ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (MC 1)

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY – study of the internal and external structure of the body 1. CHEMICAL LEVEL
atoms – simplest level, the body is composed of atoms
BRANCHES OF ANATOMY
(indivisible); basic and smallest unit of matter
GROSS ANATOMY – study of anatomical structures visible to naked molecules – combination of two or more atoms
eye; macroscopic (without microscope); can be studied by two compounds – molecule containing atoms of more than one
general approaches: element
a. SYSTEMIC APPROACH (SYSTEMIC ANATOMY) – study of the
scientific systems of the body (ex.: cardiovascular, nervous, 2. CELLULAR LEVEL – smallest independent units of life; basic
skeletal, and muscular systems, etc…) structural and functional unit of an organism that are composed
b. REGIONAL APPROACH (REGIONAL ANATOMY) – study of of chemicals
different regions of the body (ex.: head, abdomen, arms, etc…)
3. TISSUE LEVEL
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY – cell and molecule level; needs
tissues - group of cells that work together to perform a similar
microscope; can’t be seen by naked eye
function; characteristics of the cell and surrounding materials
• HISTOLOGY - study of tissues
determine the functions of the tissues
HISTOPATHOLOGY – study of tissues to identify cause of
disease FOUR PRIMARY TYPES OF TISSUES
• CYTOLOGY - study of cell; uses microscope EPITHELIUM - covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and
SURFACE ANATOMY (SUPERFICIAL ANATOMY AND VISUAL cavities, and forms glands;
ANATOMY) - study of surface markings of the human body CONNECTIVE - connects, supports, and protects body organs
while distributing blood vessels to other tissues;
SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY MUSCLE - carries information from one part of the body to
another through nerve impulses;
EMBRYOLOGICAL ANATOMY / EMBRYOLOGY – study of prenatal NERVE - contracts to make body parts move and generates heat
development; the first eight weeks of development after fertilization
of human being 4. ORGAN LEVEL
DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY - study of human growth and ORGANS - structures composed of two or more different types
developmental from fertilized egg to mature adult to death of tissues to perform one or more common functions; have
PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY / PATHOLOGY - study of anatomical specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes
changes (from macroscopic to microscopic) due to disease
AUTOPSY - a post mortem (after death) examination of the 5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
body and internal organs performed by a pathologist ORGAN SYSTEMS work cooperatively to perform necessary life
functions; interrelated with each other. If there is a dysfunction
PHYSIOLOGY – study of the processes and functions of the body (ex.: in one organ system, it can have profound effects on other
digestion, respiration, circulation, reproduction, etc…) systems.
SUBDIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY 11 MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY – study of brain and nervous system 1) INTEGUMENTARY (skin) – provides protection, regulates
CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY - study of heart and blood vessels temperature, prevents water loss, help to produce vitamin D
ENDOCRINOLOGY – study of hormones (chemical regulators in the 2) SKELETAL (bones and joints) - provides protection and
blood) and how they control body functions support, allows body movements, produces blood cells,
IMMUNOLOGY – study of body’s defense against disease-causing stores mineral and fat
agents 3) MUSCULAR (muscles) – body movements, maintains posture
RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY – study of functions of the air and produces heat
passageways and lungs 4) LYMPHATIC (immune system) – returns proteins and fluids
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY – study of the functions of the kidneys to blood; carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood;
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY – study of the functional changes associated contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T
with disease and aging cells that protect against disease-causing microbes
5) RESPIRATORY (breathing) - transfers oxygen from inhaled
LEVELS OF THE STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air;
helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids; air flowing
our lungs through vocal cords produces sounds
6) DIGESTIVE (breakdown of food) - achieves physical and
chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients, eliminates
solid wastes
7) NERVOUS (transmitting signals) - generates action
potentials to regulate body activities; detects and changes in
body’s internal and external environments, interprets
changes and responds by causing muscular contractions or
glandular secretions
8) ENDOCRINE (hormones) – regulates body activities by
releasing hormones, chemical messengers transported in
blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target organ
9) CARDIOVASCULAR (circulation) - heart pumps blood
through blood vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrients to
cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells and
helps regulate acid-base balance, temperature, and water
content of body fluids; blood components help defend against
disease and repair damaged blood vessels
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (MC 1)
10) URINARY (eliminate waste) - produces, stores, and BODY FLUIDS
eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulate volume of ✓ dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or
chemical composition of blood; helps maintain the acid-base outside of the cell
balance of fluids; maintains body’s mineral balance; helps ✓ maintaining the volume and composition of it is important
regulate production of red blood cells
INTRACELLULAR FLUID (ICF) - fluid within cells
11) REPRODUCTIVE (reproduction) - gonads produce gametes
(sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism; EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (ECF) - fluid outside cells
gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction a. INTERSTITIAL FLUID - ECF between cells and tissues
and other body processes; associated organs transport and b. BLOOD PLASMA - ECF within blood vessels
store gametes; mammary glands produce milk c. LYMPH FLUID - ECF within lymphatic vessels
d. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) - ECF in the brain and spinal cord
6. ORGANISM LEVEL e. SYNOVIAL FLUID - ECF in joints
ORGANISM consists of collection of organ systems that are f. AQUEOUS HUMOR AND VITREOUS BODY - ECF in eyes
mutually dependent upon one another
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
6 IMPORTANT LIFE PROCESSES
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
1. METABOLISM - all chemical reactions that occur in body cells ✓ a cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is
a. CATABOLISM - breakdown of complex substances into monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, re-evaluated, and
simpler components so on
b. ANABOLISM - building of complex chemical substances
from smaller and simpler components CYCLE OF EVENTS
2. RESPONSIVENESS - ability to sense and respond to stimuli • Body is monitored and re-monitored.
(withdrawal reflex) • Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition.
3. MOVEMENT / CONTRACTILITY - includes body parts (skeletal
muscle) and substances (cardiac and smooth muscle) BASIC COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK SYSTEM
4. GROWTH - increase in size of a body part of organism
1. RECEPTOR - a body structure that monitors changes in a
5. REPRODUCTION - cellular division for growth or repair;
controlled condition and sends input to a control center; also
production of the offspring
called afferent pathway
6. DIFFERENTIATION - development of a cell from an unspecialized
2. CONTROL CENTER - receives the input and sends nerve
to specialized state; cells have specialized structures and
impulses to the effector
functions that differ from precursor cell
3. EFFECTOR - a body structure that receives output from the
control center and produces a response or effect that changes
SURVIVAL NEEDS OF AN ORGANISM
the controlled condition
1. NUTRIENTS – chemicals for energy and cell building 4. VARIABLE – factor in the body that can be modified by the
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins effector
2. OXYGEN – essential for energy release (ATP production)
3. WATER – most abundant chemical in the body site of chemical
reactions
4. NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE – affects rate of chemical
reactions
5. APPROPRIATE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – for adequate
breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

HOMEOSTASIS AND BODY FLUIDS

HOMEOSTASIS
✓ “unchanging sameness”, “staying the same” NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
✓ maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment that is
essential to life NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM - reverses a change in a controlled
✓ condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal condition; most common homeostatic regulation (ex.: regulation of
environment blood pressure)
✓ dynamic condition meant to keep body functions in the narrow
range compatible POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM - strengthens or reinforces a change
in one of the body’s-controlled conditions; rare in the body; used to
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE deal with threat or stress (ex.: normal child birth)
✓ arises when the fine control of a variable factor in the internal
environment is inadequate and its level falls outside the normal BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGIES
range BODY POSITIONS
✓ if the control system cannot maintain homeostasis, an abnormal ✓ a body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine
state develops that may threaten health or even life itself ✓ used in describing the position of the body during specific
physical examinations or surgical procedures
CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS IS CONSTANTLY BEING CHALLENGED:
PRONE POSITION - a lying face down
a. PHYSICAL INSULTS (e.g.: intense heat or lack of oxygen)
b. CHANGES IN THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT (e.g.: a drop in blood
glucose due to lack of food)
c. PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS (e.g.: demands of work or school)

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SUPINE POSITION - a lying face up DEEP = toward the internal of the body part or away from the
surface of the body.
PROXIMAL = nearer or closer to the origination of a structure.
DISTAL = farther from the origination of a structure.

REGIONAL TERMS
REGIONAL TERMS describe by dividing the parts of the body into
different regions that contain structures that are involved in similar
ANATOMICAL POSITION
functions. Two primary terms are used to describe the main regions
ANATOMICAL POSITION - All anatomical descriptions are in of the body:
reference to this position. ➔ AXIAL REGION makes up the main axis of the human body and
✓ subject stands erect facing the observer with the head level includes the head, neck, chest, and trunk
✓ eyes facing forward ➔ APPENDICULAR REGION makes up the parts of the human body
✓ feet flat on the floor directed forward that connect to the axial region; includes the limbs and
✓ arms at their sides, palms forward appendages

DIRECTIONAL TERMS – used to describe the relative position of one

body part to another

BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

BODY PLANES - imaginary flat surfaces that separate the body or
body part into portions
THREE MAJOR PLANES
SAGITTAL PLANE – cut along lengthwise that separates the body’s
(or its organ’s) right and left parts
• MEDIAN (MIDSAGITTAL) PLANE – if the cut is exactly
along the median plane (the middle)
CORONAL (FRONTAL) PLANE – cut along lengthwise that separates
the body’s (or its organ’s) anterior and posterior parts
TRANSVERSE (CROSS) PLANE – cut along crosswise that separates
the body’s (or its organ’s) superior and inferior parts

SUPERIOR / CRANIAL = above.

INFERIOR / CAUDAL = below.
ANTERIOR / VENTRAL = to the front of the body.
POSTERIOR / DORSAL = to the back of the body.
MEDIAL = toward or nearer the middle or midline of the body.
LATERAL = away from the midline or toward the side of the body.
SUPERFICIAL = toward or on the surface of the body.

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SECTIONS OF THE BODY b) ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY – extends from the diaphragm to
the groin and is encircled by the abdominal wall and bones
LONGITUDINAL / VERTICAL SECTION – any plane perpendicular to
and muscles of the pelvis
the transverse plane
▪ ABDOMINAL CAVITY - contains the stomach, spleen,
TRANSVERSE / CROSS SECTION – parts of the body which are cut at liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines
right angles to the longitudinal axis of the body or its parts ▪ PELVIC CAVITY - contains the urinary bladder, internal
organs of reproductive system, and portions of the large
OBLIQUE SECTION – any plane that is not horizontal or vertical; any
intestine
plane that is not cut in any of the sagittal, coronal, or transverse
plane
OTHER BODY CAVITIES:
ORAL (MOUTH) CAVITY - contains the tongue and teeth
NASAL CAVITY - part of the upper airways
ORBITAL CAVITIES - contain the eyeballs and various nerves and
blood vessels
MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES - contain the small bones of the middle ear.
SYNOVIAL CAVITIES - found in freely moveable joints like the large
joints of the shoulder and hip

ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS & REGIONS

BODY CAVITIES
Identification of quadrants and regions in the abdominopelvic cavity
BODY CAVITIES
helps clinicians describe the location of the many abdominal and
✓ spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support
pelvic organs. There are 4 abdominopelvic quadrants and 9 regions.
internal organs
✓ bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the 4 ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
various body cavities from one another
The dividing lines (vertical and horizontal line) between these are
TWO MAJOR BODY CAVITIES centered on the umbilicus (belly button).
i. DORSAL BODY CAVITY - located on the dorsal (posterior) or back 1. RIGHT UPPER QUADRANT (RUQ) – Liver
side of the body 2. LEFT UPPER QUADRANT (LUQ) – Spleen and Left Kidney
a) CRANIAL CAVITY – formed by the cranial bones; protects the 3. RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT (RLQ) – Appendix
brain 4. LEFT LOWER QUADRANTS (LLQ) – Left Ovary (Female)
b) SPINAL (VERTEBRAL) CAVITY - located along the vertebral
column; protects spinal cord
▪ VERTEBRAL CANAL - formed by bones of vertebral
column; contains the spinal cord
MENINGES – layers of protective tissue that line the
cranial cavity and vertebral canal

ii. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY - located on the ventral (anterior) or

front side of the body
a) THORACIC (CHEST) CAVITY - formed by the sternum, ribs,
and the thoracic portion of the bony vertebral column;
stabilized by the internal and external muscles of the chest
▪ MEDIASTINAL CAVITY – located in the central part of the
thoracic cavity
▪ LEFT AND RIGHT PLEURAL CAVITIES – 2 fluid-filled
spaces that surround each lung
▪ PERICARDIAL CAVITY – located itself within the middle
part of the mediastinal cavity in the thoracic cavity

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9 ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS ULTRASOUND SCANNING (SONOGRAPHY) - done using high-
frequency soundwaves; non-invasive and painless
Dividing the abdomen and pelvis into regions is done using a Tic-
Tac-Toe grid. It is a little more complex than using quadrants, but is
RADIONUCLIDE SCANNING - done by giving a radioactive substance
also more specific.
called radionuclide intravenously
1. RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION • Gamma rays emitted by tissues that take up the radionuclide are
2. RIGHT LUMBAR REGION detected by a camera and displayed on a video monitor; color
3. RIGHT ILIAC REGION intensity represents the amount of uptake
4. LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION
5. LEFT LUMBAR REGION SINGLE-PHOTO-EMISSION COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY (SPECT)
6. LEFT ILIAC REGION SCAN - a specialized form to analyze body's organs, tissue and
7. EPIGASTRIC REGION bones.
8. UMBILICAL REGION
9. HYPOGASTRIC REGION POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) SCAN - done by injecting
a substance emitting positively charged particles into the body;
collision between positrons and negatively charged electron in body
tissues produce gamma rays used to form a computer assisted
image
➢ used to study physiology of body structures (metabolism)

ENDOSCOPY - done using a lighted instrument with a lens

projecting an image onto a monitor
i. COLONOSCOPY - study of the interior of the colon
ii. LAPAROSCOPY - study of the organs in the abdominopelvic
cavity
iii. ARTHROSCOPY - study of the interior of a joint (knee)

NON-INVASIVE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES

• used to inspect different aspects of the body; often done to
access structure and function and to search for the presence of
disease

PALPATION - gently touching body surfaces with hands

AUSCULTATION - listening to body sounds with the use of
stethoscope
PERCUSSION - tapping on the body surface with fingertips and
listening to echoes

ANIMAL CELL AND FOUR BASIC KINDS OF TISSUES

MEDICAL IMAGING CELL – microscopic unit of body organization. A typical animal cell
includes a cell membrane, a nucleus, a nuclear membrane,
TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES USED TO CREATE IMAGES OF THE cytoplasm, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi
HUMAN BODY apparatus, centrioles, and lysosomes.
✓ allows visualization of structures inside the body
✓ diagnosis of anatomical and physiological disorders

RADIOGRAPHY - done using x-rays to produce an image of interior

structures; inexpensive and quick; conventional radiography (x-
rays) has been in use since the late 1940's
• Hollow structures appear black or gray
• Do not pass easily through dense structure (bone)
o At low dose, useful for soft tissue (breast)
o Mammography (breast)
o Bone densitometry (bone density)

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) - done using an extremely

powerful magnetic field; a safe procedure but cannot be used on
patients containing metal
➢ 2D and 3D color images can be viewed on a video monitor
➢ used for differentiating normal and abnormal tissues (tumors,
brain abnormalities, blood flow)
➢ protons in body fluid align with field

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) SCAN - done using a computer to

organize x-rays to form a 3D image; used to visualize soft tissue in
more detail than conventional radiography
➢ tissue intensities show varying degrees of gray
➢ whole-body CT scans expose the body to a high dose of x-rays

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (MC 1)
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A “TYPICAL” ANIMAL CELL ❖ stratified – multiple layers
❖ forms epidermis
1) NUCLEUS - central role of the cell; stores information and
distributed to guide the life processes of the cell
2) CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM TISSUE
2) NUCLEAR MEMBRANE – separate the chromosomes from the
❖ simple – one cell thick
cell’s cytoplasm; double layer that encloses the cell’s nucleus,
❖ roughly cube shaped
where the chromosomes reside
❖ line ducts in kidneys, etc., where
3) CELL MEMBRANE - surrounds and separates the cell from its
reabsorption and secretory
environment; allows certain materials to pass through it as they
activities take place
enter or leave the cell
4) CYTOPLASM – semi-fluid found inside the cell but outside the
3) COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM TISSUE
nucleus
❖ simple – one cell thick
5) MITOCHONDRIA – powerhouses of the cell; provide energy
❖ column shaped (long & narrow)
wherever it is needed for carrying on the cellular functions
❖ line digestive tract where
6) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - network of membranes, cavities,
reabsorption & secretion occurs
and canals; helps in the transfer of materials from one part of
❖ pseudo-stratified – gives the
the cell to the other
appearance of more than one
7) RIBOSOMES - protein factories of the cell; composed mainly of
layer of columnar epithelial cells
nucleic acids which help make proteins according to instructions
provided by the genes.
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUES
8) CENTRIOLES - help in the process of cell division.
• most abundant & widely distributed tissue
9) LYSOSOMES – membrane-bound spheres which contain
enzymes that can digest intracellular structures (bacteria)
Functions:
10) GOLGI APPARATUS - a factory in which proteins received from
• connects, binds, and supports structures (tendons, ligaments,
the endoplasmic reticulum are further processed and sorted for
etc.); protects & cushions organs and tissues; insulates fat;
transport to their eventual destinations: lysosomes, the plasma
transports substances (blood)
membrane, or secretion
SPECIFIC TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
CELL MULTIPLICATION (MITOSIS)
1) ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
The usual process of cell multiplication is called MITOSIS. There are
❖ honeycomb or chicken wire
two important factors to consider: from one cell, we get two new
appearance
cells. The genes of the new cells are identical (for all practical
❖ stores energy (fat)
purposes) to the genes of the original cell.
❖ insulates
❖ supports & protects organs
HYPERTROPHY & HYPERPLASIA
HYPERTROPHY - there is an increase in the size of the individual
cells; no new cells are formed (ex.: enlargement of muscles due to 2) BONE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
exercise by the increased diameter of the individual striated muscle ❖ tree ring-like appearance
fibers) ❖ supports & protects mineral storage
❖ fat storage
HYPERPLASIA - there is an increase in the total number of cells
❖ blood cell production
(ex.: cancer (leukemia))
ATROPHY - seen when there is a loss of cellular mass
3) HYALINE CARTILAGE
FOUR BASIC KINDS OF TISSUES ❖ supports
while providing
1. EPITHELIUM TISSUES
flexibility
Locations:
❖ absorbs
• covers body and organs inside body cavities; lines cavities,
compression
tubes, ducts, and blood vessels inside the body
between bones in
joints (articular
Functions:
cartilage)
• protection from physical and chemical injury and against
❖ holds open
microbial invasion; contains receptors which respond to
respiratory passages
stimuli; filters, secretes, re-absorbs materials, and secretes
❖ most abundant type of cartilage in body
serous fluids to lubricate structures
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
SPECIFIC TYPES OF EPITHELIUM TISSUES
• associated with the bones of the skeleton, the heart and in the
1) SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM TISSUE walls of the hollow organs of the body

Functions:
❖ movement, locomotion, maintains posture, produces heat, facial
expressions, pumps blood, peristalsis

SPECIFIC TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES

1) SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
❖ simple – one cell thick
❖ forms solid layer of cells which line blood vessels and
body cavities & cover organs in body cavities

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❖ muscle fibers (cells)
long, parallel &
cylindrical
❖ with many nuclei
(multinucleate)
❖ striations (cross stripes
run perpendicular to the
cells)
❖ produce voluntary
movement
❖ locomotion and heat

2) CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

(MYOCARDIUM)
❖ only found in heart
❖ it performs coordinated contractions
that allows the heart to pump blood
through the circulatory system
❖ produces involuntary movements

3) SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

❖ located in walls of hollow visceral organs (such as the liver,
pancreas, and intestines), except the heart, appear spindle-
shaped
❖ under involuntary control

4. NERVOUS TISSUE
• main component of the nervous system (i.e.: brain, spinal
cord & nerves)

Functions:
• regulates & controls body functions; generates & transmits
nerve impulses; supports, insulates and protects impulse
generating neurons

SPECIFIC TYPE OF NERVOUS TISSUE

NEURON
❖ branching cells with many long processes
❖ large central nucleus
❖ transmit impulses from one area of the body to other areas
❖ regulate activities through neuron impulses

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