ETHICAL THEORY

ADS452

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LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of the learning session, student
should be able to;
Discuss various ethical theories learnt.
Compare the differences between deontological and
teleological theories.

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INTRODUCTION

Do we think of ethical matters, and do we need to?

How do we reason in thinking and acting ethically?

Why do we need to?

How do we know what is right or wrong?

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The morally right things to do is always best
supported by arguments (Rachel & Rachel, 2013).
Thus, feelings must be guided by reason in order to
discover the truth (Rachel & Rachel, 2013)
This includes moral judgment – action to approve
things that is right or wrong.
Reasoning is based of facts and verified
knowledge.
Moral arguments is guided by principles that is case
based.
The question – are the principles justified and used
correctly by us?

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IMPORTANCE OF GOOD REASONING SKILLS
(MC KINNON, 2012)
Able to evaluate moral issues critically

Able to develop and rely on widely shared reason

based views

Able to discuss moral matters collectively

Able to verify moral principles

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ETHICAL THEORY
Root word from Greek ‘theoria’ means a way of seeing (see/view
moral phenomena)
• Ethical theory is a systematic exposition of a particular view about
what is the nature and basis of good or right.
• Ethical theory helps in making ethical judgment on any matters that
would like to be identified as right or wrong.
• It provides reasons or norms for judging acts to be right or wrong
and attempts to give justification for these norms.
• It provides ethical principles or guidelines that embody certain
values.
• It provide clear guidelines and principles in making ethical decision

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RELATIONSHIP ETHICAL
THEORY
BETWEEN
ETHICAL ETHICAL
THEORY AND PRINCIPLE

ETHICAL
JUDGMENT ETHICAL
JUDGMENT

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CATEGORY OF ETHICS
Ethics is a systematic attempt to understand moral
concepts and justify moral principles and theories.
Western philosophy explained moral concepts using 3
main categories of ethics (Stewart, 2009);
i. Meta ethics – causes of right & wrong
Ii. Normative ethics – the study of right & wrong of
human behaviour
iii. Applied ethics – practical ethics based on the right
& wrong concept

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 Ethical behavior explained by normative
NORMATIVE ethics is based on three broad
philosophical tradition (Stewart, 2009);
ETHICS Deontology – duty based

Teleology – consequences based

Virtue ethics – character based

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NORMATIVE ETHICS
ETHICAL EGOISM
TELEOLOGY Consequentialist

ETHICAL THEORY UTILITARIANISM

KANT’S MORAL THEORY

DEONTOLOGY Non-
consequentialist
NATURAL LAW
VIRTUE ETHICS

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DEONTOLOGY
Deontology originates from Greek, deon meaning duty.
It looks for objective, ultimate or absolute standards for assessing
rightness or wrongness of human actions (Sheeran, 1993).
This approach believes that real, objective standards of morality exist
to govern human behaviour and it is discovered using human
reasoning (Sheeran, 1993).
Concentrates on the nature of action & motive to determine right or
wrong action.
Its priority is obligation and duty in making decision facing ethical
dilemmas.
One should subscribe to a set of moral standards regardless of
possible consequences of inherently right or wrong action (Pojman,
2012).
Therefore, it is also known as a non-consequentialism theory
Deontology theory include Kant’s moral theory

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KANT’S MORAL THEORY
The theory was advocated by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher (1724-
1804).

This moralist approach regards human rationality as the base of ethics.

The moral requirements are based on a standard of rationality known as

‘Categorical Imperative’ (Johnson, 2010).

Three formulation of the imperative are (Garofalo & Gueras, 1999;2003);

 ‘Act according to the maxim that you can will to be a universal law’
 ‘Treat human beings as an end and not as means only’
 ‘Each rational and autonomous being must be considered as a legislator in the
kingdom of ends’

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The imperative’s consistent idea is an action that is
will by all, whereby will is accepted as ethical or vice
versa.
The imperative summed up morality as one hence
served as a commandment from which all obligations
and duties are derived (Amundsen & Andrade, 2009).
This means that the only good reason for doing the
right thing is because of duty, thus duty becomes the
‘operational reason’ for an action or the key element
of a decision to act (BBC, 2014)

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NATURAL LAW THEORY
• Aristotle developed ethical philosophy based on nature
which emphasized that goals are embedded in natural
things as there was an order in nature.
• Natural beings (humans, plants & animals) had a principle
of order within them that directed them toward their
goals under the maxim “the good is that at which all
things aim”.
• Human differ from other natural beings as they have
intelligence.
• What is naturally good for human is to function well and
perfecting their human capacities.
• The ultimate good for human – happiness, blessedness,
prosperity.

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• This theory follows a Judean Christian tradition where Thomas
Aquinas, based his perspective of natural law on a religious
term in which he believed that god created the universe
according to plan and thus put into the natures of things their
natural orientation.
• Their good is to fulfill their natures as this was intended by god.
• He held that natural law was part as divine law.

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TELEOLOGY
Teleology originates from Greek, telos meaning goal or
end.
This approach is based on a moral judgement on the
consequence of action.
Thus also known an consequentialism theory.
An action is ethical when it produces the greatest
benefit compared to any other alternative.
One of the most common forms of ethical deliberation
focuses on the consequences is the Utilitarian theory.

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UTILITARIANISM
The theory is advocate by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills.
It is a consequentialist theory meaning that an action is good, and
moral based on the consequences.
The main idea of utilitarianism is the Principle of Utility where an
action is considered good when it promotes happiness for the
society, right when it maximizes possible good for all persons
affected by the action (Stewart, 1991).
Maximum happiness should be the guide to all actions done by
human.
The famous phrase of ‘the end justifies the mean’.

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 • Emphasised on the greatest benefit an
individual gain through his actions
ACT UTILITARIAN • Actions providing the greatest social good is
better than the law

• Emphasised the adherence to rule in order to

produce the greatest benefit
RULE UTILITARIAN • Actions is guided by the rule in order to
achieve maximization of happiness

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ETHICAL EGOISM
The theory claims that one ought to pursue one’s self interest
exclusively.
An individual do not have any moral duty towards others but only
towards oneself.
The ultimate principle of conduct is the principle of self interest, which
sums all of one’s natural obligations and duties (Rachels, 2013).
It does not however forbid one from helping others as long as the act
benefits oneself, which makes the act right.
Ethical egoism endorses individual who act for their self interest for a
long run benefit. It promotes doing good thing to oneself and avoid
harming oneself.

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It advocates that we divide the world into 2 groups : ourselves
and other people (Rachels, 2013)
The interest of the first group is far superior than the second group.
Category of ethical egoism;
Personal ethical egoism
Individual ethical egoism
Universal ethical egoism

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VIRTUE ETHICS
Virtue comes from ancient Greek, ‘vir’ referring to strength or
manliness and ‘arete’ meaning excellence.
It is a theory concentrating on the notion that moral life is about
developing good character (McKinnon, 2014).
The character of a moral agent is the driving force to ethical
behaviour and does not depend on the consequences of the
action.
Virtue ethics is about how we ought to act and concerned on the
traits of character of a person (Amundsen & Andrade, 2009).

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Ethical dilemma can be tackled using specific moral qualities and become a means to
improve moral behavior in public service (Lynch &Lynch, 2003) whereby lack of
virtue caused unethical behavior in public managers (Lawton & Macaulay, 2004)
Two elements of virtue according to Aristotle’;

• Excellence of character
MORAL VIRTUE • Concerns with how one position himself in acting well

• Excellence of mind
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUE • Concerns with the ability to understand, reason and
judge well

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Aristotle assumed that ‘virtue’ is what human required to flourish
(Stewart, 1991) which leads to the purpose of life which is to live
harmoniously with others (Admunsen & Andrade, 2009).
Therefore, virtue ethics have a fundamental practical application
(Lawton & Macaulay, 2004) and it exists in both action and
character of the person.
Virtue ethics propose that an ethical decision is not made purely on
abstract moral values but related to specific circumstances in which
the decision is made (Van Staveren, 2007).
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