
needs. The proper rms current the transformer needs to supply, and the volt amperes of each secondary, are calculated using the
following formulae. (Note: Some may use "S" in place of "VA" in the following formulae). The formulae below does not take
into consideration any extra current needed by voltage regulation circuits fed by the rectifier/filter assembly. They need to be
added to the total power that the rectifier circuit will feed. Each rectifier and voltage regulation system uses different amounts of
current, and each case has to be calculated differently.[4][5][6]

Half Wave Rectifier (HWR):

Without capacitor;

IAC = 1.6 x IDC

VA = 3.5 x (watts + IDC)

With capacitor;

IAC = 2.6 x IDC

VA = 2.3 x (watts + IDC)

Full Wave Center Tap (FWCT):

Without capacitor;
IAC = 0.8 x IDC

VA = 1.4 x (watts + IDC)

With capacitor;

IAC = 1.27 x IDC

VA = 1.7 x (watts + IDC)

Full Wave Bridge (FWB):

Without capacitor;

IAC = 1.1 x IDC

VA = 1.2 x (watts + (2 x IDC))

With capacitor;

IAC = 1.8 x IDC

VA = 1.4 x (watts + (2 x IDC))

Dual Complementary Rectifiers (DCR):

Without capacitor;

IAC = 1.1 x IDC

VA = 1.2 x (watts + (2 x IDC))

With capacitor;

IAC = 1.8 x IDC

VA = 1.4 x (watts + (2 x IDC))

Equations
There are two approaches used in designing transformers. One uses the long formulas, and the other uses the Wa product. The Wa
product is simply the cores window area multiplied by the cores area. Some say it simplifies the design, especially in C-core (cut
core) construction. Most manufacturers of C-cores have the Wa product added into the tables used in their selection. The designer
takes the area used by a coil and finds a C-core with a similar window area. The Wa product is then divided by the window area
to find the area of the core. Either way will bring the same result.

For a transformer designed for use with a sine wave, the universal voltage formula is:Ref:[7][8][9][10][11]

This gives way to the following other transformer equations for cores in square centimeters (cgs meas. sys.):
where,

E is the sinusoidal rms or root mean square voltage of the winding,

f is the frequency in hertz,
N is the number of turns of wire on the winding,
a is the cross-sectional area of the core in square centimeters or inches,
B is the peak magnetic flux density in gauss (volt seconds per square centimeter), or lines (maxwells) per square
inch ,
P is the power in volt amperes or watts,
W is the window area in square centimeters or inches and,
J is the current density.
Note: 10 kilogauss = 1 Tesla.
The derivation of the above formula is actually quite simple. The maximum induced voltage, , is the result of N times the time-
varying flux:

If using RMS voltage values and E equal the rms value of voltage then:

and

Since the flux is created by a sinusoidal voltage, it too varies sinusoidally:

where = area of the core

Taking the derivative we have:

Substituting into the above equation and using and the fact that we are only concerned with the maximum value yields
Imperial measurement system
The formulas for the imperial (inch) system are still being used in the United States by many transformer manufacturers. Most
steel EI laminations used in the US are measured in inches. The flux is still measured in gauss or Teslas, but the core area is
measured in square inches. 28.638 is the conversion factor from 6.45 x 4.44 (see note 1) the 6.45 factor is simply the square of
2.54 cm in 1 Inch. The formulas for sine wave operation are below. For square wave operation, see Note (3):

To determine the power (P) capability of the core, the core stack in inches (D), and the window-area (Wa) product, the formulas
are:

where,

P is the power in volt amperes or watts,

T is the number of turns per volt,
E is the RMS voltage,
S is the current density in circular mils per ampere (Generally 750 to 1500 cir mils),
W is the window area in square inches,
C is the core width in square inches,
D is the depth of the stack in inches and,
Wa is the product of the window area in square inches multiplied by the core area in square inches. This is
especially useful for determining C-cores, but can also be used with EI types. The window area is simply the
windows height multiplied by its width.

Simpler formulae
A shorter formula for the core area (a) and the turns per volt (T) can be derived from the long voltage formula by multiplying,
rearranging, and dividing out. This is used if one wants to design a transformer using a sine wave, at a fixed flux density, and
frequency. Below is the short formulas for core areas in square inches having a flux density of 12 kilogauss at 60 Hz (see note 2):
And for 12 kilogauss at 50 Hz:

Equation notes
Note 1: The factor of 4.44 is derived from the first part of the voltage formula. It is from 4 multiplied by the form
factor (F) which is 1.11, thus 4 multiplied by 1.11 = 4.44. The number 1.11 is derived from dividing the rms value
of a sine wave by its average value, where F = rms / average = 1.11.

Note 2: A value of 12 kilogauss per square inch (77,400 lines per sq. in.) is used for the short formulas above as
it will work with most steel types used (M-2 to M-27), including unknown steel from scrap transformer laminations
in TV sets, radios, and power supplies. The very lowest classes of steel (M-50) would probably not work as it
should be run at or around 10 kilogauss or under.

Note 3: All formulas shown are for sine wave operation only. Square wave operation does not use the form factor
(F) of 1.11. For using square waves, substitute 4 for 4.44, and 25.8 for 28.638.

Note 4: None of the above equations show the stacking factor (Sf). Each core or lamination will have its own
stacking factor. It is selected by the size of the core or lamination, and the material it is made from. At design
time, this is simply added to the string to be multiplied. Example; E = 4.44 f N a B Sf

Electrical steel types

Silicon steel
Iron was used in the first transformers and motor designs along with early steel. Steel is simply a de-carbonized alloy of iron.
This early steel had the problem of aging, and it's magnetic properties changed with age. Next, silicon steel came into use, as it
was found to raise the magnetic resistance against eddy currents, reduce hysteresis, increase permeability, and the aging problems
were countered. Electrical silicon steel and its alloys are what are in use today. Ref:[12][13][14][15][16][17]
 Type
Approx.
See Nominal Max. Recommended
Material Permeability Usage
Note Silicon % Operating Flux Density B
μ (3)
(1)
17 kilogauss but magnetizing
M-4, M- Highest efficiency power
CRGO 2.8-3.5 15,000 current rises rapidly over 15
5, M-6 transformers
kilogauss
17 kilogauss but magnetizing
M-7, M- Large generators and power
CRGO 2.8-3.5 10,000 current rises rapidly over 15
8 transformers
kilogauss
Power and distribution
M-14 CRNO 4.0-5.0 8,500 14 kilogauss transformers, high eff.
rotating machines
Transformers requiring low
M-15 CRNO 2.8-5.0 8,000 13 to 14 kilogauss core loss and excellent
permeability
Communication
M-19 CRNO 2.5-3.8 7,500 12 to 13 kilogauss
transformers and reactors
Cores of high reactance,
M-22 CRNO 2.5-3.5 7,500 12 kilogauss intermittent duty
transformers
Small transformers
M-27 CRNO 1.7-3.0 7,000 10 to 11 kilogauss operating at moderate
induction
Used extensively for rotating
M-36 CRNO 1.4-2.2 <7,000 10 kilogauss
machines
Fractional HP motors and
M-43 CRNO 0.6-1.3 <7,000 10 kilogauss
relays
Fractional HP motors and
M-45 CRNO 0.0-0.6 <7,000 10 kilogauss
relays
Intermittent operating
M-50 CRNO 0.0-0.6 <7,000 10 kilogauss
apparatus and pole pieces

Note 1: CRGO = Cold rolled, grain oriented, and CRNO = cold rolled, non oriented.

Note 2: In the "M" numberining system set by the ASTM, the smaller number yields the highest efficiency, and
lowest core losses. M-43 has a core loss at 12 kilogauss of approx. 2 watts per pound. M-15 at 12 kilogauss is
approx. 0.75 watts per pound, and M-6 material has a loss of 0.64 watts per pound at 15 kilogauss.[18][19]

Note 3: These figures are relative permeability, (or are the permeability for a given material at a given flux
density), and are unitless. For the actual permeability, multiply by the permeability of a vacuum μ0 in appropriate
units. However, the Material Permeability, μm, of different materials can range from: Iron alloys, 0.8K to 25K,
Ferrites, 0.8K to 20K, and Amorphous, 0.8K to 80K.Ref:[20]

Note 4: For selection purposes, Armco (AK Steel), suggests the following for transformers in their non-oriented
bulletin; Transformers over 10 KVA: M-15, M-19, and M-22. Transformers under 10 KVA: M-27, M-36, and M-43,
however, M-19 has been used in certain smaller electronic amplifier transformers (0.5 KVA and up to 3 KVA). [21]

Other alloys
There are various iron alloys other than silicon-steel or low-carbon steel. These include alloys which contain nickel-iron
(Permalloy), cobalt-nickel-iron (Perminvar), cobalt-iron (Permendur), and vanadium-cobalt-iron. Others include Supermalloy,
amorphous Metglas, Mu-metal, Sendust, iron powder, and ferrite types.
Some of the Permalloy types are processed to accentuate the squareness of the B-H loop and carry proprietary names like
SuperSquare 80 (Magnetic Metals Corp.), and Square Permalloy Hy-Ra 80 (Carpenter Steel Co.). The squareness of the B-H loop
helps in switching transformers as in inverter type power supplies with a square wave input. The nickel-iron content may range
from about 45% to over 85%.

Perminvar exhibits a substantially constant permeability and low hysteresis loss at low flux densities. This is mainly due to the
addition of cobalt to the nickel and iron. In some cases it may have the odd property of low coercive force and remanence
although the hysteresis loop area is still greater than zero. One type of Perminvar is Fernico.

Permendur is created by mixing cobalt with iron. It has a high permeability at high flux densities with a very high saturation
point. It also has a high incremental permeability and is very good to use with a combination of AC and DC voltages combined
such as in filter chokes.

Vanadium-cobalt-iron has the very highest saturation point with low losses, but it is very expensive.

For descriptions of the other materials and shapes, refer to the Wikipedia section titled Magnetic core (https://en.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Magnetic_core).

DC Transformers
Transformers used in DC
(Direct Current) circuits,
generally consist of switching
transformers in inverter type
power supplies. These are
widely used to convert 12 VDC
to 115-120 VAC. However, the
waveform produced is either a
square wave, or a modified
square wave. A modified square
wave, is in reality, an attempt to
create something similar to a
sine wave, and it has a stair-step
look on an oscilloscope. It is
created by an electronic circuit
that controls and steps the
voltage level of the switching
semiconductors output
throughout one cycle.

The first switching power Different types of transformer core

A Typical Electrical Vibrator.
supplies, or "inverters", were stacks.
controlled by a Vibrator that
worked similar to an electric buzzer, and were used in the old tube type
automobile radios. The Vibrator was merely a reed relay, with two sets of contacts, whose armature would switch back and forth
at around 115 to 250 Hz, and create a square to flat-topped triangle wave output. It switched the positive and negative primary
connections polarity back and forth at approximately 115-120 Hz. This fast switching speed allowed a smaller transformer core to
be used, which was needed in the small radios of the time. It should be noted that the US Air Force adopted 400 Hz as the
operating frequency for their power supplies to lighten the weight in aircraft. Now, higher frequencies are used to get away from
the audible range, as switching transformers in the lower frequency range can produce a high-pitched noise from vibration. The
higher frequencies keep the noise aspect down.

When semiconductors came into being, large PNP type Germanium transistors were used, like the 2N1522, and their bases were
connected to a "tickler" winding on the transformer, which was out of phase with the primary, and supplied around 5 VAC
(Square Wave) for bias. The tickler winding would set up the oscillation of the circuit, and relied on core saturation to work. The
transistors then took the place of the vibrator, and created a square wave input to the primary of the transformer; some ran at
higher frequencies. Since the transformer relied on saturation, a core with an interleaved stack was used. In some instances,
toroidal transformers were used, made by winding a continuous strip of electrical steel into a dough-nut shape. The transformers
coil was then wound over the toroid using a special winding machine.

Now, the switching is accomplished by both bipolar transistors and FETs (Field Effect Transistors). They are controlled either by
an oscillator circuit, or an integrated circuit similar to a flip-flop, or multivibrator, such as in switched mode power supplies and
flyback type transformer circuits. There are numerous switching circuits in use today. Transformer cores used with external
oscillators, in this fashion, would be butt stacked, or a combination of butt and interleaving, or of the gapped ferrite type, due to
the DC current within the windings. In this case, core saturation is not generally needed.

Transformers used at these higher frequencies are different from the larger 60 Hz line transformers, in that the core is constructed
with thinner laminations. This is due to the losses because of Eddy currents, etc. at these frequencies, and the core material is
made to suit the service. Higher frequency switch mode transformers, and flyback type transformers used to power the CRTs in
computer monitors, use a ferrite type molded core.

However, in designing transformers for these square wave circuits, the above formulae are still used, except the form factor of
1.11, which is only used for sine waves, is not.

Oscillator Driven Inverter

HV Vibrator Type Power Supply

One Transformer Saturable Inverter

 Two Transformer Saturable Inverter

Impedance matching transformers

Impedance matching
transformers are known by
other names such as RF
transformers, audio, and
modulation transformers. Their
function is to match one
impedance in ohms to another.

Audio and modulation

transformers generally have an
electrical steel laminated core,
but the material is thinner, and
sometimes chemically different
than line transformers. This is RF Transformer with shielding
due to the higher frequency at removed.

which they are run. The core is

Different Coil Winding Methods designed around the lowest
frequency and open circuit load, and at high frequencies around leakage
inductance and winding capacitance. The primary may be wound with a two-
piece primary with the first section against the core, the secondary on top of that, and the last half of the primary on the outside of
the coil. Some air gap should be used in the core due to the DC current superimposed on the AC current.

RF (Radio Frequency) transformers are used between different stages of transistor or tube amplifiers in radio or transmitter
circuits, or the impedance from the final amplifier to the load. Again, they match the primary impedance in ohms to the secondary
impedance. The core is generally a form of Ferrite. Ferrite is made from a powdered iron oxide, with other alloys such as nickel
oxide. Ferrite is used only in high to radio frequency circuits. The RF transformer is generally shielded with an enclosure made of
copper or aluminum to shield it from interference from other radio signals. The core can be adjustable, using a threaded slug of
ferrite, or it can be a core made up of ferrite toroids. There are also air core RF transformers used in push-pull RF amplifiers, and
in matching networks.

For the formulae for the above, reference Wikipedia article: Impedance matching

References
 1. Humphries Jr., Stanley (2010). Finite-element Methods For Electromagnetics, PDF form of Field Solutions on
Computers. ISBN 0-8493-1668-5
2. Bossche & Valchev (2005). Inductors and Transformers for Power Electronics. ISBN 1-57444-679-7
3. Winders Jr.,John J. (2002). Power Transformers, Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-8247-0766-4
4. MCI, Basic Power Supply Application Quide (http://www.mcitransformer.com/i_notes.html)
5. Powertronix, Linear Power Supplies (http://www.powertronix.com/resources.php?page=linear)
6. PowerVolt, How To Determine Power Supply Transformer Ratings (http://www.powervolt.com/techan01.html)
7. McLyman,Col. William T. (1981). Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook. ISBN 978-0-824-75393-1
8. Lowdon,Eric (1981). Practical Transformer Design Handbook. ISBN 978-0-672-21657-2
9. Eng. Staff of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1949). Magnetic Circuits and Transformers. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-262-63063-4
10. *The J&P Transformer Book, Heathcote, Martin (2007), ISBN 978-0-7506-8164-3
11. *Hipersil Core Design Engineer's Handbook Westinghouse (1965)
12. Lowdon,Eric (1981). Practical Transformer Design Handbook. ISBN 978-0-672-21657-2
13. Fink,Donald (1969). Standard Handbook For Electrical Engineers. ISBN 978-0-070-22005-8
14. McPherson,W (1981). Reference Data For Radio Engineers. ISBN 978-0-672-21218-5
15. Eng. Staff of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1949). Magnetic Circuits and Transformers. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-262-63063-4
16. *The J&P Transformer Book, Heathcote, Martin (2007), ISBN 978-0-7506-8164-3
17. *Hipersil Core Design Engineer's Handbook Westinghouse (1965)
18. Fink, Donald (1969). Standard Handbook For Electrical Engineers. ISBN 978-0-070-22005-8
19. Eng. Staff of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1949). Magnetic Circuits and Transformers. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-262-63063-4
20. McLyman,Col. William T. (1981). Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook.
21. AK Steel, Nonoriented M-15 — M-47 Electrical Steel Bulletin (PDF) (http://www.aksteel.com/markets_products/el
ectrical.aspx)

Practical Transformer Design Handbook, Lowdon, Eric (1981), ISBN 978-0-672-21657-2

Standard Handbook For Electrical Engineers, Fink, Donald (1969), ISBN 978-0-070-22005-8
Reference Data For Radio Engineers, McPherson, W (1981), ISBN 978-0-672-21218-5
Magnetic Circuits and Transformers, Engineering Staff, MIT (1949), John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-262-63063-4
The J&P Transformer Book, Heathcote, Martin (2007), ISBN 978-0-7506-8164-3
Hipersil Core Design Engineer's Handbook, Westinghouse (1965)
Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, McLyman,Col. William T. (1981), ISBN 978-0-824-75393-1
Finite-element Methods For Electromagnetics, PDF form of Field Solutions on Computers, Humphries Jr.,
Stanley (2010), ISBN 0-8493-1668-5
Power Transformers, Principals and Applications, Winders Jr.,John J. (2002), ISBN 0-8247-0766-4

External links
Ferrosilicon - Wikipedia
Electrical steel - Wikipedia
Magnetic core - Wikipedia
Transformer - Wikipedia
Electromagnetism - Wikipedia
Ferrite core - Wikipedia
Switched mode power supply - Wikipedia
Flyback transformer - Wikipedia

Online book links

Electronic Transformers and Circuits, Reuben Lee, Creative Commons License (http://www.vias.org/eltransforme
rs/index.html)
 Hipersil Core Design Engineers Handbook, Westinghouse (1965), Creative Commons License (http://www.dalitec
h.com/Resources.html)

Online reference links for power supply design

MCI, Basic Power Supply Application Quide (http://mcitransformer.com/about-mci/power-supply-design-notes/)

Powertronix, Linear Power Supplies (http://www.powertronix.com/resources.php?page=linear)
PowerVolt, How To Determine Power Supply Transformer Ratings (http://www.powervolt.com/techan01.html)

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