Algebra of Continuous Functions

Lesson: Algebra of Continuous Functions

Paper: Analysis - II
Lesson Developer : Pragati Gautam and Sudha Gupta
Department / College: Assistant Professor, Department of
Mathematics, Kamala Nehru College/Lakshmibai College
University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Table of Contents

Chapter : Algebra of Continuous Functions

 1 : Learning Outcomes
 2 : Introduction
 3 : Continuous Functions
o 3.1 Continuity of a Function at a Point
o 3.2 Another Definition of Continuity
o 3.3 Sequential Criteria for continuity
 4 : Algebra of Continuous Functions
 5: Composition of Continuous Functions
 Exercise
 References

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

1. Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter you should be able to

 Have a deep understanding of continuous functions.

 Understand Algebra of continuous functions.
 Gain an understanding of Properties of algebra of continuous
functions.
 Will be able to solve questions related to them.

"Mathematicians do not study objects, but relations among objects; they

are indifferent to the replacement of objects by others as long as relations
do not change. Matter is not important, only form interests them....."

Henri Poincare

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

2. Introduction

The idea of a function has an irregular history. Until the time of L.

Euler, functions were thought of largely in terms of formulas and thus
were restricted to expressions that can be generated by elementary
operations. The modern view of a function as a general assignment was
first seen in Euler’s later work and particularly in the subsequent work of
Cauchy and P. Dirichlet. A function f from A to B is a rule that assigns to
each element in A one and only one element in B. We write f : A  B
where A and B are nonempty sets.

A graph is a function if it passes the vertical line test. i.e., if a

vertical line is drawn anywhere on the co-ordinate plane, it crosses the
graph only once.

If a vertical line goes through the graph more than once, that means
there is more than one y-value for the x-value. So if a graph fails the
vertical line test, it is not a function.

A continuous function is a function in which for “small” changes in the

input result in “small” changes in the output. Continuity was first defined by
Bernard Bolzano in 1817. Augustin-Louis Cauchy defined continuity for y = f
(x) by saying for an infinitely small increment  of the independent variable
x always produces an infinitely small change f (x + ) – f (x) of the
dependent variable y. Cauchy called “infinitely small quantities” as variable
quantities.

He introduced the concept of continuous functions by requiring that

indefinite small changes of x should produce indefinite small changes in y.
But Bolzano (1817) and Weierstrass (1874) were more precise by saying
the difference f (x) – f (x0) must be arbitrarily small for the difference x –
x0 sufficiently small. Thus the concept of continuity is of great important
in Analysis.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Consider the graphs of the functions f and g. At the point x = c,

there is a significant difference. The graph of g has a break at c, whereas
the graph of f can be drawn without the pencil leaving the paper. This
distinction, stated geometrically, can be made precise if we focus on the
functions involved and not their graphs.

The values of the function f are all near f (c) for x near c, i.e., lim f
x c

(x) exists and equals f (c). However, this is not true for the function g. For
some x near c (either for any x < c or x > c) the values of g are not near
g (c). We do not have lim g (x) = g (c). In fact, lim g (x) does not exist.
x c x c

The function g is not continuous at the point c.

y = f (x) y = g(x)

I.Q. 1

I.Q. 2

3. Continuous Functions:

Definition: Let f be a function defined in a neighbourhood of the point c.

Then f is continuous at c if

lim f  x   f  c 
x c

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

In practice, most functions of a real variable have domains that are

intervals or unions of separate intervals, thus we have to consider three
type of points; interior points, left end points and right end points.

In general, a function f is continuous at a left end point a of its domain if

it is right continuous at a and continuous at a right end point b of its
domain if it is left continuous at b. A function is continuous at an interior
point c of its domain if and only if it is both right continuous and left
continuous at c.

Value addition : Example

1
(1) The function f  x   is not continuous at x = 0, because
x2
f  x  is not defined at x = 0. Moreover, this point of

discontinuity cannot be removed, since we have

1
lim 
x c x2
1
(2) The function f  x  is not continuous at x = 0 and its
x
discontinuity at x = 0 cannot be removed, because
1 1
lim    and lim    .
x 0 x x 0 x

1 1
f ( x)  f ( x) 
x2 x

I.Q. 3

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

3.1 Continuity of a Function at a Point

The notion of continuity is one of the central concepts of

Mathematical Analysis. We will define what it means to say that a function
is continuous at a point. It is known as an  –  criterion.

Definition: Let A  R, f : A  R and c  A . Then function f is said to be

continuous at c if for every  > 0, there exists  > 0 such that

for x  A and xc    f  x  f c    .

If f fails to be continuous at c, then we say that f is discontinuous at c.

Value Addition: Note

(1) In the above definition c must be in A but need not be a
cluster point of A. This lim f  x  need not exist, even when f is
x c

continuous at c.

Consider the function f : A  R defined by f ( x)  x3  x 2

where A  {0}  [1, ) is the domain of f. f is continuous at 0,

but lim f ( x) does not exist.

x 0

(2) In case c is a cluster point of A, then definition 2.2 is

equivalent to
(i) f  c  exists

(ii) lim f  x  exists and

x c

(iii) lim f  x   f  c 
x c

I.Q. 4

I.Q. 5

In fact we say that

If c is a cluster point of A, then f is continuous at c iff

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

lim f  x   f  c 
x c

3.2 Another Definition of Continuity

The definition of continuity at a point can be reformulated in terms of

neighbourhoods.

The function f is continuous at c if for every  > 0, there exists  > 0 such
that

x  A and x  c    f  x   f  c   

i.e., x  A and c    x  c    f  c     f  x   f  c   

i.e., x  A and x ]c  , c  [ f  x  ] f  c   , f  c    [

i.e., xA ] c  , c  [ f  x  ] f  c   , f c    [

Thus in other words,

Let A  R , f : A  R and c  A. Then function f is continuous at c iff for

every   nbd V  f  c   of f  c  , there exists   nbd V  c  of c such that

x  A V  c   f  x  V  f  c  

i.e., f  A V  c    V  f  c  

Value Addition : Note

If c  A is not a cluster point of A, then there exists a
neighbourhood V  c  of c such that A V  c  = c . Then the

function will be automatically continuous at c  A. Such points are

called Isolated Points.

For the function f : A  R defined by f ( x)  x3  x 2 .

where A  {0}  [1, ) is the domain of f. Here, 0 is an isolated point

of the domain of f.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Example 1: Consider the function f : R  R, defined by

 1
 x sin , x  0
f  x   x

 0 , x0

1
Solution: Here lim f  x   lim x sin  0  f  0
x 0 x 0 x

 the function f is continuous at 0.

Example 2: Let f  x   sgn  x   x  R . Where sgn is the signum function

Show that f is not continuous at 0.

Solution: We have

1 , x  0

f  x   0 , x  0
1 , x  0


Here lim f  x   1
x 0

lim f  x   1
x 0

 lim f  x   lim f  x 
x0 x0

 lim f  x  does not exist.

x 0

 f is not continuous at x = 0.

Example 3: The function f : R  R, defined by f (x) = [x] is called the

greatest integer function. Check the continuity of f (x).

Solution: We define [x] to be the greatest integer n  Z such that n  x.

Let z be any integer.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

lim f  x   z  1
x z 

Also lim f  x   z
xz

 lim f  x   lim f  x 
x z  x z

 lim f  x  does not exist

x z

 f is not continuous at any integer. But when x is not an integer, i.e.,

x is a real number then lim f  x   lim f  x   f  c  .
xc x c

I.Q. 6

Example 4: Determine the points of discontinuity of

f  x   sin x ,0  x  2

Solution:

0 , 0  x  / 2
1 , x  / 2

Here f  x   0 , / 2  x  
1 ,   x  3 / 2

1 , 3 / 2  x  2

This function is discontinuity at 0, /2, , 2, 5/2, ……

Example 5: Determine the points of continuity of the following functions:

x2  2x  1
(i) f  x   xR
x2  1

 x  1
2

=
x2  1

It is continuous everywhere on R.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

| sin x |
(ii) h x  1 , x0
x

1  sin x f  x
Solution: h x   where x  0.
x g  x

sin x ; x  0
sin x  
 sin x ; x  0

Here g  x   0 for x = 0 and g(x)  0 ; x  0

f  x
is defined  x  0
g  x

sin x is continuous  |sin x| is continuous

 1  sin x is continuous.

Also g  x   x is continuous.

f  x
Therefore, h  x   is continuous  x  0 .
g  x

(iii) k  x   cos 1  x 2  x  R 

Solution: cos and 1  x 2 are continuous functions.

Therefore, cos 1  x 2 is also a continuous function.

Example 6: Show that if f : A  R is continuous on A  R and if n  N,

then the function f n defined by f n  x    f  x   for x  A, is continuous

n

on A.

Solution: Here f is continuous on A

For f 2  x    f f  x 

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

= f  x  f  x    f  x 
2

If f is continuous so f 2 will also be continuous.

Similarly, f 3 , f 4 ,... will also be continuous.

f n  x    f  x   will also be continuous.

n


I.Q. 7

3.3 Sequential Criteria for continuity:

Theorem 1: A function f : A  R is continuous at a point c  A iff for

every sequence  xn  in A that converges to c, the sequence f  xn 

converges to f  c  .

Proof: Necessary part

Suppose f is continuous at c and let the sequence  xn  in A be such that it

converges to c.

Since f is continuous at c, therefore for every  > 0, there exists  > 0

such that x  A and x  c    f  x   f  c   

(1)

Now the sequence  xn  converges to c, therefore for  > 0, there exists a

+ve integer m such that xn  c    n  m

(2)

From (1) and (2) we have

f  xn   f  c     n  m (replacing x by xn in (1))

 The sequence  f  x 
n converges to f  c  .

Sufficient part

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Suppose that for every sequence  xn  in A that converges to c, the

sequence f  xn  converges to f  c  .

We have to prove that f is continuous. On contrary, assume that f is not

continuous at c.

Then there exist an  > 0 for which no  works.

1
i.e., for n  , n  N ,  yn  A s.t
n

1
yn  c  but f  yn   f  c     n
n

This implies that the sequence  yn  in A is such that lim yn  c

n

 
as lim
1
 0  but the sequence  f  y 
n does not converge to f  c  which
n n

is a contradiction.

Therefore f is continuous.

Example 7: Show that the Dirichlet's functions is discontinuous at every

real number.

1 if x is rational
Solution: Let f  x  
0 if x is irrational

Let c be a real number.

Case-I: Let c is a rational number then

f c  1

By density theorem, there exists a sequence  xn  of irrational numbers

such that lim xn  c

n

Here f  xn   0  n

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Thus,  a sequence  xn  such that

lim xn  c
n

but lim f  xn   f  c 
n

By sequential criteria, we have that the function f is not continuous at c.

Case-II: Let c be an irrational number. Then f (c) = 0

By density theorem,  a sequence  yn  of rational numbers such that

lim yn  c
n

Here f ( yn )  1  n

lim f ( yn )  1  f (c)
n

Thus,  a sequence  yn  s.t

lim yn  c
n

but lim f  yn   f  c 
n

By sequential criteria, the function is not continuous at c.

Thus from Case I and Case II, we have that function f is not continuous at
any real number.

 2 1
 x sin   , x  0
Example 8: Let f  x    x
 , x0
 0

Use the  –  definition to show that f is continuous at 0.

Solution: Let  > 0

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Now f  x   f  0   f  x   x 2  x

We want this to be less than , so we let    .

Then x  0   implies x 2  2  

 x  0    f  x   f  0  

Hence  –  property holds and f is continuous at 0.

We can also show that if lim  xn   0 for every seq  xn  then lim f (xn) = 0

Thus sequential criteria can also be used to prove that f is continuous at

0.

Example 9: Prove that the function x is continuous on its domain [0, )

.

Solution: Let f  x   x , x0

The function f is continuous at c

 c  0.

Let  > 0 be arbitrary.

Case-I: When c = 0,

then f  x   f  c   x 0

x  0   if 0  x  2

Let  = 2

Then 0  x    x 0  
2

This shows that the function f is continuous at 0.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Case-II: When c  0

xc xc
then f  x   f  c   x c  
x c c

 f  x   f  c    if x  c  c 

take  = c

then x  c    x c 

This implies that the function x is continuous at c.

4. Algebra of Continuous Functions

Let A  R and let f and g be functions defined on A to R. We define the

sum f + g, the difference f – g, and the product fg on A to R to be the
functions given by

 f  g  x   f  x   g  x  , for all x  A

 f  g  x   f  x   g  x  , for all x  A

 f g  x   f  x  g  x  , for all x  A

Further, if b  R, we define the multiple bf to be the function given by

 bf  x   bf  x  for all x  A.

f
Also, if h  x   0 for x  A, we define the quotient to be the function
h
 f  f  x
given by   x  for all x  A
h h x

Value addition

If f and g are functions, both bounded on A and c is any real

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

number, then the function f + g, f – g, cf and f g are each bounded

on A.

I.Q. 8

Theorem 2: Suppose the function f and g are continuous at the point c.

Then the functions f + g, f – g, f g are continuous at c.

Proof: If c  A is not a cluster point of A, then the conclusion is obvious.

Hence we assume that c is a cluster point of A. Since f and g are
continuous at c, then

f  c   lim f  x 
x c

and g  c   lim g  x 
x c

We have lim  f  g  x   lim  f  x   g  x 

xc x c

= lim f  x   lim g  x 
x c x c

= f (c) + g(c)

= f  g  c 

 lim  f  g  x =
x c
f  g  c 

Thus f + g is continuous at c.

In a similar manner we can show that f – g is continuous at c.

Again, lim  f g  x   lim f  x  g  x 

xc x c

= lim f  x  lim g  x 
x c x c

= f (c) g (c)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

= f g (c)

Thus we have lim  f g  x   f g  c 

x c

 The function f g is continuous at c.

Converse of the above theorem need not be true.

For Example:

 1x
 e  1 , x0
(i) Let f  x    1x
e 1
 0, x0

and

 1

 1  e x
, x0
g  x    1x
e 1
 0, x0

then f  g  x   0 for all x

 f + g is continuous at 0 (being a constant function)

but the functions f and g are discontinuous at x = 0

1 , x is rational
(ii) Let f  x  
1 , x is irrational

1 , x is rational
and g  x  
1 , x is irrational

then fg (x) = 1 for all x  R.

Thus the function f g is continuous at every point of R, but the functions f

and g are discontinuous at every point of R.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

I.Q. 9

I.Q. 10

Theorem 3: If f is continuous at a point c and b  R then bf is

continuous at c.

Proof: As f is continuous at c, therefore we have lim f  x   f  c 

x c

Now lim  b f  x   b lim f  x   bf  c 

xc x c

 b f is continuous at c.

Theorem 4: Let f : A  R is continuous at c  A and h : A  R is

f
continuous at c  A and if h  x   0 for all x  A, then the quotient is
h
continuous at c.

Proof: Since c  A, then h  c   0

As h is continuous at c, therefore we have lim h  x   h  c 

x c

 f  lim f  x 
Now lim    x   x c
x c
h lim h  x 
x c

f c
=
h c

f c
=
h

f
Therefore is continuous at c.
h

Converse of the above theorem need not be true.

For Example:

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

 1, when x is rational
Let f ( x)  h( x)  
 1, when x is irrational

f f
then ( x)  1  x  R . Hence is continuous at every point of R, but f
h h
and g are discontinuous at every point of R.

The next result is an immediate consequence of the above theorems,

applied to every point of A. however, since it is an extremely important
result, we will state it formally.

Theorem 5: Let A  R , let f and g be continuous on A to R, and let b  R.

(i) The functions f + g, f – g, f g and bf are continuous on A.

(ii) If h : A  R is continuous on A and h  x   0 for x  A, then the

f
quotient is continuous on A.
h

I.Q. 11

I.Q. 12

Example 10: All polynomials p  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ...  an x n are continuous

at each point of R.

Solution: Every polynomial p is a function on R into R.

Now lim p  x   lim an x n  an1 x n1  ...  a1 x  a0 

xc x c

 lim  an x n   lim  an1 x n1   ...  lim  a1 x   lim a0

xc x c x c x c

We know that constant functions are continuous everywhere and the

identity function is also continuous everywhere

Therefore if f  x   k where k is a constant and g  x   x , then  fg  x  =

kx and h  x   k1x  k0 are continuous at every point of R. By repeatedly

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

using the theorem, we conclude that p  x   an x n  an1 x n1  ...  a1 x  a0 is

continuous on R.

Example 11: If p and q are polynomials functions of R, then there are at

most a finite number, 1, …, m of real roots of q.

Solution: If x  1 ,..., m  then q  x   0 .

p  x
So that we can define the rational function r by r  x  for
q  x

x  1 ,..., m 

If c is not a zero of q  x  , then q  c   0 , and it follows that

lim q  x   q  c   0 .
x c

p  x  lim p  x p c
Therefore lim  x c  = r(c)
x c q  x  lim q  x  q  c 
x c

 r is continuous at c.

Since c is any real number that is not a root of q, we conclude that a

rational function is continuous at every real number for which it is
defined.

I.Q. 13

Example 12: Show that sine function is continuous on R.

Solution: For all x, y, z  R we have

sin z  z and cos z  1

1
 x  y  cos   x  y 
1
and sin x  sin y  2sin 
2  2 

Hence if c  R, then we have

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

1
sin x  sin c  2. x  c .1
2

= xc

Therefore sine function is continuous at c.

Since c  R is arbitrary, it follows that sine function is continuous on R.

Example 13: Show that the cosine function is continuous on R.

Solution: For all x, y, z  R we have

sin z  z and sin z  1

1  1 
and cos x  cos y  2sin   x  y   sin   x  y 
2  2 

Hence if c  R, the we have

1
cos x  cos c  2.1. c  x
2

= xc

Therefore cosine function is continuous at c.

Since c  R is arbitrary, it follows that cosine function is continuous on R.

I.Q. 14

Value Addition:

The functions tan, cot, sec, cosec are continuous where they are
defined.

cos x
For example, cot x  , provided
sin x

sin x  0 (i.e., provided x  n, n  Z )

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Since sin x and cos x are continuous on R, it follows from Theorem

4 that the function cot x is continuous on its domain.

 x 2 sin  1  , x0
 x
Example 14: Check the continuity of f ( x)     .
 0, x0

This function will be continuous at all nonzero x in R. (by Theorem 2).

Theorem 6: Let A  R , let f : A  R, and let f be defined by

f x  f  x  for x  A. If f is continuous at a point c  A, then | f | is

continuous at c.

Proof: Since f is continuous at x = c, therefore for every  > 0, there

exists a
 > 0 such that x  A and xc  

 f  x  f c   ... (1)

Also, we have that

f  x  f c  f  x   f c   f  x   f c  ... (2)

From (1) and (2) we have

x  A and xc   f  x  f c   f ( x)  f (c)  

Thus, for every  > 0, there exists a  > 0

s.t x  A and x  c    f  x  f c  

which shows that the function f is continuous at c.

Converse of the above theorem is not true in general,

Consider a function f defined by

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

1, xc
f  x  
 1, xc

Then f  x   1

 lim f  x   1  f  c 
x c

but lim f  x  does not exist at x = c

x c

This shows that f is continuous at c but f is not continuous at c.

Note: If f is continuous on A, then f is continuous on A.

I.Q. 15

I.Q. 16

Theorem 7: Let A  R , f : A  R and f  x   0 for all x  A. Let f be

defined by  f  x  f  x  for x  A. If f is continuous at a point c  A,

then f is continuous at c.

Proof: Since f is continuous at c,

then f (c)  lim f ( x)

x c

we have lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  f (c )

x c x c

 lim( f )( x)  f (c )
xc

Thus f is continuous at c.

Value Addition:
All these results can also be proved using sequential criteria for
continuity.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

I.Q. 17

Now we combine the real valued functions f and g to obtain

max  f , g  x   max  f  x  , g  x 

and min  f , g  x   min  f  x  , g  x 

The next theorem shows that these new functions are continuous if f and
g are continuous.

Theorem 8: If the functions f and g are continuous at the point c, then

max  f , g  and min  f ,g are also continuous at c.

Proof: We know that

1 1
max  f , g    f  g  f  g
2 2

1 1
and min  f , g    f  g  f  g
2 2

so the proof follows from theorem 2 and theorem 6.

Example 15: Let f  x   2 x  1 and g  x   x 2  2 .

Find  f  g  x  ,  f  g  x  , f  x  2 , f  x   2, g  x  2  , g  x   2, 3 f  x  ,

f  3x  ,3g  x  , g  3x  ,  fg  x  ,  f / g  x  , f  x  ,max  f , g x  and

min  f , g x 

Solution: f  x   2x  1

and g  x   x2  2

 f  g  x  = x  2x 1
2

 f  g  x  = x  2x  3
2

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

f  x  2  = 2x + 5

f  x   2 = 2x + 3

g  x  2 = x2  4 x  2

g  x   2 = x2

3 f  x  = 6x + 3

f  3x  = 6x + 1

3g  x  = 3x2 – 6

g  3x  = 9x2 – 2

 fg  x  = 2 x3  x 2  4 x  2

2x  1
 f / g  x  =
x2  2

f  x   2x  1

 x 2  2 if x  1 or x  3
max  f , g x   
2 x  1 if  1  x  3

2 x  1 if x  1 or x  3
min  f , g x    2
 x  2 if  1  x  3

5. Composition of Continuous Functions

If f and g are functions, the composite function g f is defined by

g f  x   g  f  x  

Value addition
Two functions can be composed when the range of the first lies in

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

the domain of the second. To find g f  x  , we first find f  x  and

then g  f  x   .

We now show that the composition g f is continuous at c. In order to

assure that g f is defined on all of A, we also need to assume that
f  A  B .

Theorem 9: Let A, B  R and let f : A  R, g : B  R be such that

f  A  B . If f is continuous at a point c  A and g is continuous at

f  c  B  . Then the composition g f : A  R is continuous at c.

Proof: Let  > 0 be arbitrary. Since g is continuous at f (c), therefore

there exists  > 0 s.t

y  B, y  f  c     g  y   g  f  c     ... (1)

Again, as f is continuous at c, therefore for  > 0, there exists  > 0 s.t

x  A, x  c    f  x   f  c    ... (2)

Also as f  A  B , therefore x  A  f  x   B ... (3)

Now, from (1), (2) and (3) we have

x  A, x  c    f  x   B, f  x   f  c   

 g  f  x   g  f c   

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

  g f  x    g f  c   

Thus, x  A, x  c     g f  x    g f  c   

This shows that g f is continuous at c.

Another Proof:

The above theorem can be proved by using the sequential criterion for
continuity.

Let  xn  be a sequence in A that converges to c.

Since f is continuous at c,

lim xn  c
n

 lim f  xn   f  c 
n

Since f  A  B

 f  xn   B  n .

So, the sequence  f  x 

n in B converges at f (c).

Since g is continuous at f (c),

  
the sequence g  f  xn   converges to g  f  c   .

i.e., lim g  f  xn    g  f  c  
n

 lim  g f  xn    g f  c 
n

Thus, if  xn  is a sequence in A such that lim xn  c , then

n

lim  g f  xn    g f  c 
n

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

This shows that g f is continuous at c.

Converse of the above theorem need not be true, as can be seen

from the following example.

1
 , for x  0
Example 16: Let f  x   x

 0 , for x  0

and g  x  f  x  x  R

Here g f  x   x for all x  R and hence g f is continuous at all x  R

but f and g are not continuous at x = 0.

I.Q. 18

Theorem 10: Let A, B  R , let f : A  R be continuous on A and let g : B

 R be continuous on B. If f (A)  B , then the composite function g f : A

 R is continuous on A.

Proof: The theorem follows immediately from the preceding result, if f

and g are continuous at every point of A and B respectively.

Note: In general f g  g f although sometimes they are equal.

Example 17: Consider the functions f : R  R and g : R  R defined by

1
f (x) = 3x + 2 and g  x   .
x2

here  g f  x   g  3x  2

1

 3x  2   2

1
 , whereas
3x

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

 1 
 fog  x   f 
 x2

 1 
 3 2
 x2

2x 1

x2

which shows that f gg f

Value Addition:
Composite functions obey the associative law.
i.e., h g f   h g  f

Example 18: Show that the function f  x   x  x  R is continuous on

R.

Solution: Let  > 0 be arbitrary

Let c be any real number, then

f  x  f c  x  c  xc

Take  = , then f  x   f  c  <  whenever x  c  

Thus for every  > 0, there exist  > 0 such that

x  c    f  x  f c   .

This shows that f is continuous at every real no. c. As c is any real no,
therefore f is continuous on R.

Using result of above question, we prove that if f is continuous, then f is

continuous on R.

Proof: Let g  x   x  x  R

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

g f  x   g  f  x  

 f  x  f  x

 g f= f

Since f an g both are continuous on R.

 g f is continuous.

 f is continuous.

Example 19: Let g  x   sin x  x  R .

We have already shown that g(x) is continuous on R. If f is continuous on

1
R then it follows that g f is continuous on R. In particular, if f  x   for
x
x  0,

then the function  g f  x   g  f  x  

1
 g 
 x

1
 sin  
 x

 g f is continuous at every point x  0.

Example 20: Let g be defined on R by g(1) = 0 and g(x) = 2 if x  1

and let
f (x) = x + 1 for all x  R.

Show that lim g f   g f  0 

x 0

0 if x  1
Solution: g  x  
2 if x  1

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

and f  x  x 1  x  R

lim  g f  x   lim g  f  x    lim g  x  1  lim2  2

x0 x0 x0 x0

g f  0   g  f  0    g  0  1  g 1  0

Here g must be continuous at f (0) where f (0) = 1 and g is not

continuous at
x = 1 = f (0).

Therefore, lim  g f  x    g f  0  .
x0

I.Q. 19

Example 21: Let f, g be continuous from R to R, and suppose that

f  r   g  r  for all rational numbers r.

Is it true that f  x   g  x  for all x  R?

Solution: Given f and g are continuous on R.

 f  r   g  r  for r  Q.

Let c  R ~ Q i.e., c is irrational  n  N

1 1
 There exists sequence < xn > of rational numbers in ]c  , c  [
n n

1
Therefore, xn  c 
n

 < xn > converges to ‘c’.

Since f is continuous.

 Sequence f  xn  converges to f (c) and g is continuous.

 g  xn  converges to g(c)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Since xn are rational numbers.

 f  xn   g  xn   n .

 lim f  xn   lim g  xn   f  c   g  c 
n n

So it is true that f  x   g  x  for all x  R.

I.Q. 20

Example 22: Let f : R  R be continuous on R, and let P =

x  R : f  x   0 . If c  P, show that there exists a neighbourhood

V  c   P .

Solution: Given f is continuous on R.

P   x  R : f  x   0

Since c  P  f  c   0

f is continuous on R  f is continuous at c.

1
For   f c  0
2

There exist  > 0 such that

f  x   f  c    whenever 0 < x  c   .

   f  x   f  c   

 f  c     f  x   f  c    when 0  x  c   .

1 1
 f c  f c   f  x   f c   f c 
2 2

1 3
 f c  f  x  f c 
2 2

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Here f  c   0

1 3
Therefore 0  f  c   f  x   f  c  when 0  x  c  
2 2

 f  x   0 when 0  x  c     V  c   .

Example 23: If f and g are continuous on R, let S   x  R : f  x   g  x  .

If  sn   S and lim (sn) = s show that s  S.

Solution: Here f and g are continuous on R.

S  x  R : f  x   g  x 

Now sn  S  f  sn   g  sn   n  N

Again (sn) converges to s and f and g are continuous at R i.e., continuous

at s.

  f  s 
n converges to f (s)

and  g  sn   converges to g(s)

But f  sn   g  sn   n .

 lim f  sn   lim g  sn 
n n

 f s  g s  s  S .

Example 24: A function f : R  R is said to be additive if f  x  y 

 f  x   f  y  for all x, y in R. Prove that if f is continuous at some point

x0, then it is continuous at every point of R.

Solution: Let f be continuous at x0

It is given that f  x  y   f  x   f  y   x, y  R

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Take x  y  0

Therefore, f  0   f  0   f  0 

 f  0  0

Take y   x

 f  x  x  f  x  f  x

 f  x   f   x   f  0  0

 f  x   f  x  x  R

Let  xn  be a sequence in R such that  xn   0

  xn  x0   0  x0  x0

f is continuous at x0

 f  xn  x0   f  x0 

  f  x   f  x   f  x 
n 0 0

  f  x   0
n

  xn   0   f  xn    0

 f is continuous at 0.

Let ‘c’ be any point of R

We know f is continuous on R

 f is continuous at x = c.

Let a sequence  yn  in R be such that  yn   c .

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

i.e.,  yn  c   0

  f yn  c   f  0 (As f is continuous at 0)

  f  y   f  c   f  0
n

  f  y   f  c   f  0  0
n

  f  y   f  c   0
n

  f  y   f c 
n

 f is continuous at ‘c’.

Since ‘c’ is arbitrary

 f is continuous on R.

Exercise

 x3  8
 , x2
Q1. Let f  x    x2  4
 3 , x2


Show that f (x) is continuous at x = 2.

Q2. Examine the following function for continuity at x = 0

e1/ x , when x  0
f  x  
0 , when x  0

{Hint : lim f  x   0  f  0  and lim f  x   lim1/


e1/ x   }.
x 0 x0 x 0

Q3. Give examples of functions f and g such that f, g and fg are

discontinuous while f + g is a continuous function

{Hint : Take f  x    x  and g  x   x   x   x  0 }

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Q4. Discuss the continuity of the function

x x
 ; x0
f  x   x
 0 ; x0


at x = 0.

xx
{Hint : lim f  x   lim 0
x 0 x 0 x

xx
lim f  x   lim 2
x 0 x 0 x

So f is discontinuous at x = 0}

Q5. Let f : R  R be such that f  x   k (constant) for all x  R. Show

that f is continuous on R.

Q6. A function f is defined on [0, 1] by

1 1 1
f  x  for x ; n = 1, 2, 3, …
n n 1 n

1 1 1
Show that the points of discontinuity of f are 1, , , ,...
2 3 4

Q7. Discuss continuity of the function

 xe1/ x ; x  0
f  x  
 0 ; x0

at x = 0

{Hint: lim f  x   lim x e1/ x  0  0  0

x0 x0

0
lim f  x   lim x / e1/ x  }
x 0 x 0 0

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Q8. A function f (x) is defined as follows:

f  x   1  x if x  2 and f  x   5  x if x  2 .

Is the function continuous at x = 2?

x2 x2 x2 x2
Q9. Let f  x       ...
1  x2  1  x2 2 1  x2 3 1  x2 4
If f (x) continuous at the origin? Give reason for your answer.

{Hint : The function f (x) will form an infinite G.P, whose first term
x2 1
is and common ratio is which is less than 1 when x
1  x 
2
1  x2  
 0}

Q10. Let f : R  R be such that

f  x   x when x is irrational

= –x when x is rational

Show that f (x) is continuous only at x = 0.

Q11. Let f  x   4  x for x  4 and g  x   x 2 for all x  R.

(a) Give the domains of f  g , fg , f g and g f.

(b) Find the values of f g (0), g f (0), f g (1) and g f (2).

Q12. Use Algebra of continuous functions to prove that the following

functions are continuous.


(i) sin 2 x  cos6 x 

1
(ii) x sin   for x  0.
 x

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Q13. Let f and g be real valued functions. Show that min(f.g) = –max(–f,
–g) and then prove min(f, g) is continuous at ‘c’ where f and g are
continuous at that point.

Q14. The following given functions is not continuous at 0. For each,

construct a sequence {xn} such that xn  0 and f  xn   0

sin 1/ x  , x  0

a) f  x  

 0 , x0

 1
 x 2  2 , x  0
b) f  x  
 1 , x0
 x 2  1

Q15. Use the algebra of continuous functions to prove that the functions
sec x and cosec x are continuous everywhere on their domains.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Algebra of Continuous Functions

REFERENCES

1. Bartle, R., Sherbert D. "Introduction to Real Analysis", Wiley India,

2007.

2. Ross, Kenneth, A., "Elementary Analysis: The theory of Calculus",

Springer International Edition, 2007.

3. Bilodeau G.,Thei Paul R., Keough, G.E. "An Introduction to Analysis"

Jones and Bartlett student Edition, 2010.

4. Malik, S.C. "Principles of Real Analysis", Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1982.

5. Goldberg, R. "Methods of Real Analysis", George Springer,

University of Kansas, 1963.

6. Narayan, Shanti, "Elements of Real Analysis", S. Chand and

Company Ltd., 1992.

7. Rudin Walter, "Principles of Mathematical Analysis", McGraw Hill

Book Company Ltd., 1964.

8. Roydon, H.L., "Real Analysis", Third Edition, Prentice Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, NJ., 1988.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi