Dr.

Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami

Lecturer
Head of Chemical Engineering Department
Technical College of Engineering - Duhok
Duhok Polytechnic University

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 Petroleum

Petroleum is an oil that is found underground.

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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Petroleum
means

“rock oil”
or
“oil from the earth.”
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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 What is petroleum?

• Petroleum: A general term for all

naturally occurring hydrocarbons
(hydrogen + carbon)
• Solid Hydrocarbons: Asphalt
• Liquid Hydrocarbons: Crude oil
• Gas Hydrocarbons: Natural Gas:
methane, butane, propane, etc.
The simplest
hydrocarbon is Methane
(CH4)
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 3
 How was oil or petroleum formed?
The plants and animals
lived millions of years
ago.

They were alive before

the dinosaurs!

When they died, they

were buried on the
ocean floor.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 4

 Over the years,
layers of mud built up,
covering the dead
plants and animals.

Heat and pressure

from these layers
helped the remains
turn into what we
today call crude oil.
(Petroleum)

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 5

 1. Source Rocks
Organic Matter
• Sedimentary rocks rich in
organic matter
– 0.5 - 2% by weight
• Most commonly
microscopic marine
material, but it can be land
based material
• Organic material cannot
decay too much
– It has to keep its carbon

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 6

 2. Transform organic matter
Add heat and pressure by burying it (Maturation)

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 7

 Origin : On the sea bed

When the plankton dies it rains

down on sea bed to form an
organic mush

Sea bed If there are any animals on the

sea bed these will feed on the
organic particles

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 8

 Origin : Black Shale
• However, if there is little or no
oxygen in the water then animals
can’t survive and the organic
mush accumulates

• Where sediment contains

more than 5% organic matter,
it eventually forms a rock
known as a Black Shale

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 9

 Origin : Cooking
As Black Shale is buried, it is heated.

Organic matter is first changed by the

Kerogen increase in temperature into kerogen,
which is a solid form of hydrocarbon

Oil
Around 90°C, it is changed into a liquid
state, which we call oil.

Gas
Around 150°C, it is changed into a gas
A rock that has produced oil and gas in
this way is known as a Source Rock
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 10
 Diagenesis
Surface to about ½ km, T,
60°C; CH4
Catagenesis
60 to 160°C, P about 1.5 kb
Compaction of sediment,
expulsion of water Organic
matter becomes kerogen and
liquid petroleum biogenic gas
decreases, however some
formed by thermal cracking
of kerogen Wet gas: methane
+ ethane + propane + butane
Metagenesis
Greater than 4 km, and 160°C
Dry gas
C rich residue
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami Graphite developed 11
 Origin : Migration
• Hot oil and gas is less dense than
the source rock.
• Oil and gas migrate upwards up
through the rock in much the same
way that the air bubbles of an
underwater diver rise to the surface

Rising of oil

• The rising oil and gas eventually

gets trapped in pockets in the rock
called reservoirs
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 12
 Oil Traps
Impermeable • Some rocks are permeable
and allow oil and gas to freely
pass through them.

• Other rocks are impermeable

and block the upward passage
of oil and gas.

• Where oil and gas rises up

into a dome (or anticline)
capped by impermeable rocks
Dome Trap it can’t escape. This is one
Permeable type of an Oil Trap.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 13

 Reservoir Rocks

• The permeable strata in an oil trap

is known as the Reservoir Rock

• Reservoir rocks have lots of

interconnected holes called pores.
These absorb the oil and gas like a
sponge

This is a highly magnified picture of

As oil migrates it fills up the pores
a sandy reservoir rock (water-filled
(oil-filled pores shown in black)
pores are shown in blue)
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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Oil and gas are found on land and under water…
Good reservoir rocks have porosity. Porosity is a measure of the
openings in a rock, openings in which petroleum can exist.
Another characteristic of reservoir rock must be permeable. Which is
defined as the pores of the rock must be connected together
so that hydrocarbons can move from one pore to another.

Unless hydrocarbons can move and flow from pore to pore, the
hydrocarbons remain locked in place and cannot flow into a well. The
reservoir must also be trapped in some way.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 15

 Pores are open spaces
between the particles of a
rock.
Pores may contain air, gas,
or liquid (water or oil).
The more pore space, the
higher the porosity.
The more “connected” the
pores, the higher the
permeability.
Pore fluids will flow more
easily in rocks that are
more permeable.
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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Types of Petroleum reservoir
or Traps
Geologists have classified petroleum
traps into two basic types: Fault trap

1. Structural traps are traps that are

formed because of a deformation in the
rock layer that contains the
hydrocarbons. Two common examples
of structural traps are Fault traps and Anticlinal trap

Anticlines.
2. stratigraphic traps

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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami Stratigraphic trap
1. Dome-Shaped and Anticline Reservoirs:
formed by the folding of the rock
layers. The dome is circular in
outline, and the anticline is long
and narrow. Oil and/or gas moved
or migrated upward through the
porous rocks where it was trapped
by the sealing cap rock and the
shape of the structure.
2. Faulted Reservoirs:
formed by shearing and offsetting of
the strata (faulting). The movement of
the nonporous rock opposite the
porous formation containing the oil/gas
creates the sealing. The tilt of the
petroleum-bearing rock and the
faulting trap the oil/gas in the reservoir
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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
3. Salt-Dome Reservoirs:
This type of reservoir structure,
which takes the shape of a dome,
was formed due to the upward
movement of large, impermeable
salt dome that deformed and lifted
the overlying layers of rock.
Petroleum is trapped between the
cap rock and an underlying
impermeable rock layer, or
between two impermeable layers
of rock and the salt dome.
4. Unconformities:
This type of reservoir structure
was formed as a result of an
unconformity where the
impermeable cap rock was laid
down across the cutoff surfaces
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of the lower beds. Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
5. Lens-Type Reservoirs:
In this type of reservoir, the petroleum bearing porous formation is
sealed by the surrounding, nonporous formation.

Irregular deposition of sediments

and shale at the time the formation
was laid down is the probable
cause for this abrupt change in
formation porosity.

6. Combination Reservoirs: In this case, combinations of folding,

faulting, abrupt changes in porosity, or other conditions that
create the trap, from this common type of reservoir.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 20

 Drilling the Petroleum Well
Drilling engineers is responsible for drilling and completion of
the wells.
The drilling program consists of three
main stages:
1. Drilling the hole to the target depth.
2. Setting the various casings.
3. Cementing the casing.

The drilling operation is performed

using huge and complex equipment
known as the Drilling Rig.

The Drilling Rig

It consists of two main sections, the
substructure (bottom section) and the
derrick (top section) 21
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Flowing Wells and Production
 The production stage is the most important stage of a well's life,
when the oil and gas are produced.
 Defined as any well which
has sufficient pressure in the
reservoir to cause the oil or
gas to flow naturally to the
surface through the wellbore.
 A well which produces oil or
gas without any means of
artificial lift (enhancing).
 They require relatively little
equipment or expense to
bring the oil to the surface.
 The equipment commonly
used consists of tubing,
wellhead and x-mas tree or
Christmas Tree. 22
 There are three main drive mechanisms to flowing of petroleum from
the well:
1. Solution-Gas-Drive: The petroleum reservoir possess an energy from
escaping and expanding the dissolved gases to drive the petroleum from the
well. This drive mechanism is the least effective of all drive mechanisms. It
generally yields recoveries between 15% and 25% of the oil in the reservoir

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2. Gas-Cap-Drive: Many reservoirs have free gas existing as a gas cap
above the oil this due to the presence of a larger amount of gas than could
be dissolved in the oil at the pressure and temperature of the reservoir. the
petroleum is produced by the expansion of the gas in the gas cap, which
pushes the oil downward and fills the pore spaces formerly occupied by the
produced oil. This drive is more efficient than the solution-gas drive and
could yield recoveries between 25% and 50% of the original oil in the
reservoir.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 24

 3. Water-Drive: Reservoirs produced by the expansion and movement of
the salt water below the oil/gas and pushing the oil/gas out of the formation
and occupying the pore spaces.
This is the most efficient drive mechanism;
it could yield recoveries up to 50% of the
original oil.
 If the pressure depletes and it is
considered economically viable, an
Artificial Lift Method can be employed.
(Secondary recovery)
Artificial Lift Methods
 Artificial lift is a technique used to
bring oil from the reservoir to the
surface because there is insufficient
pressure in the reservoir to lift the
petroleum to the surface.
 It also often used in naturally flowing
wells (which do not technically need
it) to increase the flow rate above
what would flow naturally.
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Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 There are four common methods of artificial lift:
1. Sucker Rod Pumping (SRP) or Horsehead Pump
 The pump is designed to be inserted inside the tubing of a well
and its main purpose is to gather fluids from beneath it and lift
them to the surface.

 The most important components

are: the barrel, valves (traveling
and fixed) and the piston.
 The pump is connected to the
pumping unit at the surface by a
string of sucker rods.
 Sucker rods are stroked up and
down in the tubing, activating the
pump at the bottom.
 At the surface, a large
mechanical device called the
beam pumping unit is attached.
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 26
  Depending on the size of the pump, it generally produces 5 to 40
liters of liquid at each stroke. Often this is an emulsion of crude oil
and water.
 Pump size is also determined by the depth and weight of the oil to
remove, with deeper extraction requiring more power to move the
heavier lengths of sucker rods.
 Advantages of sucker rods pumping:
1. Economical to repair and service.
2. Flexibility - adjust production through stroke length and speed.
3. High salvage value for surface unit and downhole equipment.
 Disadvantages of sucker rods pumping:
1. Limited to relatively low production volumes, less than 1,000
barrels per day.
2. Limited to onshore application (big surface unit required).

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 27

 2. Electric Submersible Pumping (ESP)
This method uses centrifugal pumps
powered by electric motors. The
pump and motor are both located at
the bottom of the well and electric
power is provided to the motor from
the surface through a special cable.
 Advantages of ESP:
1. High volume and depth capacity.
2. High efficiency over 1,000 BPD
3. Low maintenance.
4. Minimal surface equipment
requirements.
5. High resistance to corrosive downhole
environments.
6. Use in deviated wells and vertical
wells with doglegs.
 Disadvantage of ESP:
Poor ability to pump sand. 28
 3. Gas Lift (GL)
 High-pressure gas is injected into the annular
space between the casing and tubing and enters
the tubing, through special gas-lift valves.
 The fluid in the tubing is made lighter by the gas,
and as a result, the mixture is pushed to the
surface by reservoir pressure.
 Advantage of Gas Lift:
Gas Lift is an artificial lift process that closely
resembles the natural flow process and basically
operates as an enhancement or extension of that
process. The only major requirement is an
available and economical supply of pressurized
gas.
 Disadvantages of Gas Lift:
1. Not feasible if no source of gas present.
2. High initial capital purchase cost
3. Maintenance intensive.
4. Difficult to operate.
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 29
 4. Hydraulic pumping (HP)
In this method, a pump located at the bottom of the well is powered
by high-pressure fluid. The function of the pump is to increase the
produced fluid pressure to lift it to the surface with the desired
wellhead pressure.
 Advantages of Hydraulic Pump:
1. No moving parts.
2. High volume capability.
3. Multi-well production from a single
package.
4. Low pump maintenance.
 Disadvantages of Hydraulic Pump:
1. High initial capital cost. it’s needs for
expensive centralized hydraulic power
units and expensive clean hydraulic
fluid.
2. Complex to operate.
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 30
 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) methods which are designed to
reduce the viscosity of the crude oil (i.e., to reduce the pour point of
the crude oil relative to the temperature of the reservoir) increasing
crude oil production. These methods are applied in two cases:
1. When secondary oil recovery techniques are no longer enough to
sustain production.
2. When petroleum reservoir contain heavy and very thick oil that
difficult to produce it economically through the natural energy in the
reservoir.
EOR processes use Thermal,
Chemical, or Fluid phase behavior
effects to reduce or eliminate the
capillary forces that trap oil within
pores, to improve its mobility or to
alter the mobility of the displacing
fluids. 31
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Thermally EOR methods are heat the oil and make it easier to
extract.
1. Steam injection is the most common form of this process and is
used extensively to increase oil production. The heat will make the
oil flow more easily into the well bore, where it can be pumped to
the surface.

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2. Gas injection is a general term for injection processes that
introduce miscible gases into the reservoir.
• A miscible displacement process maintains reservoir pressure and
improves oil displacement because the interfacial tension
between oil and water is reduced.
• Gases used include Carbon Dioxide, Natural Gas or Nitrogen.
• CO2 is commonly used because it reduces the oil viscosity and is
less expensive than liquefied petroleum gas or N2.

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Chemical methods: The injection of various chemicals, usually as
dilute solutions, have been used to improve mobility and the reduction
in surface tension. There are many types of solutions like:
1. Injection of alkaline or caustic solutions into reservoirs with oil
that has organic acids naturally occurring in the oil will result in
the production of soap that may lower the interfacial tension
enough to increase production.

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 2. Injection of dilute surfactant solutions such as petroleum
sulfonates or biosurfactants to lower the interfacial tension or
capillary pressure that impedes oil droplets from moving through a
reservoir.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 36

3. Injection of a dilute solution of a water-soluble polymer to
increase the viscosity of the injected water can increase the
amount of oil recovered in some formations.
Application of these methods is usually limited by the cost of the
chemicals and their adsorption and loss onto the rock of the oil
containing formation.

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 Plasma-Pulse Technology (PPT)
Plasma-Pulse technology is the newest technique
used in the USA as of 2013 through a wireline
intervention that applies repeated plasma pulses
over the wells completed intervals.
It is an environmentally friendly technology that
allows producers to obtain sustained higher
productivity from their oil wells. The tool cleans
the wells completed production intervals to
change the wells inflow characteristics by fixing
near wellbore damage while increasing the
mobility of hydrocarbons within the surrounding
reservoir.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 38