January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 22 Page number 29 magenta black

Part I Circuits 29

i (amps)
0.5
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

–60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 v (volts)

–0.1
Current
meter –0.2
i
+ –0.3
Variable
voltage v –0.4
source –
–0.5

Figure 2.27 Volt-ampere characteristic of a tungsten lightbulb

We can also relate the graphical i-v representation of circuit elements to the i
power dissipated or generated by a circuit element. For example, the graphical 8
7
representation of the lightbulb i-v characteristic of Figure 2.27 illustrates that when 6
a positive current flows through the bulb, the voltage is positive, and conversely, 5
a negative current flow corresponds to a negative voltage. In both cases the power 4
3
dissipated by the device is a positive quantity, as it should be, on the basis of the 2
discussion of Section 2.4, since the lightbulb is a passive device. Note that the i-v 1
characteristic appears in only two of the four possible quadrants in the i-v plane. In 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 v
the other two quadrants, the product of voltage and current (i.e., power) is negative, i-v characteristic
and an i-v curve with a portion in either of these quadrants therefore corresponds to of a 3-A current source
power generated. This is not possible for a passive load such as a lightbulb; however,
there are electronic devices that can operate, for example, in three of the four quad- i
rants of the i-v characteristic and can therefore act as sources of energy for specific 8
7
combinations of voltages and currents. An example of this dual behavior is introduced 6
in Chapter 9, where it is shown that the photodiode can act either in a passive mode 5
(as a light sensor) or in an active mode (as a solar cell). 4
3
The i-v characteristics of ideal current and voltage sources can also be useful in 2
visually representing their behavior. An ideal voltage source generates a prescribed 1
voltage independent of the current drawn from the load; thus, its i-v characteristic 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 v
is a straight vertical line with a voltage axis intercept corresponding to the source i-v characteristic
voltage. Similarly, the i-v characteristic of an ideal current source is a horizontal line of a 6-V voltage source
with a current axis intercept corresponding to the source current. Figure 2.28 depicts Figure 2.28 i-v
these behaviors. characteristics of ideal
sources

2.6 RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW

When electric current flows through a metal wire or through other circuit elements,
it encounters a certain amount of resistance, the magnitude of which depends on
the electrical properties of the material. Resistance to the flow of current may be
undesired—for example, in the case of lead wires and connection cable—or it may
 January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 23 Page number 30 magenta black

30 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

be exploited in an electric circuit in a useful way. Nevertheless, practically all circuit

elements exhibit some resistance; as a consequence, current flowing through an el-
ement will cause energy to be dissipated in the form of heat. An ideal resistor is a
device that exhibits linear resistance properties according to Ohm’s law, which states
that
MAKE THE
CONNECTION
V = IR Ohm’s law (2.13)

Electric Circuit that is, that the voltage across an element is directly proportional to the current flow
Analogs of through it. The value of the resistance R is measured in units of ohms (), where
Hydraulic 1  = 1 V/A (2.14)
Systems—Fluid
Resistance The resistance of a material depends on a property called resistivity, denoted by
the symbol ρ; the inverse of resistivity is called conductivity and is denoted by the
A useful analogy can be symbol σ . For a cylindrical resistance element (shown in Figure 2.29), the resistance
made between the flow of
electric current through
is proportional to the length of the sample l and inversely proportional to its cross-
electric components and the sectional area A and conductivity σ .
flow of incompressible fluids
l
(e.g., water, oil) through R= (2.15)
hydraulic components. The σA
analogy starts with the
observation that the volume
flow rate of a fluid in a pipe is i i
analogous to current flow in a
conductor. Similarly, pressure
drop across the pipe is
...
+
analogous to voltage drop
l
across a resistor. The figure l R= R v 1/R
σA
below depicts this
–
relationship graphically. The
fluid resistance opposed by A
v
the pipe to the fluid flow is
analogous to an electrical ...
resistance: The pressure Physical resistors Circuit symbol i-v characteristic
difference between the two with resistance R.
ends of the pipe causes fluid Typical materials are
flow, much as a potential carbon, metal film.
difference across a resistor Figure 2.29 The resistance element
forces a current flow. This
analogy is explored further in
Chapter 4.
It is often convenient to define the conductance of a circuit element as the
inverse of its resistance. The symbol used to denote the conductance of an element is
R G, where
v1 v2
i 1
G= siemens (S) where 1 S = 1 A/V (2.16)
p1 qf p2 R
Rf Thus, Ohm’s law can be restated in terms of conductance as
p1 p2
qf I = GV (2.17)
Analogy between Ohm’s law is an empirical relationship that finds widespread application in
electrical and fluid
resistance
electrical engineering because of its simplicity. It is, however, only an approximation
of the physics of electrically conducting materials. Typically, the linear relationship
January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 24 Page number 31 magenta black

Part I Circuits 31

between voltage and current in electrical conductors does not apply at very high
voltages and currents. Further, not all electrically conducting materials exhibit linear
behavior even for small voltages and currents. It is usually true, however, that for some
range of voltages and currents, most elements display a linear i-v characteristic. Figure
2.30 illustrates how the linear resistance concept may apply to elements with nonlinear i
i-v characteristics, by graphically defining the linear portion of the i-v characteristic
of two common electrical devices: the lightbulb, which we have already encountered, Linear
range
and the semiconductor diode, which we study in greater detail in Chapter 9. Table 2.1
lists the conductivity of many common materials. v

Table 2.1 Resistivity of common Lightbulb

materials at room temperature
i
Material Resistivity (-m)
Aluminum 2.733 × 10−8 Linear
Copper 1.725 × 10−8 range
Gold 2.271 × 10−8
Iron 9.98 × 10−8
Nickel 7.20 × 10−8
Platinum 10.8 × 10−8
Silver 1.629 × 10−8 v
Carbon 3.5 × 10−5

Exponential i-v
characteristic
The typical construction and the circuit symbol of the resistor are shown in (semiconductor diode)
Figure 2.29. Resistors made of cylindrical sections of carbon (with resistivity
Figure 2.30
ρ = 3.5 × 10−5 -m) are very common and are commercially available in a wide
range of values for several power ratings (as explained shortly). Another common
construction technique for resistors employs metal film. A common power rating for
resistors used in electronic circuits (e.g., in most consumer electronic appliances such
as radios and television sets) is 14 W. Table 2.2 lists the standard values for commonly
used resistors and the color code associated with these values (i.e., the common com-
binations of the digits b1 b2 b3 as defined in Figure 2.31). For example, if the first three
color bands on a resistor show the colors red (b1 = 2), violet (b2 = 7), and yellow
(b3 = 4), the resistance value can be interpreted as follows:
R = 27 × 104 = 270,000  = 270 k

b4 b3 b2 b1

Table 2.2 Common resistor values ( 18 -, 14 -, 12 -, 1-, 2-W rating)

 Code  Multiplier k Multiplier k Multiplier k Multiplier Color bands
10 Brn-blk-blk 100 Brown 1.0 Red 10 Orange 100 Yellow
12 Brn-red-blk 120 Brown 1.2 Red 12 Orange 120 Yellow black 0 blue 6
15 Brn-grn-blk 150 Brown 1.5 Red 15 Orange 150 Yellow brown 1 violet 7
18 Brn-gry-blk 180 Brown 1.8 Red 18 Orange 180 Yellow red 2 gray 8
22 Red-red-blk 220 Brown 2.2 Red 22 Orange 220 Yellow orange 3 white 9
yellow 4 silver 10%
27 Red-vlt-blk 270 Brown 2.7 Red 27 Orange 270 Yellow
green 5 gold 5%
33 Org-org-blk 330 Brown 3.3 Red 33 Orange 330 Yellow
39 Org-wht-blk 390 Brown 3.9 Red 39 Orange 390 Yellow
Resistor value = (b1 b2) × 10 b3;
47 Ylw-vlt-blk 470 Brown 4.7 Red 47 Orange 470 Yellow b4 = % tolerance in actual value
56 Grn-blu-blk 560 Brown 5.6 Red 56 Orange 560 Yellow
68 Blu-gry-blk 680 Brown 6.8 Red 68 Orange 680 Yellow Figure 2.31 Resistor color
82 Gry-red-blk 820 Brown 8.2 Red 82 Orange 820 Yellow
code
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32 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

In Table 2.2, the leftmost column represents the complete color code; columns
to the right of it only show the third color, since this is the only one that changes. For
example, a 10- resistor has the code brown-black-black, while a 100- resistor has
the code of brown-black-brown.
In addition to the resistance in ohms, the maximum allowable power dissipation
(or power rating) is typically specified for commercial resistors. Exceeding this
power rating leads to overheating and can cause the resistor to literally burn up. For
a resistor R, the power dissipated can be expressed, with Ohm’s law substituted into
equation 2.10, by
V2
P = VI = I 2 R = (2.18)
R
That is, the power dissipated by a resistor is proportional to the square of the
current flowing through it, as well as the square of the voltage across it. Example
2.10 illustrates how you can make use of the power rating to determine whether a
given resistor will be suitable for a certain application.

➲
LO3 EXAMPLE 2.10 Using Resistor Power Ratings
Problem
Determine the minimum resistor size that can be connected to a given battery without exceeding
the resistor’s 14 -W power rating.

Solution

Known Quantities: Resistor power rating = 0.25 W. Battery voltages: 1.5 and 3 V.

Find: The smallest size 14 -W resistor that can be connected to each battery.

Schematics, Diagrams, Circuits, and Given Data: Figure 2.32, Figure 2.33.

+ i + I

+ +
1.5 V R
1.5 V 1.5 V
– – 3V R
+
–
1.5 V
–
Figure 2.32
–

Figure 2.33

Analysis: We first need to obtain an expression for resistor power dissipation as a function
of its resistance. We know that P = VI and that V = IR. Thus, the power dissipated by any
resistor is
V V2
PR = V × I = V × =
R R
January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 26 Page number 33 magenta black

Part I Circuits 33

Since the maximum allowable power dissipation is 0.25 W, we can write V 2 /R ≤ 0.25, or
R ≥ V 2 /0.25. Thus, for a 1.5-V battery, the minimum size resistor will be R = 1.52 /0.25 = 9 .
For a 3-V battery the minimum size resistor will be R = 32 /0.25 = 36 .

Comments: Sizing resistors on the basis of power rating is very important in practice. Note
how the minimum resistor size quadrupled as we doubled the voltage across it. This is because
power increases as the square of the voltage. Remember that exceeding power ratings will
inevitably lead to resistor failure!

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

A typical electronic power supply provides ±12 V. What is the size of the smallest 14 -W resistor
that could be placed across (in parallel with) the power supply? (Hint: You may think of the
supply as a 24-V supply.)
The circuit in the accompanying illustration contains a battery, a resistor, and an unknown
+ i
circuit element.
R
1. If the voltage Vbattery is 1.45 V and i = 5 mA, find power supplied to or by the battery. Vbattery +
_
2. Repeat part 1 if i = −2 mA. Unknown
element
The battery in the accompanying circuit supplies power to resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 . Use KCL –
to determine the current iB , and find the power supplied by the battery if Vbattery = 3 V.

iB

Vbattery +
_ R1 R2 R3

i1 = 0.2 mA i2 = 0.4 mA i3 = 1.2 mA

–

iB = 1.8 mA; PB = 5.4 mW

Answers: 2,304 ; P1 = 7.25 × 10−3 W (supplied by); P2 = 2.9 × 10−3 W (supplied to);

Open and Short Circuits

Two convenient idealizations of the resistance element are provided by the limiting
cases of Ohm’s law as the resistance of a circuit element approaches zero or infinity. A
circuit element with resistance approaching zero is called a short circuit. Intuitively,
we would expect a short circuit to allow for unimpeded flow of current. In fact,
metallic conductors (e.g., short wires of large diameter) approximate the behavior of
i
a short circuit. Formally, a short circuit is defined as a circuit element across which +
the voltage is zero, regardless of the current flowing through it. Figure 2.34 depicts
The short circuit:
the circuit symbol for an ideal short circuit. v R=0
Physically, any wire or other metallic conductor will exhibit some resistance, v = 0 for any i
though small. For practical purposes, however, many elements approximate a short –
circuit quite accurately under certain conditions. For example, a large-diameter copper Figure 2.34 The short
pipe is effectively a short circuit in the context of a residential electric power supply, circuit
 January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 27 Page number 34 magenta black

34 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

while in a low-power microelectronic circuit (e.g., an FM radio) a short length of

24-gauge wire (refer to Table 2.3 for the resistance of 24-gauge wire) is a more than
adequate short circuit. Table 2.3 summarizes the resistance for a given length of some
commonly used gauges of electrical wire. Additional information on American Wire
Gauge Standards may be found on the Internet.
Table 2.3 Resistance of copper wire
Number of Diameter per Resistance per
AWG size strands strand (in) 1,000 ft ()
24 Solid 0.0201 28.4
24 7 0.0080 28.4
22 Solid 0.0254 18.0
22 7 0.0100 19.0
20 Solid 0.0320 11.3
i 20 7 0.0126 11.9
+ 18 Solid 0.0403 7.2
The open circuit: 18 7 0.0159 7.5
v R→∞ 16 Solid 0.0508 4.5
i = 0 for any v 16 19 0.0113 4.7
14 Solid 0.0641 2.52
– 12 Solid 0.0808 1.62
Figure 2.35 The open 10 Solid 0.1019 1.02
8 Solid 0.1285 0.64
circuit
6 Solid 0.1620 0.4
4 Solid 0.2043 0.25
2 Solid 0.2576 0.16

R1 A circuit element whose resistance approaches infinity is called an open circuit.

+ v1 –
Intuitively, we would expect no current to flow through an open circuit, since it offers
+
1.5 V +
_ v2 R2 infinite resistance to any current. In an open circuit, we would expect to see zero
i –
current regardless of the externally applied voltage. Figure 2.35 illustrates this idea.
– v3 +
In practice, it is not too difficult to approximate an open circuit: Any break in
The current i flows through each of continuity in a conducting path amounts to an open circuit. The idealization of the open
the four series elements. Thus, by
KVL,
circuit, as defined in Figure 2.35, does not hold, however, for very high voltages. The
1.5 = v1 + v2 + v3 insulating material between two insulated terminals will break down at a sufficiently
high voltage. If the insulator is air, ionized particles in the neighborhood of the two
conducting elements may lead to the phenomenon of arcing; in other words, a pulse of
RN current may be generated that momentarily jumps a gap between conductors (thanks
to this principle, we are able to ignite the air-fuel mixture in a spark-ignition internal
combustion engine by means of spark plugs). The ideal open and short circuits are
useful concepts and find extensive use in circuit analysis.
Rn

Series Resistors and the Voltage Divider Rule

REQ
R3 Although electric circuits can take rather complicated forms, even the most involved
circuits can be reduced to combinations of circuit elements in parallel and in series.
R2
Thus, it is important that you become acquainted with parallel and series circuits as
early as possible, even before formally approaching the topic of network analysis.
Parallel and series circuits have a direct relationship with Kirchhoff’s laws. The
R1
objective of this section and the next is to illustrate two common circuits based on
series and parallel combinations of resistors: the voltage and current dividers. These
N series resistors are equivalent to circuits form the basis of all network analysis; it is therefore important to master these
a single resistor equal to the sum of topics as early as possible.
the individual resistances.
For an example of a series circuit, refer to the circuit of Figure 2.36, where a
Figure 2.36 battery has been connected to resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 . The following definition applies:
January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 28 Page number 35 magenta black

Part I Circuits 35

Definition
Two or more circuit elements are said to be in series if the current from one
➲
LO4
element exclusively flows into the next element. From KCL, it then follows
that all series elements have the same current.

By applying KVL, you can verify that the sum of the voltages across the three resistors
equals the voltage externally provided by the battery

1.5 V = v1 + v2 + v3

And since, according to Ohm’s law, the separate voltages can be expressed by the
relations

v1 = iR1 v2 = iR2 v3 = iR3

we can therefore write

1.5 V = i(R1 + R2 + R3 )

This simple result illustrates a very important principle: To the battery, the three series
resistors appear as a single equivalent resistance of value REQ , where

REQ = R1 + R2 + R3

The three resistors could thus be replaced by a single resistor of value REQ without
changing the amount of current required of the battery. From this result we may
extrapolate to the more general relationship defining the equivalent resistance of N
series resistors

N
REQ = Rn Equivalent series resistance (2.19)
n=1

which is also illustrated in Figure 2.36. A concept very closely tied to series resistors
is that of the voltage divider. This terminology originates from the observation that
the source voltage in the circuit of Figure 2.36 divides among the three resistors
according to KVL. If we now observe that the series current i is given by
1.5 V 1.5 V
i= =
REQ R1 + R 2 + R 3
we can write each of the voltages across the resistors as:
R1
v1 = iR1 = (1.5 V)
REQ
R2
v2 = iR2 = (1.5 V)
REQ
R3
v3 = iR3 = (1.5 V)
REQ
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36 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

That is,

➲
LO4
The voltage across each resistor in a series circuit divides in direct proportion
to the individual series resistances.

An instructive exercise consists of verifying that KVL is still satisfied, by adding the
voltage drops around the circuit and equating their sum to the source voltage:
R1 R2 R3
v1 + v 2 + v 3 = (1.5 V) + (1.5 V) + (1.5 V) = 1.5 V
REQ REQ REQ
since REQ = R1 + R2 + R3

Therefore, since KVL is satisfied, we are certain that the voltage divider rule is
consistent with Kirchhoff’s laws. By virtue of the voltage divider rule, then, we can
always determine the proportion in which voltage drops are distributed around a
circuit. This result is useful in reducing complicated circuits to simpler forms. The
general form of the voltage divider rule for a circuit with N series resistors and a
voltage source is

➲
LO4 vn =
Rn
R1 + R 2 + · · · + R n + · · · + R N
vS Voltage divider (2.20)

➲
LO4 EXAMPLE 2.11 Voltage Divider
Problem
VS Determine the voltage v3 in the circuit of Figure 2.37.
+–
R1
+ –
R3 v3 v1 Solution
– i +
R2
Known Quantities: Source voltage; resistance values.
+ v2 –
Find: Unknown voltage v3 .
Figure 2.37
Schematics, Diagrams, Circuits, and Given Data: R1 = 10 ; R2 = 6 ; R3 = 8 ;
VS = 3 V. Figure 2.37.

Analysis: Figure 2.37 indicates a reference direction for the current (dictated by the polarity
of the voltage source). Following the passive sign convention, we label the polarities of the
three resistors, and apply KVL to determine that
VS − v1 − v2 − v3 = 0
The voltage divider rule tells us that
R3 8
v3 = VS × =3× =1V
R1 + R2 + R3 10 + 6 + 8
January 11, 2008 15:41 Chap02 Sheet number 30 Page number 37 magenta black

Part I Circuits 37

Comments: Application of the voltage divider rule to a series circuit is very straightforward.
The difficulty usually arises in determining whether a circuit is in fact a series circuit. This
point is explored later in this section, and in Example 2.13.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Repeat Example 2.11 by reversing the reference direction of the current, to show that the same
result is obtained.

Parallel Resistors and the Current Divider Rule

A concept analogous to that of the voltage divider may be developed by applying
Kirchhoff’s current law to a circuit containing only parallel resistances.

Definition
Two or more circuit elements are said to be in parallel if the elements share
➲
LO4
the same terminals. From KVL, it follows that the elements will have the same
voltage.

Figure 2.38 illustrates the notion of parallel resistors connected to an ideal current
source. Kirchhoff’s current law requires that the sum of the currents into, say, the top
node of the circuit be zero:
iS = i1 + i2 + i3
But by virtue of Ohm’s law we may express each current as follows:
v v v
i1 = i2 = i3 =
R1 R2 R3
since, by definition, the same voltage v appears across each element. Kirchhoff’s
current law may then be restated as follows:
 
1 1 1
iS = v + +
R1 R2 R3

KCL applied at this node

+
i1 i2 i3 R1 R2 R3 Rn RN REQ
iS R1 R2 R3 v

–
N resistors in parallel are equivalent to a single equivalent
The voltage v appears across each parallel resistor with resistance equal to the inverse of the sum of
element; by KCL, iS = i1 + i2 + i3 the inverse resistances.

Figure 2.38 Parallel circuits

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38 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Note that this equation can be also written in terms of a single equivalent resistance
1
iS = v
REQ
1 1 1 1
where = + +
REQ R1 R2 R3
As illustrated in Figure 2.38, we can generalize this result to an arbitrary number of
resistors connected in parallel by stating that N resistors in parallel act as a single
equivalent resistance REQ given by the expression
1 1 1 1
= + + ··· + (2.21)
REQ R1 R2 RN

1 Equivalent parallel
or REQ = (2.22)
1/R1 + 1/R2 + · · · + 1/RN resistance

Very often in the remainder of this book we refer to the parallel combination of two
or more resistors with the notation
R1  R2  · · ·
where the symbol  signifies “in parallel with.”
From the results shown in equations 2.21 and 2.22, which were obtained directly
from KCL, the current divider rule can be easily derived. Consider, again, the three-
resistor circuit of Figure 2.38. From the expressions already derived from each of the
currents i1 , i2 , and i3 , we can write
v v v
i1 = i2 = i3 =
R1 R2 R3
and since v = REQ iS , these currents may be expressed by
REQ 1/R1 1/R1
i1 = iS = iS = iS
R1 1/REQ 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
1/R2
i2 = iS
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
1/R3
i3 = iS
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
We can easily see that the current in a parallel circuit divides in inverse proportion
to the resistances of the individual parallel elements. The general expression for the
current divider for a circuit with N parallel resistors is the following:

➲
LO4 in =
1/Rn
1/R1 + 1/R2 + · · · + 1/Rn + · · · + 1/RN
iS
Current
divider
(2.23)

Example 2.12 illustrates the application of the current divider rule.