SUBJECT: NAVIGATION

Q. Define GC & RL.

Ans. Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are those of
the earth itself. It is circle of the surface of the sphere whose centre and diameter are
that of earth. A plane of the great circle divides the earth in two equal parts. Great circle
distance is the shortest distance along the arc of the great circle however this is not
constant.

Meridian and its anti-meridian make a great circle.

Rhumb Line: Rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts
all the meridians on the earth at same angle. It is curve concaved to the nearer pole.
Rhumb line track is constant between two positions but the distance is longer.
Equator and meridian are the only two examples on the surface of the earth which are
great circles as well as rhumb line.

All latitudes are rhumb lines. Equator is the only latitude which is RL & GC.

Q. What is Convergency and Conversion Angle? Does convergency increase or decrease

towards pole?
Ans. Convergency: All the meridians on the surface of the earth from equator to the pole
converge and they make angle at the pole. The angle of inclination between any two
meridians is known as convergency.

At equator meridians are parallels to each other, therefore convergency is zero. At the
pole they make maximum angle, the angle is change of longitude.

Zero convergency at equator and maximum at the pole. Therefore it varies as Sin
latitude.

Conversion Angle: The angular difference between RL & GC bearing/track is

conversion angle. CA = C/2. The relation between GC & RL will depend upon the
hemisphere and bearing/direction.

Q. Why GC track is not a constant track?

Ans. Due earth’s convergency. Refer Oxford P.30

Q. What is the variation and convergency of VIDP?

Ans. Variation can be checked from VIDP ground chart. Convergency is a relative term,
question is incomplete.

Q. What is TMG?
Ans. Track Made Good is the actual path of the aircraft over the surface of a track as distinct
from the intended track to be flown. It is often indicated by a double arrow on charts
and maps.
Q. Aircraft requires headwind component of at least 10 knots and has a crosswind limit is
of 35 knots. The angle between the runway and wind direction is 60 0. Calculate
maximum and minimum allowable wind speed.
Ans. Formulae to calculate wind is:

Headwind/Tailwind = Wind Velocity X Cos ɸ

X Wind = Wind Velocity X Sin ɸ
(ɸ is the angle between the runway direction and the wind)

Question states that aircraft requires atleast 10 knots of headwind component to

takeoff, hence,

10 = WV COS 600
OR WV = 20 Kt. (Minimum)

35 = WV SIN 600
OR WV = 40 Kt. (Maximum)

Runway crosswind value Thumb rule:

Sin 10=.17
Sin 15=.3
Sin 30=.5
Sin 45=.7
Sin 60=.8
Sin 75=.9
Sin 90=10

Q. What is the difference between True North, Magnetic North, Grid North and Compass
North?
Ans. True North: True north (Geodetic North) is the direction along the earth's surface
towards the geographic North Pole. It is defined as the point in the northern
hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets the Earth's surface.

Magnetic North: The direction indicated by a magnetic compass. Magnetic North moves
slowly with a variable rate.

Grid North: This is the direction of a grid line which is parallel to the central meridian on
the National Grid. Grid north is a navigational term referring to the direction northwards
along the grid lines of a map projection. It is contrasted with true north (the direction of
the North Pole) and magnetic north (the direction of the Magnetic North Pole).

It is important to note that what people call the "Magnetic North on the Earth" is really
the South pole of the earth's magnet, since the "North-seeking Pole" of a lodestone or
small magnet (what we call "the North Pole") is attracted to it (and un-like poles attract).

Q. What is the difference between KM & NM?

Ans. Kilometer is 1/10000th of the average distance on the Earth between the Equator and
either pole. Thus there are 10000 km between the equator and either Pole.
 Nautical Mile is that length of arc of a Great Circle which subtends an angle of one
minute at the centre of curvature of the Earth’s surface. Because the earth is flattened
at the Poles, the radius of curvature is increased and a greater arc is required to subtend
an angle of one minute at the centre of Curvature, hence a nautical mile is longest at the
pole at about 6108 feet and shortest at the equator and measures about 6046 ft. The
average value taken is 6076 ft.

The circumference of the earth can be calculated by

Departure = Change of longitude (Min) X Cos Latitude
=360 X 60 X Cos 0 = 21600 NM

Q. Flying on the equator from 10’E to 11’E, how many feet do you cover?
Ans. 1 NM at Equator = 6046 feet
1 NM at 450 NS = 6076 feet
0
1 NM at 90 Pole = 6108 feet

Q. Why Compass Swing is applied to compass?

Ans. Refer Oxford P.108 & P179. Any ferromagnetic material (iron or steel) or electrical
circuits in an aircraft may well have a magnetic field which affects the compass, hence
the direction indicated by the compass needle is generally not Magnetic North. Non-
ferromagnetic material, e.g. brass, aluminum, will not have a magnetic field and so will
not affect the compass. Similarly significant changes in latitudes or maintenance may
also introduce some deviation in the compass.

The angle between Magnetic North and the direction indicated by a compass needle is
called the angle of deviation. Deviation varies with heading so it has to be measured on
a series of different headings. This is usually done by conducting a compass swing. Once
deviation has been reduced as far as possible (by successive adjustment of screw on
different headings) the residual deviation is then recorded on a compass deviation card,
which is located in the aircraft.

Q. How can declination or variation be calculated?

Ans. http://www.geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/mag_fld/magdec-eng.php

Declination is calculated using the current World Magnetic Model (WMM) or the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) model.

For aviation usage, it is given on Jeppesen charts for ready reference.

Canadian topographic charts contain a diagram in the margin which gives the
declination for the year in which the chart was published. Beneath the diagram is a
statement informing the user about the annual change of declination. By multiplying the
annual change by the number of years that have elapsed since the chart was published
and adding the total change to the published declination value, the user obtains the
present day declination.

Q. What are RNAV specification with regard to aircraft approach an aerodrome?

Ans. RNAV Route to Initial approach fix RNAV5;
IAF to Final approach FIX RNAV1;
FAF to Landing RNAV 0.3;
Missed approach again is RNAV1

Q. What is 1/60 Rule? Calculate aircraft height which is 10 nm away from the airfield.
Ans. The 1 in 60 rule states that if an aircraft has travelled sixty miles then an error in track of
one mile is approximately a 10 error. However, precise figure of this error is 0.960.

Height = Angle X Range X 101 = 3 X 10 X 101 = 3030 ft. AGL.

Q. Define C.P.
Ans. It is that stage of flight from where aircraft takes same TIME either to reach destination
or return back to base irrespective of ground speed.
CP in zero wind:
Only in nil wind conditions, CP lies midway.
CP in tailwind conditions:
In this condition, CP lies towards the base, i.e. distance to CP is less than half.
CP in headwind conditions:
In this condition, CP lies towards the destination i.e. distance to CP is more than half
from base.

Q. Define PNR.
Ans. It is a fuel problem. PNR is that stage of the flight upto which aircraft can fly and return
back to base within given endurance. Distance to PNR is maximum in NIL wind only.
With the presence of winds (headwind or tailwind) distance to PNR reduces i.e. less than
NIL wind.

Q. If a pilot is unable to maintain RVSM, what is the RT phraseology?

Ans. Unable RVSM due Equipment / Due Turbulence.

Q. What is difference between Track (M) and Track (T)?

Ans. Variation

Q. What is the difference between MEL and MMEL?

Ans. While the MMEL is for an aircraft type family, the MEL is tailored to the operator's
specific aircraft and operating environment and may be dependent upon the route
structure, geographic location, and number of airports where spares and maintenance
capability are available etc. The MMEL cannot address these individual variables or
standard terms such as "as required by regulations". It is for these reasons that a MMEL
cannot be approved for use as a MEL. MEL does not cover essential Airworthiness items
such as Engine, Landing Gear, Flaps, Wings, Flight Control Surface etc. Categories for
different classes are:

A : As per remarks
B : 3 Days
C : 10 Days
D : 120 Days
 MEL Purpose: The MEL is a joint operations and maintenance document prepared for or
by an operator to:

1. Identify the minimum equipment and conditions for an aircraft to maintain the
Certificate of Airworthiness in force and to meet the operating rules for the type
of operation;
2. Define operational procedures necessary to maintain the required level of
safety and to deal with inoperative equipment; and
3. Define maintenance procedures necessary to maintain the required level of
safety and procedures necessary to secure any inoperative equipment.

Q. When is LVP enforced?

Ans. The point at which LVPs should be implemented will vary from one aerodrome to
another depending on local conditions and facilities available. The point at which LVPs
are to be implemented must be clearly defined and should be related to a specific RVR
or cloud ceiling measurement. Aerodromes may define higher values for RVR and ceiling
than the ICAO standard depending on local circumstances

In Delhi, whenever RVR (either TDZ, MID or END) drops down to below 800m and/or
ceiling is below 200 feet, LVP will be enforced (Refer Jeppesen VIDP Chart 10-1P1).

A take-off performed on a runway, where the RVR is less than 400 m, is termed as Low
Visibility Take-off (LVTO).

Q. When is the RVR reported?

Ans. Jeppesen P.377 The runway visual range shall be reported in meters throughout periods
when either the visibility or the runway visual range is less than 1500m.

Q. What are RVR restrictions?

Ans. The touch-down zone RVR is always controlling. If reported and relevant, the mid-point
and stop-end RVR are also controlling. (All Weather Operation Circular)

Q. Communication failure procedures for VIDP?

Ans. Standard communication failure procedures as per AIP Enroute 1.9. Also refer Jeppesen
VIDP Chart 10-1-P13 (Arrival) & Chart 10-1-P18 (Departure)

Q. How is take-off alternate decided?

Ans. A take-off alternate is required to be designated, whenever weather conditions at
aerodrome of departure are lower than applicable landing AOM at that airport
regardless of CAT II / III capability of the aircraft. Under such weather conditions, landing
back, after departure, below CAT I conditions may be precluded due degradation of
aircraft equipment / performance after take-off, or might not possible to land back at
aerodrome of departure due performance or any other reasons.

A takeoff alternate needs to be designated; when RVR is less than 550m (regardless of
fail-passive / fail-operational aircraft) OR when visibility / RVR at departure airfield is less
 than landing AOM at the same airfield OR when aircraft cannot land back at airfield of
departure due performance / due any other reasons.
As per CAR Section 8, Series ‘C’, Part I, on All Weather Operations (AWO), The take-off
alternate aerodrome, for two-engine aeroplanes, in relation to the departure
aerodrome, shall be:

⮚ Located within one hour flight time at a one-engine inoperative cruise speed.
⮚ Take-off alternate weather (actual and forecast) shall not be less than ILS CAT I
minima

Q. What are the types of scales?

Ans. There are three types of scales:
RF (Representative Fraction)
Statement in Words
A Graduated Scale (Printed on the map)

Q. Jeppesen charts are based on which projection? What are the properties of Lamberts
Conformal Charts (LCC)? Where else do you use it other than aviation?
Ans. The chart is specifically devised for use in middle latitudes. Two parallels which are 1/6
from the top and 1/6 from the bottom of the area to be projected are made standard
parallels. Parallels are concentric arcs with apex arc in the centre, not of equidistance
to each other. Meridians are straight lines converging towards the pole and are
correctly spaced.

Scale: Scale is correct at selected two standard parallels. In between the standard
parallel it contracts (RF increases) and expands outside the standard parallel (RF
decreases). For practical purposes it is considered a constant scale. On Lambert chart
scale is least at poles.

Convergency: Correct at parallel of origin. Towards the pole, it reduces and towards the
equator it increases.

Rhumb Line: Parallels and meridians are RLs elsewhere it is a curve concaved to the
pole.
Great Circle: GC is a straight line near the parallel or origin. Away from it, it is a very
gentle curve, concaved to the parallel of origin. However, for practical purposes, it is
taken as a straight line.

Limitations: The chart size is chosen in such a manner that the scale error is less than
1%. An Artificial grid is required to be superimposed for plotting purposes.

Uses:
It is used worldwide for air routes. Jeppesen charts are based on this projection only. On
these charts, air route segments are GC segments and track mentioned in any segment
and bearing measurement are correct and measured at the mid longitude or the
segment. No convergency/conversion angle is required to plot VOR radio bearing.

Advantages over Mercator:

 Plotting of radio bearing is easier. Constant Scale can be used for measure the
distances. GC tracks can be flown. It can be used in higher latitudes. Mariners most
frequently use a Mercator projection. The Mercator is the most common projection
used in maritime navigation, primarily because rhumb lines plot as straight lines.

In the United States, the National Geodetic Survey uses Lambert Conformal Conic
Projection to define the grid-coordinate systems used in several states (primarily those
that are elongated west to east).

Q. Find the standard parallels in a lamberts chart.

Ans. See Jeppesen Enroute Chart ME (H/L) 7, its states Parallel at 9 0 and 350.

Q. What is CANPA? How is it useful?

Ans. Constant Angle Non-Precision Approaches CANPA advocates making a stabilized
constant angle descent rather than a quick descent to the MDA followed by flying level
at the MDA.

CANPA offers a significant safety improvement for non-precision approaches under all
conditions by providing a more stabilized flight path and reduced crew workload. The
resulting stabilized approach from the FAF to the runway greatly simplifies the flight
crew’s task on final approach and allows them more time to focus on acquiring the
runway environment and conducting the landing. This in turn results in a higher success
rate in landing off non-precision approaches, besides supporting the ICAO goal of having
all approaches stabilized by 1000 feet AGL in IMC.

There are three key elements to the CANPA brief:

Computed Landing Altitude: Reference landing altitude should be 50 feet over the
runway threshold (TDZE+50’)

Computed Touch Down Position: Used to determine the zero distance reference. From
this point, the altitude checks at various distances from runway should be worked out, if
not available from the approach chart.

Computed Descent Rate: All approaches are to be flown at a computed constant

descent rate to a Derived Decision Altitude (Height) DDA (H). A descent rate correction
of not more than +/- 300 fpm may be made during the final approach. If more than +/-
300 fpm correction is required on the final approach, the approach is considered
unstabilized and a go-around should be initiated. (Momentary corrections exceeding +/-
300 fpm do not require a go-around).

At DDA (H), if the required visual reference is not established, an immediate missed
approach must be initiated. Aircraft should climb on track to MAP, and then follow the
published missed approach procedure.

Q. How do you carry out a CANPA approach if FAF is not published? How is the FAF crossing
height calculated?
Ans. Where a FAF is not defined in the chart, a pseudo FAF can be worked out on the
inbound track, based on the initial approach/intermediate altitude. From this point, a
rate of descent can be computed, ideally for a 3 degree glide path.

A straight-in approach may be conducted if the pseudo FAF and the distance of the
aircraft from touchdown can be determined using any of the following aids DME, FMS,
GPS, ATC Radar.

Q. Why is 50 feet added to MDA to calculate DDH in a CANPA approach?

Ans. If a go around is initiated at MDA while descending, the aircraft may go below the MDA
during the missed approach maneuver, which is not allowed. To compensate for this,
the operators must add a margin of at least 50 feet to the MDA and call it a Derived
Decision Altitude (Height), so that executing a missed approach at the DDA (H) will not
cause the aircraft to descend below the MDA.

Q. Why is 50 feet not added to the DH in an ILS approach if the same if done for a CANPA
approach to calculate the DDH?
Ans. As per the definition of DA, missed approach should be commenced upon reaching the
DA incase visual reference is not available. No straight and level flight in such a case
waiting for the visual cue. DA has been catered for this dip down. Also since it’s a
precision approach, vertical guidance is available.

Q. Define Decision Altitude (DA).

Ans. Decision Altitude (MSL) is mentioned on approach chart at which a decision must be
made during an ILS approach or PAR instrument approach to either continue the
approach or to proceed for missed approach.

Q. Define Decision Height (DH).

Ans. Height referenced to the threshold elevation (AGL).

Q. Explain DA & DH.

Ans. Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH) is a specified altitude or height in the
precision approach or approach with vertical guidance at which a missed approach must
be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been
established. Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level and decision height
(DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation. For convenience where both expressions
are used they may be written in the form “decision altitude/height” and abbreviated
“DA/H”.

Where DH is referenced to threshold elevation, Circle to Approach Minima refers to

airport elevation.

Q. What is the meaning of DAH on an approach plate?

Ans. DAH means decision height taken on the radio altimeter.

Q. Define Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).

Ans. The lowest altitude expressed in feet above MSL on which descent is authorized on final
approach or during circle to land when doing non-precision approach i.e. without glide
slope.

Q. What are the domestic routes on Jeppesen enroute chart? And which of them are only
one way
Ans. HVJW are domestic routes. HV are one way routes.

Q. How would you calculate a Runway Slope and what is the maximum limit?
Ans. Maximum slope allowed is ±2%. It can be calculated by

Difference of Elevation / Runway Length *100

Q. How to calculate climb gradient

Ans. Climb Gradient = ROC/GS x 0.98 (0.98 is derived from 60X100/6080)
Climb Gradient = ROC/GS (Rule of Thumb)

Q. What is the climb gradient of your aircraft?

Ans. If the average rate of climb from ground to FL410 is taken as 1400 ft/min at the ground
speed of 300 kt, it comes out to be 4.6%.

Q. If a climb gradient is given, how would you calculate the required climb ft/min.
Ans. An approximate value for the required feet/minute can be calculated by taking the
groundspeed in knots and multiplying it by the required % gradient.

So for example to get a 5% gradient at 100 knots ground speed requires 100 x 5 = 500
feet/minute ROC.

This is based on the fact that 1 knot = approximately 100 feet/minute. 1 knot is actually
101.3 feet/per minute so a precise figure in the above example would be 506.5
feet/minute ROC. But 500 feet/minute is reasonable approximation.

Q. What is TCH?
Ans. Threshold Crossing Height. Height of the effective visual glide path over the threshold.

Q. What is MEHT?
Ans. Minimum Eye Height over threshold. Lowest height over the threshold of the visual on
glide path indication. MEHT or TCH is shown (when known) when less than 60’ for the
upwind bar of a VASI (3 bar) system or less than 25’ for all other systems including PAPI.

Q. What is the difference between ILS Critical Area & ILS Sensitive Area?
Ans. ILS critical area: An area of defined dimensions about the localizer and glide path
antennas where vehicles, including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations. The
critical area is protected because the presence of vehicles and/or aircraft inside its
boundaries will cause unacceptable disturbance to the ILS signal-in-space.

ILS sensitive area: An area extending beyond the critical area where the parking and/or
movement of vehicles, including aircraft, are controlled to prevent the possibility of
 unacceptable interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations. The sensitive area is
protected to provide protection against interference caused by large moving objects
outside the critical area but still normally within the airfield boundary.

Q. What is SLOP?
Ans. The flight crew may apply Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure in remote continental
airspace within Non-radar airspace when the aircraft is equipped with automatic offset
tracking capability. Within non-radar airspace, the strategic lateral offset shall be
established at a distance of 1 NM or 2 NM (Maximum 2NM) to the right of the centre
line of the route relative to the direction of flight.

In airspace where the use of lateral offsets has been authorized, pilots are not required
to inform Air Traffic Control (ATC) that an offset is being applied. Special Procedures to
mitigate Wake Turbulence Encounters and Distracting Aircraft System Alerts have
been provided in the Oceanic Airspace of the Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai FIR.

Wake turbulence is likely to be experienced by the lower of two aircraft when it arrives
approximately 15-30 nm behind an opposite direction aircraft which has crossed directly
overhead on the same route.

Q. What is Converted Meteorological Visibility (CMV)?

Ans. A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the reported meteorological
visibility, as converted in accordance with the specified requirements in the CAR.

In cases where the RVR is not reported, a pilot may derive RVR/CMV by using a
mathematical conversion depending upon the type of approach lighting and day/night
conditions. CMV shall not be used for take-off, or for calculating any other required
RVR minimum less than 800 m, or for visual approach / circling approach, or when
reported RVR is available. CMV can only be used by Flight Crew in-flight.

The RVR/CMV derived from the table below may be used by Flight Crew to commence
or continue an approach to the applicable DA/MDA.

Hi Approach & Lighting : Day 1.5; Night 2.0

Any other type of Lighting : Day 1.0; Night 1.5
No Lighting : Day 1.0; Night Not Applicable.

Q. What is Approach Ban?

Ans. Commencement and Continuation of Approach (Approach Ban Policy)

An instrument approach will not be commenced if the reported RVR/Visibility is below

the applicable minimum. If, after commencing an instrument approach, the reported
RVR/Visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach shall not be continued:

⮚ Below 1000 ft above the aerodrome; or

⮚ Into the final approach segment in the case where the DA/H or MDA/H is more
than 1000 ft above the aerodrome;
 ⮚ If, after passing 1000 ft above the aerodrome elevation, the reported
RVR/visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be
continued to DA/H or MDA/H.

The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be
completed provided that the required visual reference is established at the DA/H or
MDA/H and is maintained.

Q. In NDB chart for Runway 07 Chennai, visibility minima for Cat C and Cat D aircraft is
published as 3400 and 5000 m respectively. If prevailing visibility is 3400m, can the
approach be carried out for a Cat B category aircraft?
Ans. Since Cat B aircraft is a slower speed aircraft, minima will remain same or may even be
lower than Cat C or Cat D.

Q. What is the difference between Straight in Approach vs. Straight in Landing?

Ans. Straight-In Approach: An approach with the final approach track aligned within 15
degrees for Category ‘C’ and ‘D’ aircraft and within 30 degrees for Category ‘A’ and ‘B’
aircraft of the extended centerline of the runway of intended runway. An instrument
approach wherein final approach is begun without first having executed a procedure
turn not necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or made to straight-in landing
minimums. A straight-in approach simply means that you don’t fly a procedure turn or
holding-in-lieu-of procedure turn. To fly a straight-in approach you must ensure that
you are approaching the final approach fix from a direction that does not require a
procedure turn, or you have been cleared for a straight in approach. A straight-in
approach has nothing to do with the landing procedure. A straight-in approach can be
made to a circle to land procedure.

Straight-In Landing: A landing made on a runway aligned within 30 degrees of the final
approach course following completion of an instrument approach. Straight-in landings
are landings made to a runway aligned with the approach procedure.

Any circle to land is not a straight-in landing.

Q. Define PANS-OPS. What is the difference between PANS-OPS3 and 4?

Ans. PANS-OPS stands for Procedures for Air Navigation Services. It indicates that the state
has specified that the approach procedure complies with ICAO Document 8168, Volume
II, First or Second Edition.

PANS-OPS3: Further indicates that holding speeds to be used are those specified in
ICAO Document 8168, Volume II, Third Edition.
PANS-OPS4: Further indicates that the acceleration segment criteria have been
deleted, as formerly published in ICAO Document 8168, Volume II, First, Second or Third
Editions.

Q. What is MNPS?
Ans. MNPS stands for Minimum Navigation Performance Specification. Aircraft operating in
the North Atlantic airspace are required to meet a minimum navigation performance
specification (MNPS). The MNPS specification has intentionally been excluded from PBN
 because of its mandatory nature and because future MNPS implementations are not
envisaged.

Q. What are the different positions of the transponder switch in your aircraft and what
does each one mean
Ans. OFF / STANDBY / TA / RA

Q. If you have a glide slope failure what are the indications in your cockpit. How do you
know if it is a Rx or Tx that has failed.
Ans. GS. No indication in the cockpit to find out whether Rx or Tx has failed.

Q. What is MORA? How is MORA calculated?

Ans. This is an altitude derived by Jeppesen. The MORA provides known obstruction
clearance 10NM either side of the route centerline including a 10NM radius beyond the
radio fix reporting or mileage break defining the route segment. The Route MORA
altitude provides reference point clearance within 10NM of the route centerline
(regardless of the route width) and end fixes. Route MORA values clear all reference
points by 1000ft in areas where the highest reference points are 5000ft MSL or lower.
Route MORA values clear all reference points by 2000ft in areas where the highest
reference points are 5001ft MSL or higher. When a Route MORA is shown along a route
as “unknown” it is due to incomplete or insufficient information. MORA on Jeppesen
Charts is shown as 1300a (Remember MORA A).

Q. What is the difference between Grid MORA and MORA?

Ans. Grid Minimum Offroute Altitude (Grid MORA) is an altitude derived by Jeppesen or
provided by State Authorities. The Grid MORA altitude provides terrain and man-made
structure clearance within the section outlined by latitude and longitude lines. MORA
does not assure navaid signal coverage or communication coverage.

Grid MORA is for a particular quadrant on Jeppesen Chart; whereas, MORA is for an
airway. Grid MORA values derived by Jeppesen clear all terrain and man-made
structures by 1000 feet in areas where the highest elevations is 5000 feet MSL or lower
and by 2000 feet in areas where the highest elevations is 5001 feet MSL or higher.

When a Grid MORA is shown as “Unsurveyed” it is due to incomplete or insufficient

information. Grid MORA values followed by a +/- denote doubtful accuracy, but are
believed to provide sufficient reference point clearance. However, tolerance of this can
always be cross-checked with the Route MORA or MOCA.

Values below 10,000 ft will be depicted in Green Color; Values 10,000 ft and above will
be depicted in Magenta Color (Related to the use of Oxygen). Earlier this benchmark
used to be 14000 ft.

Q. Define MEA
Ans. Minimum Enroute IFR Altitude (MEA) - The lowest published altitude between radio
fixes that meets obstacle clearance requirements between those fixes and in many
countries assures acceptable navigational signal coverage. The MEA applies to the
entire width of the airway, segment, or route between the radio fixes defining the
 airway, segment, or route. An MEA will assure a clearance of at least 1000 feet over
obstructions or terrain situated within a corridor of at least 5 NM at either side of the
track. MEA on Jeppesen Charts is shown as 2500 or FL40 or with arrow when it is
directional. GPS MEA is suffixed with G eg. 7500G.

Q. Does MEA between two fixes guarantee two way communications when flying between
the two fixes?
Ans. No. MEA assures acceptable navigational coverage and meets the obstacle clearance
requirement. The minimum altitude at which reception will be adequate is MRA.

Q. What is MOCA? What is MORA? State the difference between the two. Who derives
MOCA and MORA?
Ans. Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude or MOCA is derived by Jeppesen. It is the
lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off airway
routes, or route segments which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire
route segment and assures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 22NM of
a VOR. MOCA on Jeppesen Charts is suffixed with T and shown as 4000T (Remember
MOCA T). The MOCA is a true altitude above MSL. It does not take into account the
means of measuring aircraft altitude. If a pressure altimeter is used for this purpose, the
reading must be corrected for temperature and pressure datum. MORA does not
provide for navaid signal coverage or communication coverage.

Q. What is Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)?

Ans. MRA is the lowest altitude which is mentioned on the Jeppesen Chart as MRA at which
an intersection can be determined. OR MRA is the lowest altitude above sea level at
which acceptable navigational signal coverage is received to determine the intersection.

Q. Which one is higher MOCA or MEA?

Ans. MEA is higher than MOCA. MEA assures acceptable navigational coverage, whereas
MOCA assures acceptable navigational coverage only within 22NM of a VOR.

Q. What is Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA)?

Ans. The lowest altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must cross when proceeding in
the direction of a higher Minimum Enroute IFR Altitude MEA.

Q. What is Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA)?

Ans. The maximum authorized altitude (MAA) is the highest altitude at which the airway can
be flown without receiving conflicting navigation signals from NAVAIDs operating on
the same frequency.

Q. What is Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA)?

Ans. Altitude depicted on instrument approach, SID or STAR charts and identified as the
minimum safe altitude which provides a 1000 feet obstacle clearance within a 25 NM (or
other value as stated) radius from the navigational facility upon which MSA is
predicated. This altitude is for Emergency Use Only and does not necessarily guarantee
NAVAID reception. When the MSA is divided into sectors, the altitudes in these sectors
are referred to as minimum sector altitudes. The establishment of minimum sector
altitude does not preclude an aircraft to approach from below, provided, its position has
 been fixed and it is approaching in conformity with an established instrument approach
procedure or when being radar vectored.

Q. Define mountainous area.

Ans. Mountainous Area (ICAO) - An area of changing terrain profile where the changes of
terrain elevation exceed 3000ft within a distance of 10NM.

Q. Define Minimum Holding Altitude (MHA).

Ans. The lowest altitude prescribed for holding pattern which assures navigation signal
coverage, communication and meets the obstacle clearance requirement.

Summary:

MORA 10nm Entire Route Suffix A eg. 1300a

(Jeppesen either side
) of the
entire
Route
MEA 5nm Either Between Two 2500 or FL40 or with Acceptable
(Jeppesen Side of the Radio Fixes arrow when it is Navigation
) Airway directional. GPS MEA Coverage
is suffixed with G eg.
7500G.
MOCA Not written Between Two Suffixed with T e.g. Acceptable
(Jeppesen in Jeppesen VOR Radio 4000T navigational signal
) could be Fixes coverage only
same as within 22NM of a
MEA 5nm VOR
*Only GRID MORA is provided by Jeppesen or State Authorities, rest all by Jeppesen Only
SUBJECT: GENERAL

Q. What is Tetrahedron?
Ans. It’s a Ground-based, free-rotating, triangular-shaped wind direction indicator, generally
placed near a runway, often lighted at major airports.

Q. What is Tee?
Ans. It was used in past to indicate the direction of runway in use in old time and can be
illuminated in night. It still exists at airport like Jaipur (See Ground Chart, near wind-
sock).

Q. What are the categories of Aircraft as per speed?

Ans. A : Less than 90
B : 91-120
C : 121-140
D : 141-165
E : 165-210 or above

Q. What is D-ATIS?
Ans. Many airports also employ the use of Digital ATIS (or D-ATIS). D-ATIS is a text-based,
digitally transmitted version of the ATIS audio broadcast. It is accessed via a data link
service such as the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)
and displayed on an electronic display in the aircraft.

Q. What are ILS back course approaches?

Ans. These are depicted on Jeppesen charts as a full black arrow (down portion). The
unshielded localizer transmits in both directions to give course guidance. Because the
glide slope is not transmitted on the back side of the localizer, a back course approach is
classified as a non-precision approach as it has no vertical guidance. The glideslope
indications during a back course approach must always be ignored.

This type of approach typically is found at smaller airports that do not have ILS
approaches on both ends of the runway, where often the older localizer antennas are
less directional. These transmit a signal from the back that is sufficient enough to be
used in a back course approach. Newer localizer antennas are highly directional, and
often cannot be used for a back course approach.

Q. Why temperature limit is mentioned on Cochin GNSS chart?

Ans. The RNP AR approach chart will identify outside air temperature limits applicable to
operators using barometric vertical navigation (Baro-VNAV). Cold temperatures reduce
the effective glide path angle while high temperatures increase the effective glide path
angle without cockpit indication of the variation.

Temperature affects the aircraft’s altitude indications and the effect is similar to high
and low pressure changes, although not as significant. When temperature is higher
than the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), the aircraft will be higher than the
indicated altitude. When temperature is lower than standard, the aircraft will be lower
than indicated on the altimeter.
 Operators using Baro-VNAV in an aircraft with an airworthiness approval for automatic
temperature compensation, or in an aircraft using an alternate means for vertical
guidance (e.g., Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems), may disregard the temperature
limits.

Also the lowest MSA given on SE sector is 5600 ft. If the pressure correction is taken by
the QNH setting, temperature correction will still be required for a non-compensated
altimeter i.e.

True altitude = PA + (4 x ISA Dev x 1000's of feet)

In this case, approaches are designed while keeping ISA conditions as standard, a
temperature of 50C will mean a deviation of -10 0C. In such a case true altitude will be
5280 ft. vs indicated altitude of 5500 ft. At CABOT, minimum altitude is given as 5500 ft.

Hot and Cold Temperature Limitations. A minimum and maximum temperature

limitation is published on procedures which authorize Baro-VNAV operation. These
temperatures represent the airport temperature above or below which Baro-VNAV is
not authorized to LNAV/VNAV minimums. As an example, the limitation will read:
“Uncompensated Baro-VNAV NA below -8°C (+18°F) or above 47°C (117°F).” This
information will be found in the upper left hand box of the pilot briefing. When the
temperature is above the high temperature or below the low temperature limit, Baro-
VNAV may be used to provide a stabilized descent to the LNAV MDA; however, extra
caution should be used in the visual segment to ensure a vertical correction is not
required. If the VGSI is aligned with the published glidepath, and the aircraft
instruments indicate on glidepath, an above or below glidepath indication on the VGSI
may indicate that temperature error is causing deviations to the glidepath. These
deviations should be considered if the approach is continued below the MDA.

Many systems which apply Baro-VNAV temperature compensation only correct for cold
temperature. In this case, the high temperature limitation still applies. Also,
temperature compensation may require activation by maintenance personnel during
installation in order to be functional, even though the system has the feature. Some
systems may have a temperature correction capability, but correct the Baro-altimeter all
the time, rather than just on the final, which would create conflicts with other aircraft if
the feature were activated. Pilots should be aware of compensation capabilities of the
system prior to disregarding the temperature limitations.

NOTE- Temperature limitations do not apply to flying the LNAV/VNAV line of minima
using approach certified WAAS receivers when LPV or LNAV/VNAV are annunciated to
be available.

Q. Is Cochin GNSS approach a precision approach?

Ans. Refer Jeppesen Glossary P 7&11 of 118. It’s a “semi-precision” approach. An instrument
approach based on a navigation system that is not required to meet the precision
approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides course and glide path deviation
information. Baro-VNAV, LDA with glide path, LNAV/VNAV and LPV are examples of APV
 approaches. Since electronic vertical guidance is provided, the approach minimum
altitude will be published as a decision altitude (DA). GBAS or Class 2, 3 and 4 TSO-
C146 WAAS equipment for a GPS precision approach.

Q. Who issues VOLMET in India?

Ans. In India VOLMET Broadcasts are made by Mumbai and Kolkata Airports.

Q. What is the maximum speed to carry out a DME arc if no speed limit is published?
Ans. As per ICAO Doc 8168, max speed is 210 kt. below 6000 ft., however, as per Indian
regulations, speed to maintain within 20nm of an aerodrome is 180 kt.

Q. What ATS airspaces are available in India?

Ans. In India, ATS airspaces are designated as Class D, E, F and G and are categorized as per
NOTAM G 0066/99. Delhi, Mumbai comes under Class D Airspace.

Q. What is the difference between Class D & Class E airspace in India?

Ans. In Class D Airspace, traffic information is provided for all IFR & VFR, whereas, in Class E
Airspace traffic information is provided where possible.

Q. What level of precedence should be given to warnings?

Ans. REMEMBER: SWAGAT
Stall
Windshear
GPWS
TCAS

Q. What are the oxygen requirements?

Ans. As per CAR Section 8, Series O, Part III, a flight to be operated at altitudes at which the
atmospheric pressure in personnel compartments will be less than 700 hPa shall not be
commenced unless sufficient stored breathing oxygen is carried to supply:

Note:
700hpa = 10000ft;
620hpa = 13000ft;
376hpa = 25000ft.

a. All crew members and 10 per cent of the passengers for any period in excess of 30
minutes that the pressure in compartments occupied by them will be between 700 hPa
and 620 hPa; and

b. All crew members and passengers for any period that the atmospheric pressure in
compartments occupied by them will be less than 620 hPa.

c. In addition, when an aeroplane is operated at flight altitudes which the atmospheric

pressure is less than 376 hPa, or which, if operated at flight altitudes at which the
atmospheric pressure is more than 376 hPa and cannot descend safely within four
minutes to a flight altitude at which the atmospheric pressure is equal to 620 hPa, there
 shall be no less than a 10 minutes supply for the occupants of the passengers
compartment.

Q. What are the speed limits in Indian Airspace?

Ans. As per Jeppesen Middle East Page No. 279:
Below FL150 and within 25 to 20 DME: 220 Knots
Within 20 NM: 180 Knots
Intercept Leg or 12 NM from touch down: 180-160 Knots
10 – 5 NM: 160-150 Knots

Q. What are the limitations for holding speeds?

Ans. The ICAO Maximum holding speeds are defined as:
Up to 14000 ft: 230kts
14000 ft to 20000 ft: 240kts
20000 ft to 34000 ft: 265kts
Above 34000 ft: M0.83

Q. What is the code for ILS, VOR and NDB in an approach plate?
Ans. ILS : 1 as in chart 11-1
VOR : 3 as in chart 13-1
NDB : 6 as in chart 16-1

If there are two airports in the same city like in Bangalore, then ILS will be 21-1, VOR will
be 23-1 etc.

Q. What is the longest TODA & LDA available in Delhi?

Ans. Longest TODA available is of Rwy 29 – 14534 ft.
Longest LDA Available is of Rwy 10 – 11564 ft.

Q. On a CAT D circling approach, what is the maximum distance from the airfield that you
are allowed to go?
Ans. 2.3 miles

Q. When does the IAS changes from knots to Mach?

Ans. At FL 270.

Q. What is displaced threshold and what is the maximum displacement of the displaced
threshold?
Ans. A displaced threshold is a runway threshold located at a point other than the physical
beginning or end of the runway. The portion of the runway so displaced may be used for
takeoff but not for landing. Landing aircraft may use the displaced area on the opposite
end for roll out.

In Delhi, Runway 29 has the longest permanent displaced threshold of 1460m.

Rwy 28 Width is 148 feet or 45 meters.

Q. What are the different types of lights available?

Ans. HIALS — High intensity approach lights
HIALS II — High intensity approach lights with CAT II Modifications
HIRL — High intensity runway lights
MIRL — Medium intensity runway lights
RL — Low intensity runway lights
PORT-RL — Portable electric runway lights
FLARES — Flare pots or goosenecks
MIALS — Medium intensity approach lights
ALS — Low intensity approach lights
LDIN — Sequenced flashing lead-in lights
RAIL — Runway alignment indicator lights (Sequenced Flashing)
REIL — Runway End Identifier Lights
CL — Standard Centerline Light configuration White lights then alternating red & white
lights between 3000' and 1000' from runway end and red lights for the last 1000'.

Q. What are the lights available on runway / taxiways?

Ans. Runway edge lights are white.
Runway threshold lights are unidirectional green in the direction of approach
Taxiway edge lights are blue.
Taxiway middle marker is continuous yellow line

Runway centerline lights are white and will be alternating red and white from 3000 ft
from far end becoming RED in the last 1000 ft.
Rapid taxiway exit centerline lights are initially yellow and green and then all green.

Q. How does a stall warning system works?

Ans. A Stall Warning is an electronic or mechanical device that sounds an audible warning as
the stall speed is approached. The simplest such device is a stall warning horn, which
consists of either a pressure sensor or a movable metal tab that actuates a switch, and
produces an audible warning in response.

A Stick Shaker is a mechanical device that shakes the pilot's controls to warn of the
onset of stall.

A Stick Pusher is a mechanical device that prevents the pilot from stalling an aircraft. It
pushes the elevator control forward as the stall is approached, causing a reduction in
the angle of attack. In generic terms, a stick pusher is known as a stall identification
device or stall identification system.

Angle of Attack Limiter

Also referred to as an "alpha limiter" and angle of attack limiter is a computer that
automatically prevents a pilot's computer input from raising the aircraft above its critical
angle of attack. Some angle of attack limiters can be disabled, while others cannot.

Q. VIDP Chart 11-1A

Ans. According to the EU-OPS requirements, all non-precision approaches shall be flown
using the continuous descent final approach (CDFA) technique with decision altitude
(height), and the missed approach shall be executed when reaching the DA(H) in the
 event of an ILS approach or reaching an altitude of 1180 ft in case of a CDFA (LOC Only)
approach. If due to some reason, like sudden increase in tailwind or low descent rate,
aircraft is higher than 1180 ft and reaches the missed approach point (MAP), it should
commence a missed approach incase runway is not insight.

Q. Is President Palace in Delhi a restricted airspace or prohibited airspace?

Ans. Prohibited airspace.

Q. What is the accuracy of Q routes?

Ans. Q Routes are based on RNAV5. Aircraft with high navigation performance are allowed to
fly the RNP routes. With higher accuracy, more airplanes can be squeezed on an airway.
The “Q” routes allow aircraft to aircraft longitudinal separation of 50NM, while A474
allowed for a 10 minute separation, which translates to around 75NM. Theoretically, up
to 13 airplanes may now fly on Q1, at any point of time, as compared to 9 on A474.

Q. What should be the weather deviation procedure while flying on the route Delhi to
Kolkata in RVSM airspace and not in radar contact with Varansi or Kolkata.
Ans. Refer weather deviation procedures.

Q. Why LOC only approach is not allowed in VEGT for ILS X?

Ans. As DME is not given.
SUBJECT: INSTRUMENTS

Q. How does FMS plots its position?

Ans. GPS, IRS/INS (If available), DME – DME, VOR - DME

Q. Does FMS uses GC or RL?

Ans. GC

Q. What do we fly GC or RL and why?

Ans. A GC track is divided into segments. At mid longitude of each segment mean of great
circle and rhumb line are same. The segments are chosen in such a manner that the
difference between great circle and rhumb line is minimum.

Q. What are the errors of ASI?

Ans. Instrument Errors
Position / Pressure / Maneuver Induced Error
Density Error
Compressibility Error
Blocked Pitot
Blocked Static

Q. What are the errors of Altimeter?

Ans. Instrument Error
Position / Pressure / Maneuver Induced Error Temperature Error
Pressure Error / Barometric Error
Temperature Error
Lag Error
Blocked Static Error
Hysteresis Error: Expansion and contraction of the capsule for the same change of
pressure should be same. If there is any deviation in the indicated reading, hysteresis
error exists.

Q. What are the errors of VSI?

Ans. Instrument Error
Position / Pressure / Maneuver Induced Error
Lag Error
Transonic Jump: A transonic shock wave passing over the static source will cause the VSI
briefly to give a false indication.

Q. What are the effects of blocked pitot and static on Pressure Instruments?
Ans. ASI
When Static is blocked it tends to under-read during climb and over-read during
descent (Very dangerous situation).
When Pitot is blocked it tends to increase in climb or decrease in descend steadily, and
works like an altimeter i.e. gives an indication proportional to the altitude.
When Pitot is leaked or fractured and drains are blocked, ASI tends to under indicate.

Altimeter
 If static is blocked altimeter continues to display the reading at which blockage
occurred. And this will result in over indication if the aircraft descends and under
indication if it climbs.
If alternate source of static is used which is inside the unpressurized aircraft, altimeter
tends to over read as static pressure inside the aircraft is lower than the ambient
pressure due to aerodynamic suction.

VSI
It static is blocked, VSI indication will be too low while climbing or descending.
It chock is blocked, VSI indication will be too high while climbing or descending.
If VSI casing develops a leak, indication will be too high when climbing and too low
when descending.
If alternate source of static is used, VSI may show a momentary climb.

Q. Equivalent Airspeed is Indicated airspeed corrected for what errors?

Ans. IAS ± PE = CAS – Compressibility error = EAS + Density Error = TAS

Q. What are compass Turning and acceleration Errors?

Ans. In NH,
Undershoot North, Overshoot South
Opposite results will be in SH.
Turning errors are significant upto 35 degrees either side of those headings.
ANDS

Q. What is magnetic dip? What is the maximum and minimum value of magnetic dip?
Ans. The angular difference between a freely suspended needle from its horizontal is
known as Magnetic Dip. This angle varies at different points on the Earth's surface. The
inclination value can be measured with an instrument known as a dip circle.

The inclination is given by an angle that can assume values between -90° (up) to +90°
(down). In the northern hemisphere, the field points downwards. It is straight down at
the North Magnetic Pole and rotates upwards as the latitude decreases until it is
horizontal (00) at the magnetic equator. It continues to rotate upwards until it is straight
up at the South Magnetic Pole.

Q. What are Gyros? What are their properties? Which instruments use Rigidity and which
use Precession?
Ans. Gyro instruments work on the principle of gyroscopic inertia. Inside each of the gyro
devices is a spinning wheel or disc. Its inertia, once the wheel has been accelerated,
tends to keep the disc stable about its axis of rotation.

Rigidity in Space: Rigidity is that force of gyro which does not allow any external force
which tries to change of the direction of spin axis. Newton's First Law states "A body in
motion tends to move in a constant speed and direction unless disturbed by some
external force". The spinning rotor inside a gyro instrument maintains a constant
attitude in space as long as no outside forces change its motion. This stability increases if
the rotor has great mass and speed. Thus, the gyros in aircraft instruments are
constructed of heavy materials and designed to spin rapidly.
 The heading indicator and attitude indicator use gyros as an unchanging reference in
space. Once the gyros are spinning, they stay in constant positions with respect to the
horizon or direction. If the rotor axis represents the natural horizon or a direction such
as magnetic north, it provides a stable reference for instrument flying.

Precession: It is defined as when a force is applied to a running wheel, it does not act
at the point of application and acts at a point 90 0 ahead in the direction of rotation.
This turning movement, or precession, places the rotor in a new plane of rotation,
parallel to the applied force.

Artificial Horizon & Direction Gyro uses the property of Rigidity.

Rate of turn indicator utilized the property of Precession.

Q. What are the values drift and topple at equator and pole?
Ans. Drift is maximum at the pole and zero at the equator (Same as convergency).
Topple is maximum at the equator and zero at the pole.

Q. What type of gyros are used in AH, DG and TI?

Ans. AH uses Vertical Earth Gyro
DG uses Tied Gyro
TI uses Rate Gyro

Q. With Mach no. constant if the aircraft descends, what happens to your IAS and TAS?
Ans. While descending, temperature will start increasing, as a result LSS will increase and TAS
will have to be increased in order to maintain the same ratio, hence, IAS and TAS both
will increase.

Q. What is the difference between Inertial Navigation System (INS) and Inertial Reference
System (IRS)?
Ans. Refer KW P. 19
INS uses a stabilized platform with 2 accelerometers aligned north/south and
east/west and 3 rate integrating gyros. The rate integrating gyros and accelerometer
are mounted on the same platform. Schuler pendulum is used. The errors of INS fall
into three categories, bounded, unbounded and inherent. In an INS, the acceleration
are measured in a trihedron which is free from aircraft’s trihedron, pitch, roll and yaw
axis (Remember INS is independent & free).

INS provides aeroplane velocity and position and continuously measure and integrating
its acceleration. This system relies on no external reference and is unaffected by
weather and can operate day or night. All corrections associated with movement of the
earth and transportation of the earth surface applied automatically.

Acceleration integrated with respect to time gives velocity

Velocity integrated with respect to time gives distance.

Accelerometer is basically a pendulous device, when the aircraft accelerates, the

pendulum moves due to inertia.
 If the navigation function of an INS is inoperative and the control switch is set to ATT,
the output data of the INS are Attitude and Heading.

IRS uses 3 accelerometers and 3 laser gyros on a strapped down platform set at 900 to
each other to form a trihedral to sense vertical, lateral and longitudinal accelerations. In
a strapdown inertial system, the accelerations are measured in a trihedron which is
fixed regarding aircraft’s trihedron (pitch, roll and yaw axis).

An RLG as compared to a conventional gyroscope has a little or no “spin-up” time and it

is insensitive to gravitational (g) forces.

Laser (Light Amplification and Stimulated Emission of Radiation) gyros measure

rotation by comparing two laser beams created and directed to rotate in opposite
directions within a very narrow tunnel.

High speed micro processors then achieve a stable platform mathematically rather than
mechanically (as per the INS) - this results in greatly improved accuracy and reliability.

Integration principles are used as per the older INS system.

Calibration: Completed automatically by computer to enhance the overall accuracy of

the system.

Schuler Tuning is again required to compensate for oscillation errors as the system is
transported over the Earth (this in relation to pendulum theory which results in an 84.4
minute error cycle as described in the older INS.

The Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) is the heart of the Inertial Reference System (IRS). It
provides all required inertial reference outputs for the aircraft’s avionics. The primary
sources of information for the IRU are its own internal sensors three laser gyros, and
three inertial accelerometers.

The only other inputs required are initial position, barometric altitude, and True Air
Speed (TAS). Initial position is required because present position is calculated from the
distance and direction travelled from the initial start position entered. Barometric
altitude stabilizes the vertical navigation, and thereby stabilizes the vertical velocity and
inertial altitude outputs. The TAS input allows the IRU to calculate wind speed and wind
direction.

Q. What are the advantages of IRS?

Ans. Activation: Almost no spin up time, one second activation for the rate sensor.
Maneuvering: Insensitive to “G” attitude, rolling, pitching manoeuvres.
Construction: Mechanically simple and highly reliable.
Range: Wide dynamic range.
Drift: Very small drift rates - greatest errors induced by the operator.

Q. What are the errors of INS?

Ans. Bounded Errors: Are either fixed or oscillate about a mean. They do not get bigger with
time or distance flown. e.g. a track error of one degree. This is a fixed error and does not
increase with time.

Unbounded Errors: Get larger with time or distance flown. The across track distance
error would be an unbounded error as it is going to get bigger and bigger. The largest
source of unbounded error is the imperfection of the gyroscopes leading to real
wander.

Inherent Errors: The irregular shape and composition of the earth, the movement of the
earth through space and other factors provide further possible source of error.

Q. What error will INS accept?

Ans. Longitude Error.

Q. What are the errors in IRS? Define Laser lock.

Ans. Drift: The principle source of error with this form of device, as with the conventional
gyro stabilized platform INS device, is associated with random drift in a conventional
gyro. This is caused by laser system noise and is derived almost entirely from
imperfections in the mirrors and their coatings.

Accuracy: The accuracy of the laser system is directly influenced by the length of its
optical path - the longer the path available the greater the accuracy with a small
percentage increase in length leading to a substantial increase in accuracy.

Lock in or Laser Lock: The most significant potential problem is lock-in, also known as
laser lock, which occurs at very low rotation rates. At very low rotation rates the output
frequency can drop to zero which causes the beams to synchronize that is, no longer
indicate the rotation correctly and gives undesirable errors. This phenomenon is
overcome by a vibration device known as a dither motor which breaks the lock-in. The
motor is mounted in such a way that it vibrates the laser ring about its input axis
through the lock in region, thereby unlocking the beams and enabling the optical
sensor to detect the smaller movement of the fringe pattern. The motions caused by
the dither motor are decoupled from the output of the ring laser gyro / rate sensor.

Q. What is ISDU?
Ans. The Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU) provides pilot interface with the Inertial
Reference Units (IRS). The ISDU allows entry of initialization data for the IRU's. The
display of track angle, ground speed, present position, wind direction and speed,
magnetic heading and system status is available.

Q. How do you navigate to the North Pole?

Ans. Oxford P.436
Difficulties of flying near the poles are rapid change of true direction (due to
convergency) and variation (due to proximity to the magnetic poles). Without an RNAV
system, the solution is to ignore the compass and fly a gyro heading.
 Navigation in polar region can only be done through Grid Navigation technique. In grid
navigation maps are overlaid with a grid of lines indicating gyro north to which
gyroscope is aligned. While gyro steering is being employed, the magnetic element of
the Gyro Magnetic Compass is disconnected.

Q. What do you know about FMS in Hawker?

Ans. The Flight Management System (FMS) provides lateral and vertical flight plan point-to-
point navigation using multiple navigation sensors. The system generates lateral and
vertical steering commands for use by the EFIS and FGS. The FMS Control Display Unit
(CDU) provides flight deck management functions that include navigation sensor
control, radio tuning, and Multifunction Display (MFD) control menus.

The FMS consists of:

⮚ Two Flight Management Computers (FMCs)

⮚ Two Control Display Units (CDUs)
⮚ Two Global Positioning Sensors (GPS); and
⮚ One Data Base Unit (DBU).

The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS), Air Data System (ADS), NAV receiver
(VOR/ILS/ADF), and DME sensor supply data to the FMS. The FMS uses position data
from the GPS, VOR, DME, and sensor data from the AHRS and ADS, along with the active
flight plan and its own data base information to generate lateral and vertical flight plan
based navigation solutions.

Q. When you press TO-GA in your aircraft, what position update take place, IRS/GPS both?
Ans. GPS/AHRS

Q. If you are navigating using triple INS and if all three fail, how will you navigate?
Ans. GPS & continuously verify position with raw data as well.

Q. What would you do if there is a dual FMC failure in flight?

Ans. Use GPS and continuously verify position with raw data as well.

Q. What is ESIS? Is it a part of Collins Proline 21 in Hawker?

Ans. ESIS is Electronic Standby Instrument System. It is not a part of Proline 21 and is
manufactured by a company called Meggit.

Q. How many channels are there in auto pilot of Hawker?

Ans. Hawker has a 3 Axis Autopilot (Roll, Pitch & Yaw) and is of dual channel.

Q. What is the difference between SAT & TAT?

Ans. Static Air Temperature, or SAT, is the temperature of the undisturbed air through which
the aircraft is flying. Due to the kinetic energy of the speed of the aircraft, at higher
speeds the measured temperature is higher than SAT as that kinetic energy gets
converted into heat at the sensor. Total Air Temperature, or TAT, is the maximum air
temperature that can be attained by 100% conversion of the kinetic energy of the flow.
Q. What is the difference between TAT & RAT?
Ans. A TAT measuring system measures the Total Air Temperature after Ram Rise on the
forward facing parts of the aircraft, and the engines. A temperature measuring system
qualifies as a TAT gauge if 99% or more of the Ram Temperature rise is recorded.

A Ram Air Temperature (RAT) measuring system measures the Total Air Temperature
after Ram Rise on the forward facing parts of the aircraft, and the engines, but due to
system inefficiencies measures less that 99% of the temperature Rise.

Q. What do you have on board Hawker? IRS or INS?

Ans. AHRS (Attitude/Heading Reference System)
The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) generates three axis attitude and
stabilized magnetic outputs for display on the AFDs and is used by the Flight Guidance
System (FGS), Flight Management System, and hazard avoidance systems.

The AHRS is a dual-independent system made up of:

⮚ Two Attitude Heading Computers (AHC)

⮚ Two External Compensation Units (ECU)
⮚ Two Flux Detector Units (FDU)

The AHC uses it’s own inertial sensors, inputs from the FDUs, and aircraft-specific
information stored in the ECUs to calculate three axis attitude and heading information.

The FDU detects the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. Other inputs to
the AHC include alternate air data from the cross-side AHC and reference inputs from
the IAPS (Integrated Avionics Processor System). Controls located on the flight deck are
used to select Compass (magnetic) or Directional Gyro (free gyro) mode and to slew the
compass heading.

The AHC outputs provide attitude, magnetic heading, and system mode/status/fault
data to the EFIS and other aircraft subsystems via the IAPS and the system bus structure.

• Dual, independent systems with reversion (cross-connect) capability.

• Automatic system initialization.
• Controls to select Compass (magnetic) or DG (free gyro) mode operation.
• Slew switch provided to adjust heading that shows on the AFDs.

Q. Is it possible to obtain true heading in the aircraft?

Ans. It is not possible to obtain true heading in the aircraft, as Flux Detector Unit (FDU)
supplies magnetic heading only.

Q. Explain the GPS system of Hawker.

Ans. The Rockwell Collins GPS-4000A Global Positioning System Sensor provides GPS-based
navigation and enables GPS-based approaches for aircraft equipped with flight
management systems.
 The GPS-4000A uses up to 12 GPS satellites. However, the system is capable to
calculate navigation with a minimum of four satellites with acceptable geometry or
three satellites plus calibrated barometric altitude. With additional satellites, the
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) detects and isolates defective
satellites while improving navigation accuracy. The unit’s predictive RAIM capability
determines if the future satellite geometry at the destination airport will support
planned arrival procedures.

Key Features & Benefits:

⮚ Fully integrated with the Rockwell Collins Pro Line 4™ and Pro Line 21™ systems
⮚ Provides terminal and en route navigation solutions
⮚ Provides non precision approach navigation
⮚ Supports primary means GPS navigation in oceanic/remote areas
⮚ Supports RAIM, Predictive RAIM and FDE (Fault Detection & Exclusion)
⮚ Supports on-board loading of application software
⮚ 12-channel, TSO C129 (B1) compliant GPS receiver
⮚ 2 MCU, ARINC 743A compliant
⮚ DO-160D qualified
⮚ Growth to SBAS to support GPS primary means navigation and non precision
approaches with vertical guidance

Q. Explain the Communication system of Hawker.

Ans. The Radio Sensor System (RSS) provides the radios, controls, and displays used for voice
communication, VOR/ILS navigation, distance measurement, ADF navigation, ATC
transponder control, and TCAS Mode S communication.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The RSS provides the radios and controls/displays used for voice communication (COM),
navigation (NAV), and operation within the Air Traffic Control (ATC) environment. The
RSS is a dual-independent system made up of pilot and copilot side control/display
units, radios, and sensors. Baseline-equipped aircraft come standard with:

⮚ Two VHF COM transceivers with 8.33 kHz channel spacing

⮚ Two NAV receivers (one VOR/ILS/MKR/ADF and one VOR/ILS/MKR)
⮚ Two Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Transceivers
⮚ Two ATC Mode-S Diversity Transponders with Flight ID.

Optional equipment includes:

⮚ An extended frequency VHF COM Transceiver with 8.33 kHz

⮚ A third VHF COM transceiver with Data link
⮚ A second ADF receiver (dual VOR/ILS/MKR/ADF)
⮚ Single (standard) or dual HF COM Transceiver with HF antenna coupler

The display and control portion of the system consists of the two CDUs and a pilot side
backup COM NAV Control (CTL). The CDUs provide integrated control of several
combinations of aircraft communications and navigation subsystems.
The integrated control includes the setting of radio frequencies, beacon codes, and
operational modes. The CTL provides backup tuning for the pilot-side COM and NAV
radios. The RSS provides digital radio data to the EFIS, navigation systems, and hazard
avoidance systems via the IAPS and system bus structure. The COM1 and COM2 radio
frequencies and ATC ident code are show on the PFDs. Each side RSS (pilot and copilot)
is functionally isolated and acts as a stand-alone system. Each side RSS can control the
cross-side radios/sensors in the event of a control or display failure.

KEY OPERATING FEATURES

⮚ Integrated control of the COM/NAV/ATC radio suite.
⮚ Manual tuning/control of radio suite from pilot or copilot station.
⮚ FMS AUTO TUNE feature tunes the NAV/DME automatically for
⮚ Multi-sensor NAV.
⮚ ATC Mode-S Diversity Transponders for TCAS operation.
⮚ Flight ID (Elementary Surveillance and Enhanced Surveillance) capable ATC
Transponders.
⮚ Backup tuning for pilot-side COM and NAV radios available from CTL-23
controller in event of dual CDU failure.
SUBJECT: RADIO AIDS

Q. What are emergency radio frequencies?

Ans. The aircraft emergency frequency (also known as guard) is a frequency used on the
aircraft radio band reserved for emergency communications for aircraft in distress. The
frequencies are 121.5 MHz for civilian, also known as International Air Distress (IAD) or
VHF Guard, and 243.0 MHz for military use, also known as Military Air Distress (MAD) or
UHF Guard. Earlier Emergency Locator Transmitters used the guard frequencies to
transmit, but an additional frequency of 406 Mhz is used by more modern ELTs.

Q. When does trend arrow appears in TCAS?

Ans. A trend arrow up or down appears alongside the symbol when the intruder’s vertical
rate is 500 feet per minute or greater.

Q. How is zero datum obtained for ILS DME at the threshold?

Ans. Refer Oxford P.235
By reducing time delay at transponder.

Q. What are the popular types of Radar Antennas?

Ans. Refer Oxford P.161
Microwave Horn
Parabolic Reflector
Flat Plate Antenna

Q. What is the difference between a conventional CDI, HSI and why putting the right course
on ILS is important despite the ILS instrument is tracking the difference between 90 &
150Hz lobes?
Ans. If you fly towards a VOR with a conventional CDI with the OBS correctly set (magnetic
track to the VOR), indications will be correct. If you fly towards a VOR with a
conventional CDI with the OBS set 180 degrees off (magnetic track from the VOR),
indications will be reversed.

Try the same with an HSI. In the latter case, the indications are still reversed. But the left
and right indications are with respect to the direction of the course arrow. Because the
course arrow is now pointing downwards, the entire readout system will be upside
down. Thus the readout is reversed twice, and reads in the correct sense.

For a localizer, the direction of the course arrow is irrelevant. You can fly the ILS with
anything set on the OBS of a conventional CDI. However, if you set the course arrow of
an HSI to 180 degrees off the localizer, the course arrow is now pointing downwards and
the readout system is reversed -- just once now -- so the instrument reads in reverse.

The autopilot, of course, doesn't care which direction the course arrow is pointing. So if
you try to fly towards a VOR with the course arrow set 180 degrees off, the autopilot
still sees reversed indications and fails to track the VOR.

That was the rational behind the design of the HSI - by spinning the CDI (Course
Deviation Indicator) needle around a compass rose, and slaving the compass rose to the
 aircraft heading, the HSI became a "command" instrument - for VORs it always
operates in the command sense. All you have to do is look at it after setting up your
radial to understand your current position with respect to that radial.

As both VOR and ILS systems show your displacement from a line based on the phase
difference between two radio signals, the same CDI has always been used for both
systems. With an ILS signal, the "radial" is fixed, so the OBS isn't used by the system at
all - it just detects the phase difference, and displays that on the needle. For the old
fixed CDI display, it didn't matter what you put on the OBS when flying an ILS - as this bit
isn't used at all by the ILS.

Then the HSI came in, and the CDI turns around with the aircraft's heading. Now when
using the ILS you need to set up the needle so that it points "up and down" with respect
to the panel for it to operate in the command sense, and the only way to do that (as it
rotates on a slaved compass card) is to set the OBS to the track you are going to be
flying when you are established on the ILS (i.e. the inbound track).

For ILS the two lobes, the "left" and "right" lobes, are set up to display correctly for front
course (the most common) approaches. If you are flying an approach to the reciprocal
runway you are pointing the aircraft 180 0 in the opposite direction for the approach, the
"Left" and "Right" lobes are therefore 180 0 out of sync - so you need to turn the CDI
"upside down" to correct that. (Or flip the back course switch on the old fixed CDI
indicator to reverse the sense.)

HSI being a command instrument senses the deviation required from the correct
course and aircraft’s actual position and gives command to FD. Hence the right course
is required to be put during an ILS with modern systems.

Q. What is ILS Reference Point?

Ans. As glideslope transmitter is placed along the runway to one side, the glideslope passes
over the threshold at about 50 feet. This point over the threshold is called ‘ILS Reference
Point’ the height as TCH (threshold crossing height).

Q. What are types of VOR?

Ans. VOR D: DME
VOR H: High Altitude
VOR T: Terminal
VOR L: Low Altitude
VOR STAR: Not available for 24 hrs.

Q. What all uses VHF?

Ans. Radios and Datalink as in LAAS.

Q. What are VOR Accuracy errors?

⮚ Site Error: Uneven terrain, physical obstacles and even over grown grass can affect
VOR signals. VOR are ground monitor to an accuracy of ±1 0.
 ⮚ Propagation Error: The signals having left the transmitter giving an accuracy of ±1 0
suffer further in accuracy as they travel forward and continue to effect throughout
the passage of receiver.
⮚ Airborne Equipment Error
⮚ Aggregate Error: The combined effect of above three errors is known as aggregate
error.
⮚ Pilotage Error
⮚ Beacon Alignment

Q. What is the difference between a VOR & Doppler VOR?

Ans.

Q. What are the VOR interception angles while going outbound and inbound to a station?
Ans. If the difference between present and required QDM is less than 300, then the
correction angle will be 3 times this difference and it will be added to the required QDM
to obtain heading to intercept. Eg. From present QDM of 90 0 to intercept QDM of 700,
the difference is 200. Three times of this will be 600 right of present QDM i.e. 900.
Therefore heading to intercept will be 130 0.

If the difference between present and required QDM is more than 300, the corrective
angle would be 900 left or right to the required QDM.

Q. What are ADF & NDB Errors?

Ans. Quadrantal Error
Terrain
Night Effect / Sky Wave Interference
Coastal Refraction
Static
Loop Alignment

Q. What are the types of NDB?

Ans. Locator NDBs: Range is 10-25 NM
Holding & Homing NDBs: Range is 50 NM
Enroute NDBs: Range can be 200 NM over land and 500 NM over sea.
Marine NDBs

Q. What is RMI?
Ans. It is a combination of slaved magnetic compass and ADF/radio compass. Dial is slaved
to a remote magnetic compass, and needle is tuned to ADF.

Q. What are the errors of Radio Altimeter?

Ans. Fixed Error: The indicator pointer moves in the steps of 5 feet which means 2½ feet
discrepancy may be present anytime.
Mushing Error: Different height of Tx & Rx antenna with respect to terrain.

Q. What are restrictions of pairing VOR and DME?

Ans. VOR and DME frequency can be paired together. The maximum distance between VOR
and DME/TACAN ground installation if they are to have the same Morse code identifier
 is 100 feet in terminal area or 2000 feet outside a terminal area. If the distance is more
than this and the frequency is paired, both VOR and DME will identify separately and
one of the two will have a letter “Z” in the call sign.

When a DME and VOR are collocated they transmit a total of 4 idents every 30 seconds.
The first 3 of these idents are transmitted by the VOR and the 4th is transmitted by the
DME and is of higher pitch. So in a period of 40 seconds, the DME ident will sound once.

Q. What does RADAR stands for?

Ans. Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. All radars use pulse technique. Radar
transmission is in pulses (not a continuous wave). Transmission is in burst of pulses.

Q. What are the components of an ILS?

Ans. a) VHF localizer equipment, associated monitor system, remote control and indicator
equipment;
b) UHF glide path equipment, associated monitor system, remote control and indicator
equipment;
c) VHF marker beacons, or a distance measuring equipment (DME) in together with
associated monitor system and remote control and status indicator equipment.
d) Approach Lighting System.

Q. What are ILS errors?

Ans. False Glideslope: Because of the emission pattern of the glideslope antenna, the 150
Hz signal will be received above the intended glideslope. This will give false, indeed
reverse indications and will occur at an angle of twice the nominal angle. Aircraft must
always approach the glideslope from below.

Signal Reflection (Beam Bending): An apparent bending of the localizer beam may be
caused by presence of aircraft, vehicles or other obstructions near the transmitter.
Although the signal due to diffraction may go around obstructions, its modulation is
affected, causing the apparent kinks. Separate holding points are designated for aircraft
holding while precision approaches are taking place.

Q. Why localizer does not capture false signals?

Ans. Wherever practicable, the localizer capture level of automatic flight control systems is to
be set at or below 0.175 DDM in order to prevent false localizer captures.

Q. Is outer/middle marker mandatory for ILS Approaches?

Ans. No. The outer/middle marker is not a mandatory component for full ILS or the localizer.
In fact at few newer airports in India for eg. VOHS, none of them is installed.

Q. On ILS approach if your ILS DME is u/s and OM/MM u/s what will you do?
Ans. ILS can’t be carried out in this case. Alternate approach could be VOR / NDB Approach
(time based) or a visual approach if weather conditions permits.

Q. How many different SSR codes can you have? What are SSR Modes?
Ans. 4096
Mode A & B: Used for identification of the aircraft.
 Mode C: For automatic height information
Mode D: Still in experimental stage
Mode S: This is used for communication surveillance in TCAS.

Q. What is the frequency for VOR?

Ans. VOR works between 108.00 – 117.95 MHz.
108.00 - 111.95 MHz (Even)
112.00 - 117.95 MHz (All)
Emission Pattern is A9W

Q. What is the VHF band frequency and wavelength?

Ans. VHF works in the range of 117.975 – 137 MHz.
(Complete Range 30 – 300 MHz.)
Wavelength is between 10 – 1 meters.
VHF works on Frequency Modulation.

Q. What does HF works on?

Ans. HF is single side band and works on Amplitude Modulation.
Frequency Range 3 - 30 MHz
Wavelength 100 - 10 m

Q. What is the difference between HF and VHF?

Ans. VHF works on FM and HF works on AM.
VHF primarily is dependent on line of sight.
HF is used for long distance communication where line of sight is not possible. AM band
is generally noisier; hence HF communications are not very clear as compared to VHF.

Q. Why lower frequencies are used during night in HF?

Ans. That’s because of the diurnal variation in the ionospheric density. If transmission is
continued at night on a daytime frequency, a longer skip distance will result, leaving
the receiver in the dead space. This is because at night, as we have seen, the electron
density decreases; the signals travel higher in the ionosphere before refraction, and are
refracted less. For these reasons, the working frequency is lowered at night. This
lowering of the frequency adjusts the skip distance because the lower frequencies are
refracted more. Attenuation is also less, despite the lower frequency, because the
electron density is less.

Q. What is skip distance?

Ans. The distance between the transmitter and the point on the surface where the first sky
wave returns from Ionosphere is called the skip distance.

Q. What is dead space?

Ans. The area between the end of the surface wave and the first point of reception of the sky
wave is called the dead space. (Ground Wave is surface wave + Space Wave)

Q. What is critical angle?

Ans. Critical Angle is the minimum angle at which waves return to Earth. Prior to this, angles
are known as Angle of Incidence.
Q. What is PAPI?
Ans. A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a visual aid that provides guidance
information to help a pilot acquire and maintain the correct approach (in the vertical
plane) to an airport or an aerodrome. It is generally located beside the runway
approximately 300 meters beyond the landing threshold of the runway. PAPI has single
wing bar and consists of four light units on the side or both sides of runway adjacent to
the touchdown point. Following are the indications:

On Slope: Two outer lights of each wing bar are white and two inner lights (closer to the
runway) are red (OWIR).

Three Red : Slightly Low 2.80

All Red : Lower than 2.50
Three White : Slightly High 3.20
All White : Higher than 3.50

Precision Instrument Runway Markings:

Threshold Marker to Touchdown Zone Marker Distance: 500 Feet
Touchdown Zone Marker to Fix Distance Marker Distance: 500 Feet
Total from Threshold to Fix Distance Marker: 1000 Feet

Q. What is VASI?
Ans. Two bar VASI has two pairs of wing bars extending outward of the runway usually at 500
feet and 1000 feet from the approach threshold.

VASI approach slope only provides guaranteed obstacle clearance in an arc 100 left or
right of the extended centerline out to a distance of 4NM from the runway threshold.

Standard glide slope angle on VASI is 30. For Two Bar VASI:

All Bars White: High on Approach

Near Bar White and Far Bar Red: On Glide Slope
All Red: Low on Slope

Q. What is TVASI?
Ans. A Tri-colored VASI is a single light that appears amber above the glide slope, green on
the glide slope and red below it (Amber, Green & Red). It has fallen out of widespread
use, partly because pilots who are unfamiliar with them have been known to
misinterpret the lights and 'correct' in the wrong direction. These errors are increased
due to a major design shortcoming of the tri-colored VASI. While on approach, the
colour amber (above slope) can be seen at a very thin angle of approach between green
(on slope) and red (below slope) due to the mixing of red and green which gives an
amber colour. Pilots not familiar with this may see the amber light and think they are
above glide slope and then descend rather than make the proper correction and
ascending back to glide slope. Despite this shortcoming, it is (reportedly) in widespread
use in Eastern European countries, especially Russia and Ukraine.
Q. What is PVASI?
Ans. A pulsating visual approach slope indicator (PVASI) is a single box system. The signal
format is

⮚ Solid white when established on the proper descent profile,

⮚ Solid red when below the proper descent profile.
⮚ An active pulsating white light is seen when well above or pulsating red when
well below.

Although PVASI is a single box system, its signal was evaluated by the U.S. Air Force and
found to be much more accurate than VASI and equivalent to the four-box PAPI. These
are obsolete now and are replaced by the PAPI as they were easily confused with other
airport and surrounding lights.

Q. What are GPS Errors?

Ans. Ionospheric Refraction Error (most significant error): UHF signals are not normally
regarded as being refracted by the ionosphere, but such accuracy is required that even
the very small amount of refraction they suffer increases the time taken for the signal to
reach to the receiver as it bends through a shallow angle. When combined with the
delay from other satellites, it is called the “Ionospheric Group Delay” and produces a
total position error in order of 5 meters.

Satellite Clock Error (Non-Synced errors upto 1.5 meters in range)

Satellite Ephemeris Error: If satellite is not at its precise location (within ±0.5 meters)

Geometric dilution of position error (GDOP): Satellites should be in different part of the
sky and spheres must cut each other cleanly at an angle of 60 0.

Multi path error: Occurs due to reflected signals which are generally weak in strength
and come to receiver from unusual angles.

Tropospheric Refraction Error: Refraction & attenuation also takes place in the
troposphere. However, this is small and acceptable.

Solar disturbances: Occurs due to solar wind and damaging radiations.

Receiver measurement errors: Basically instrument error.

Q. What is the difference between GPS and GNSS?

Ans. GNSS stands for Global Navigation Satellite System, and is the standard generic term for
satellite navigation systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global
coverage.

The term GPS is specific to the United States' GNSS system, the NAVSTAR Global
Positioning System. As of 2008, the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System
(GPS) is the only fully operational GNSS. Similarly, GLONASS is a Russian GNSS. India's
next generation GNSS is known as GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN).
Q. What is PRM ILS Approach?
Ans. The Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) is a highly accurate air traffic surveillance system
used by a specialist PRM Controller to maximize air traffic flow to parallel runways
during periods of inclement weather. PRM allows qualified pilots to accept reductions in
lateral separation standards during ILS approaches to parallel runways separated by less
than 1,525 meters.

Without PRM, ATC is required to apply a 2NM stagger separation between aircraft on
adjacent ILS approaches. The specialized controller interfaces will alert ATC to any
tendency an aircraft may have to deviate towards the adjacent centre line. In this event
the PRM Controller will advise the pilot of the deviation. A “No Transgression Zone”
(NTZ) with a width of 610 meters is established between the parallel approach paths to
provide a suitable safety buffer between aircraft on adjacent ILS approaches. If an
aircraft is observed to penetrate the NTZ, a “Breakout” procedure will be initiated
immediately by the PRM Controller and both that aircraft and any conflicting aircraft on
the adjacent approach will be turned away (Remember 2nm, 1525m, 610m).

Pilot Requirements: To take advantage of the PRM system, pilots must familiarize
themselves with the procedures to be used. An infringement of the NTZ does not allow
any time for confusion or indecision on the part of the pilots or controllers. Breakout
instructions require an immediate response. A thorough cockpit briefing between crew
members well in advance of commencing the approach is an essential part of an ILS
PRM approach. All flight crew members must be thoroughly familiar with the
procedures to be followed in the event of a breakout. Separate approach charts have
been issued specifically to be used for ILS PRM approaches.

Q. What is the significance and difference between ILS X, ILS Y, ILS Z?

Ans. ICAO Doc 8168 states that a single letter suffix, starting with the letter Z, following the
radio navigation aid type shall be used if two or more procedures to the same runway
cannot be distinguished by the radio navigation aid type only. The single letter suffix
shall be used as follows:
i. When two or more navigation aids of the same type are used to support
different approaches to the same runway;
ii. When two or more missed approaches are associated with a common approach,
each approach shall be identified by a single letter suffix;
iii. If different approach procedures using the same radio navigation type are
provided for different aircraft categories; and
iv. If two or more arrivals are used to a common approach and are published on
different charts, each approach shall be identified by a single letter suffix.
v. If different DME is used for eg. VOR and ILS DME.
vi. If different DA are given. The one you use in this case will be dependent on what
missed approach climb gradient you aircraft is capable of.

Q. What is Doppler Principle or Doppler Shift?

Ans. The Doppler Effect (or Doppler Shift) was discovered by Christian Doppler in 1842, is the
change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to its source. It is
commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and
 recedes from an observer. The received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted
frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower
during the recession.

The relative changes in frequency can be explained as follows. When the source of the
waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a
position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore each wave takes
slightly lesser time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Therefore the time
between the arrivals of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an
increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive
wave fronts is reduced; so the waves "bunch together". Conversely, if the source of
waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther
from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive
waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave
fronts is increased, so the waves "spread out".

For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the
observer and of the source is relative to the medium in which the waves are
transmitted. The total Doppler Effect may therefore result from motion of the source,
motion of the observer, or motion of the medium. Each of these effects is analyzed
separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or gravity in general
relativity, only the relative difference in velocity between the observer and the source
needs to be considered.

Doppler Shift DS = 2 V Cos ᶲ / Wavelength

Where V is in Meters/Sec; DS and W/v is in Hz

Q. What is the difference between GPWS & EGPWS?

Ans. EGPWS (Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System) is actually the trade name that
Honeywell uses for the "TAWS" system. TAWS stands for Terrain Awareness and
Warning System.

The main difference between GPWS and EGPWS is the introduction of a terrain data
base and an interface to a source of position data, typically an FMS or an onboard GPS
receiver.

TAWS use these additional resources to produce FLTA (Forward Looking Terrain
Avoidance) alerts and warnings, RTC (Reduced Terrain Clearance) alerts and warnings
and PDA (Premature Descent along Final Approach Segment) alerts.

The means of warning is aural and visual via the classic “Pull-Up” and “Glide-slope”
annunciations, but the Class A variety of TAWS also must have a terrain display that
provides the pilot with a visual “map” of the underlying terrain. The terrain display is
color coded (red-amber-green) representing impact threats.

The conventional GPWS could not detect flight into precipitous terrain (such as shear
cliffs) effectively. It could obviously detect descent rates and closure to the ground, but
could not predict precipitous rising terrain in the flight path ahead.
 The Honeywell EGPWS system also offers obstacle alerting that warns of large towers
and buildings that meet the warning criteria. This however is not a requirement of
“TAWS”.

Class A TAWS systems are required by aircraft operating in the "airline" category and
some of the larger "commuter category" aircraft.

Class B TAWS (which requires no radio altimeter interface or terrain display) is required
by smaller (but not all) commercial aircraft.

Q. How does Terrain Ahead warning works in an EGPWS?

Ans. A terrain conflict intruding into the caution ribbon activates EGPWS caution lights and
the aural message. The caution alert is given typically 60 Second warning alert up to 8
nm look ahead of the terrain/obstacle conflict and is repeated every seven seconds as
long as the conflict remains within the caution area. When the warning ribbon is
intruded (typically 30 seconds prior to the terrain/obstacle conflict), EGPWS warning
lights activate and the aural message “TERRAIN, TERRAIN, PULL UP” or “OBSTACLE,
OBSTACLE, PULL UP” is enunciated with “PULL UP” repeating continuously while the
conflict is within the warning area.
(Remember EGPWS Alert at 60 seconds, 8nm every seven seconds, and warning at 30
seconds).

Q. What is Windshear?
And. Windshear is defined as a sudden change of wind velocity and/or direction.

Vertical windshear has variations of the wind component of 20 kt per 1000 ft to 30 kt

per 1000 ft are typical values, but may reach up to 10 kt per 100 ft.

Variations of horizontal wind component change in airspeed of 30 knots for light

aircraft, and near 45 knots for airliners and may reach up to 100 kt per nautical mile.

Q. What is a Microburst?
Ans. A damaging downburst wind produced from a severe thunderstorm, that covers an area
less than 4 kms. Microburst last for less than 5 minutes. Normally, microburst are the
strongest downburst wind, and are capable of immense destruction. They should be
thought of and treated no differently than tornadoes.

Q. What is the difference between Reactive Windshear and Predictive Windshear Warning?
Ans. The windshear warning is based on the assessment of aircraft performance (flight
parameters and accelerations). The windshear warning is generated whenever the
energy level of the aircraft falls below a predetermined threshold.

The windshear warning system associated to the Speed Reference System (SRS) mode
of the flight guidance constitute the Reactive Windshear Systems (RWS), since both
components react instantaneously to the current variations of aircraft parameters.
 To complement the reactive windshear system and provide an early warning of
potential windshear activity, some weather radars feature the capability to detect
windshear areas ahead of the aircraft. This equipment is referred to as a Predictive
Windshear System (PWS). PWS provides typically a one-minute advance warning.

An RWS works on the principle of comparison between inertial and aerodynamic data
through Speed Reference System (SRS) whereas a PWS works with the help of Doppler
Weather Radar.

Q. What is FANS?
Ans. FANS (Future Area Navigation Systems) is a concept made by ICAO to use the Airspace
more efficiently by developing the operational concepts for the future of Air Traffic
Management.

Operationally speaking, the biggest change provided by FANS is the way pilot and
controllers communicate. In addition to the classical VHF and HF voice, and to the more
recent satellite voice, digital CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communications)
expands the set of communication means between pilots and controllers.

FANS routes or air spaces are associated with a given RNP (Required Navigation
Performance) value. This RNP is a statement on the navigation performance accuracy
necessary for operation in this air space.

CPDLC is a powerful tool to sustain data link communications between a pilot and the
controller of the relevant flight region. It is particularly adapted to such areas where
voice communications are difficult (e.g. HF voice over oceans or remote part of the
world), and became very convenient to alleviate congested VHF of some dense
continental airspaces when utilized for routine dialogue (e.g. frequency transfer).

ADS stands for Automatic Dependent Surveillance. Two kinds of ADS exist:
1) ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B)
2) ADS-Contract (ADS-C)

These two kinds of ADS are quite different, as they do not rely on the same system.
ADS-Contract is quite similar to CPDLC as it requires the establishment of a connection
between the aircraft and the ATC centre. As per CPDLC, a notification should have been
performed prior to ADS-C operations. Through this data link, the ADS-C application
reports data requested in a contract established between the airborne system and the
ATC ground system. Considering the range of ADS-C and ADS-B, they are expected to
complement each other for a complete coverage during a transoceanic flight for
instance when the aircraft is out of VHF coverage, ADS-C makes the link between the
aircraft and the ATC centre. When in VHF coverage, ADS-B makes the link with any
ATC centre or aircraft in the vicinity, equipped with an ADS-B receiver.

ADS-B is a radically new technology that is redefining Air Traffic Management today.
Already proven and certified as a viable low cost replacement for conventional radar,
ADS-B allows pilots and air traffic controllers to “see” and control aircraft with more
precision, and over a far larger percentage of the earth's surface, than has ever been
 possible before. ADS-B uses a combination of satellites, transmitters, and receivers to
provide both flight crews and ground control personnel with very specific information
about the location and speed of airplanes in the area.

Q. What is WAAS & LASS?

Ans. They are differential GPS systems.

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by the
FAA to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS), with the goal of improving its
accuracy, integrity, and availability during the en-route navigation using LORAN-C
transmitters. WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations to measure
small variations in the GPS satellites signals. Measurements from the reference stations
are routed to master stations, which send the correction messages to geostationary
WAAS satellites in a timely manner (every 5 seconds or better). Those satellites
broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receivers
use the corrections while computing their positions to improve accuracy. ICAO calls this
type of system a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS). Europe and Asia are
developing their own SBASs, the Indian GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation
(GAGAN) and the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). Chinese
GPS system which is named Beidou was operational in December 2012 and has 16
operational satellites. It plans to provide global coverage from 2020.

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an all-weather aircraft landing system
based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal. Local reference receivers
located around the airport send data to a central location at the airport. This data is
used to formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to users via a VHF
Data Link during the approach procedures. A receiver on an aircraft uses this
information to correct GPS signals, which then provides a standard ILS-style display to
use while flying a precision approach. ICAO calls this type of system a Ground Based
Augmentation System (GBAS). This information is used to create an ILS-type display for
aircraft approach and landing purposes.

LAAS mitigates GPS threats in the Local Area to a much greater accuracy than WAAS
and therefore provides a higher level of service not attainable by WAAS. LAAS's VHF
uplink signal is currently slated to share the frequency band from 108 MHz to 118 MHz
with existing ILS localizer and VOR navigational aids. LAAS utilizes a Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) Technology in servicing the entire airport with a single
frequency allocation. With future replacement of ILS, LAAS will reduce the congested
VHF NAV band. One of the primary benefits of LAAS is that a single installation at a
major airport can be used for multiple precision approaches within the local area. This
represents a significant cost savings in maintenance and upkeep of the existing ILS
equipment. Another benefit is the potential for approaches that are not straight-in.
Aircraft equipped with LAAS technology can utilize curved or complex approaches such
that they could be flown on to avoid obstacles or to decrease noise levels in areas
surrounding an airport. This technology shares similar characteristics with the older
Microwave Landing System (MLS) Approaches, commonly seen in Europe. Both systems
allow lower visibility requirements on complex approaches that traditional Wide Area
 Augmentation Systems (WAAS) and Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) could not allow.
(Remember LAAS uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Technology).

Q. What is GLS?
Ans. GNSS Landing System is a Precision instrument approach.

Q. What is Ground-based augmentation system (GBAS)?

Ans. An augmentation system in which the user receives augmentation information directly
from a ground-based transmitter.

Q. What is GAGAN?
Ans. The GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) is a planned implementation of a
regional Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) by the Indian government. It is a
system to improve the accuracy of a GNSS receiver by providing reference signals.

The project involves establishment of 15 Indian Reference Stations, 03 Indian

Navigation Land Uplink Stations, 03 Indian Mission Control Centers and installation of
all associated software and communication links. GAGAN is planned to get into
operation by the year 2014. It will be able to help pilots to navigate in the Indian
airspace by an accuracy of 3 meters. This will be helpful for landing aircraft in tough
weather and terrain like Mangalore and Leh.

The project is being implemented in three phases through 2008 by the Airport Authority
of India with the help of the Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO) technology and
space support. US defense contractor Raytheon is the technology partner to build the
system.

The space component will become available after the GAGAN payload on the GSAT-8
communication satellite, which was launched recently, is switched on. This payload was
also on the GSAT-4 satellite that was lost when the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) failed during launch in April 2010.

To begin implementing a satellite-based augmentation system over the Indian airspace,

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) codes for L1 frequency and L5 frequency were
obtained from the United States Air Force and U.S Department of Defense on November
2001 and March 2005. The system will use eight reference stations located in Delhi,
Guwahati, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore, Jammu and Port Blair,
and a Master Control Center at Bangalore.
GRID MORA Colors
Blue circle green circle (TMA, airport etc.) on Enroute charts
Highest obstacle natural or man made
MSA ARP Aerodrome Reference Point
Guwhati Approach Plates
Patna Approach Plates
Cochin Approach Plates – RNAV

Colour or TCAS RA? Red or Magenta? Diamond or Square? SOLID RED SQUARE
When does an arrow comes on traffic?
What kind of indication TCAS RA gives on vertical climb?

Why MZFW is important?

Climb Gradient
Performance – definition of V1, V2, How Vso is calculated
Balanced Field Length

Srinagar QNH procedures (different QNH settings) – will it initiate a TCAS warning
Tolerance of Altimeter on Ground and in Air
Nuisance RA
Level to maintain after pressurization failure? MEA
Actions if ASI fails in RVSM
What if weather is below minima at ETOPS suitable airport before takeoff.
METAR VCSH (5 nm)

Type of Radar Antenna oxford 161

Seasons
Equinox
Convergency
CA
Lambert properties
Mercator advantages
MOCA MORA RVSM
RVSM

Outer marker symbol

Schular tuning; first and second integration
NDB Property
NDB Principle
INS/IRS
Accelerometer
IRS Fixed with aircraft?
Enroute RNP 5 & 10
Precision RNAV + or – 1NM

1/60
Height = Angle X Range X 101 = 3 10 100
10 nm away from the airfield calculate aircraft height

Height = 200 ft; Range 10000 ft

Height = Angle X Range X 101

% = Height (NM) / Range * 100
ROD = angle X GS X 100/60
% = ROD/GS * 6080

Distance = Speed * Time