Cells:

The basic unit of life

1 Boundaries (cell wall and cell membrane)
The cell wall
Found in plant cells only.
Position:
Found on the outside of the cell membrane of plant cells.
Structure:
Made up of strands of cellulose (carbohydrate); tough but
slightly flexible. There are very small spaces between the
strands.
As plants grow in size and age the cell wall of some cells
needs extra strengthening. The cytoplasm makes waterproof
lignin, which is laid down between the cellulose fibres. As
more and more lignin is laid down, water and nutrients can no
longer enter the cell. The cell contents die and an empty ‘box’
remains. This how wood is mode.
Functions:
Permeable (until lignified) therefore all substances that are in
solution can pass through it.
It keep the shape of the cell.
It supports the cell.
The cell wall is well suited to its functions in the following
ways:
• The cell wall is firm and strong and can support the cell.
• The cell wall is permeable. The strands of cellulose form
woven fibres with spaces in between them. Substances in
solution can move easily through the cell wall.
• The cellulose fibres are firm but slightly flexible, making the
cell wall elastic so it can stretch outwards when the vacuole
is full of cell sap (when the cell is turgid).
• Lignified cell walls are very strong and waterproof and,
therefore, support the plant.
The cell membrane
Found in plant and animal cells.
The cell membrane is part of the cytoplasm. It is like the skin
on boiled milk.
Position:
Found surrounding the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells. In
plant cells it is found on the inside of the cell wall.
Structure:
Explained by means of a model called the fluid mosaic
model.
There are three types of molecules – phospholipid
molecules, proteins and carbohydrates.
The fluid mosaic model:
The cell membrane consists of three different types of
molecules.
The phospholipid and protein molecules form a pattern or
mosaic. The protein molecules float between the phospholipid
molecules. All the molecules move (hence fluid).
They can move upwards downwards and sideways.
Some protein molecules are found on the surface of the
membrane; others extend through the membrane, such as the
channel proteins that have a gap running through them.
Functions:
Forms a boundary on the outside of the cytoplasm
keeping all the contents of the cell together.
Some protein molecules assist with the movement of
substances in and out of the cell.
It is selectively permeable (the term differentially
permeable is also used), only allowing certain
substances that are required by the cell to pass
through it. It acts like a security guard, checking what
may and may not enter the cell.
Movement (transport) across membranes

Diffusion
Passive transport – kinetic
energy of the moving
molecules supplies the energy
Movement of Osmosis (diffusion of
molecules across water through a selectively
a cell membrane permeable membrane)
Active transport – energy
required is supplied by ATP
from the mitochondria.
Passive transport
• Diffusion is the random movement of one type of molecule from
a region of high concentration of the molecule to a region
where there is a low concentration of that kind of molecule until
dynamic equilibrium is reached (the molecules are evenly
spread throughout the region).
The energy required by the moving molecules is supplied by
their own kinetic energy therefore this is a passive process. No
energy is added from the outside.
• Osmosis is diffusion of water molecules from a region of high
concentration (more pure water) to a region of low concentration
(less pure water) through a selectively permeable membrane.
 The region where there is a high concentration of water molecules which
have a lot of kinetic energy is known as a high water potential.
 The region where there is a low concentration of water molecules which
have less kinetic energy is known as a low water potential.
• Endosmosis is the movement of water into a cell.
• Exosmosis is the movement of water out of a cell.
Active transport
In order for active transport to take place, a supply of energy by
ATP from the mitochondria is required. Energy is added to the
process.
Active transport:
• Required when a substance needs to be moved against a
diffusion gradient, which means from a low concentration to a
high concentration.
• Required to transport large molecules through the cell
membrane into the cell.
There are different types of proteins in the cell membrane that
perform this active transport, for example:
• Channel proteins have a tunnel or passage through the middle
of the large molecule. Energy from ATP is used to pull the
molecule through the tunnel.
• Transport proteins collect a molecule on their upper surface
towards the outside of the cell. The transport protein then uses
energy from ATP to ‘bend over’ or ‘flip over’ and put the required
molecules inside the cytoplasm.
Examples of active transport in living organisms
include:
• Plants need to take in minerals from the soil. The
root hair cells are responsible for this. The
minerals are transported through the cell
membrane against the concentration gradient.
• In animals and people, sodium and potassium ions
are moved across the membranes of nerve cells to
allow nerve impulses to work.
• In animals and people, some digested food is
absorbed by active transport into cells lining the
small intestine making the absorption of food more
efficient.
The cell membrane is well suited to its
functions:
• The cell membrane forms a boundary.
• The selectively permeable nature of the
membrane only allows certain substances to
enter and leave it. There are a number of
different ways in which substances can enter
and leave the cell, thus ensuring the cell
receives the necessary substances and gets
rid of unwanted substances.
The nucleus
Found in both plant and animal cells.
Position:
There are only one nucleus in each cell. It is found in the
cytoplasm.
Structure:
• Nucleolus (not surrounded by a membrane) – a dense body
consisting of nucleic acid and protein molecules.
• Nuclear pore
 Links the cytoplasm with the nucleoplasm
 Allows movement of substances in and out of the nucleus.
• Chromatin network composed of DNA molecules which contain
genes (information about characteristics and for inheritance)
• Double nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope) enclosing
nuclear material
• Nucleoplasm (similar to cytoplasm) contains free nucleotides for
DNA replication and RNA production.
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can be continuous with nuclear
membrane
Functions:
The nucleus id the control centre for the contents of the
cytoplasm ensuring that it works together as one unit.
It holds, in the chromosomes, the hereditary information which
needs to be passed on to future generations of cells.
The nucleus is well suited to its functions:
• The templates or instructions to make proteins required by
the cell are found in the genetic makeup (in the DNA
molecules). These proteins help control the activities of the
cell.
• The information required to be passed on to future
generations of cells is found in the genetic makeup. This
information ensures that every cell can work as it should
and keep the organism alive.
• The nuclear pores allow substances to move into and out
of the nucleus easily.
• The nucleolus store some nucleic molecules.
The Cytoplasm
Found in both plant and animal cells.
Position:
The cytoplasm fills the cell and surrounds the
organelles and other bodies.
Structure:
The cytoplasm consists of 70 % − 80 % water. In this
fluid are many organic nutrients, minerals and
nucleic acids.
It is able to change state from a liquid to a jelly and
vice versa (back again).
This enables the cytoplasm to move by cyclosis.
Function:
Important chemical reactants take place in the cytoplasm,
such as the first stage of cellular respiration.
Storage of chemicals occurs such as lipids in oil droplets.
Movement of substances takes place by cyclosis.
In some cell the change of state from liquid to jelly enables
the cell ty move, for example allowing white blood cells to
engulf germs.
The cytoplasm is well suited to its functions:
• The cytoplasm is watery substance that can store dissolved
molecules in solution.
• It can change from a liquid to a jelly-like substance and vice
versa, depending on the needs of the cell.
• Cyclosis allows the transport of molecules and organelles
around the cell.
The mitochondrion
Found in both plant and animal cells.
Position:
There are many mitochondria found in the cytoplasm,
particularly in very active cells, such as those found in the
liver and muscles.
Structure:
• Outer membrane
• Ribosomes make the enzymes that help to speed up the
chemical reactions of cellular respiration.
• Cristae are folds of the inner membrane to increase the
surface area for the chemical reactions of cellular
respiration.
• Matrix is the liquid substance that fills the mitochondrion –
contains enzymes and necessary molecules for cellular
respiration.
Function:
Mitochondrion are responsible for the process of cellular
respiration whereby stored chemical energy in glucose is
made available as usable energy (ATP).
The mitochondrion is well suited to its function of cellular
respiration:
• The inner membrane is folded into projections called
cristae. These increase the surface area on which many
chemical reactions can take place to produce ATP.
• The ribosomes in the matrix make the necessary enzymes
required for cellular respiration on site. The enzymes do not
have to come from the cytoplasm.
• The selectively permeable membrane allows the necessary
molecules into the mitochondrion and the products of
cellular respiration (ATP, water and carbon dioxide) to
leave.
The ribosomes
Found in both plant and animal cells.
Position:
Ribosomes are found floating in the cytoplasm, on the endoplasmic
reticulum (rough ER), as well as in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Structure:
Ribosomes are not surrounded by a membrane, they are made up
of a collection of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Function:
Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis.
The occurrence of ribosomes is well suited to its function of protein
synthesis.
• Ribosomes are found throughout the cytoplasm and make the
necessary proteins, especially enzymes to control chemical
reactions.
• Ribosomes in the mitochondria and chloroplasts make the
necessary enzymes close to the site where they are required.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Found in both plant and animal cells.
Position:
Endoplasmic reticulum forms a network of membranes
throughout the cell spreading through the cytoplasm,
It can be connected to the cell membrane and to the nuclear
membrane.
Some ER can be in contact with Golgi bodies.
Structure:
Tube-like membranes (cisternae) which are flattened to form
plate-like structures.
If there are no ribosomes on the ER then it is known as
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
If there are ribosomes on the membranes then it is known as
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
The end can form swellings like bubbles, which pinch off as
vesicles.
Functions:
Divides the cell up into many smaller sections or compartments.
Different chemical reactions can take place in different
compartments without influencing other chemical reactions.
It provides a huge internal surface area where chemical reactions
can take place.
It acts like a highway along which substances can be transported
from one part of the cell to another part.
The ER is well suited to its functions:
• The different compartments formed by the network of ER allow
different chemical reactions to take place without affecting other
reactions.
• The arrangement of many layers of membranes, which are
connected provides the ER with very large surface area on
which chemical reactions can occur.
• The network of membranes throughout the cytoplasm forms
pathways for the transport of materials throughout the cell.
• Proteins made on the ribosomes can be transported to the Golgi
body for further processing.
The Golgi body
Found in the cytoplasm of both plant and animal cells.
Position:
Many Golgi bodies are present in the cells that are found in
glands, which secrete substances such as mucus.
They are also found in nerve cells (neurons).
In plant cells they can be found close to cell wall.
Structure:
A Golgi body is made up of stacks of flattened membranous
sacs called cisternae (singular cisterna).
The sacs are filled with fluid and at their ends they can bulge
into something like a bubble which is pinched off forming
smaller membranous sacs called vesicles.
Function:
A Golgi body receives proteins from the ER and then packages
then in vesicles.
The vesicles move to other parts of the cell or to the cell membrane
where the contents are released to the outside of the cell.
The Golgi body may modify proteins by adding carbohydrates parts
to proteins to form glycol-proteins.
The Golgi body also produces secretory enzymes such as digestive
enzymes and packages them in vesicles called lysosomes. It may
also transport carbohydrates required to build cell walls (cellulose)
in plant cells.
The Golgi body is well suited to its functions:
• It is able to assemble different molecules together. This is
possible because it is close to the rough ER to receive proteins
from the ribosomes.
• There are enzymes in the cisternae that modify proteins.
• The ends of the flattened cisternae can pinch off forming
vesicles in which the products can be transported to other parts
of the cell.
Vesicles are membranous sacs made by the Golgi body.
They can contain different substances.
If the substances are enzymes, then the vesicles is known as
a lysosome.
In white blood cells the lysosome will fuse with food vacuole
which contains the foreign body and digest it.
Within the cell, the lysosome will fuse with an old worn out
organelle and digest it into its constituent molecules, which
can be recycled.
When a cell dies the lysosomes break down the remains of
the cell. This is known as autolysis.
The plastids
Found only in plant cells.
There are three different types of plastids. They are
responsible for the production of food (chloroplasts)
and storage of food (leucoplasts) and pigments
(chromoplasts).
The plastids can change from one type to another.
For example, a green tomato has many chloroplasts.
As the tomato ripens, the chloroplasts change to
chromoplasts giving the tomato a pink then red
colour.
a) Chloroplast
Position:
Found in the cells of green plants that are exposed to
sunlight.
Structure:
• Double membrane – permeable to raw materials and
products of photosynthesis.
• Ribosomes – make enzymes required for photosynthesis.
• Granum – pile of double membranes called thylakoids.
• Thylakoids – contains the chlorophyll.
• Intergranum – links the grana
• Starch granule – stores glucose
• Oil droplets – stores oil
• Stroma –fluid background substance
Function:
Photosynthesis
chlorophyll
carbon dioxide + water
radiant energy
glucose + oxygen

The chloroplast is well suited to its function of photosynthesis:

• The selectively permeable double membrane allows carbon
dioxide and water into the chloroplast and glucose and
oxygen to leave the chloroplast.
• There are many thylakoids inside the chloroplast, with
chlorophyll molecules on their surface to trap the radiant
energy.
• The ribosomes in the stroma make the necessary enzymes
for photosynthesis on site.
• Starch granules store the starch, which is made up of many
glucose molecules that are made during photosynthesis.
• The oil droplets store oil.
b) Leucoplasts
Position:
Found especially in storage organs such as a tuber, for
example a potato.
Structure:
These are colour plastids.
Function:
Storage of food, especially starch.
They can change to chloroplasts. For example, if a potato is
left where it is light, the leucoplasts under the skin changes to
chloroplasts and the potato then has a green colour.
c) Chromoplasts
Position:
In the cells of fruits and flowers
Structure:
Small organelles that contain, red, yellow or orange pigments.
Function:
The pigments give fruit and flower petals their colours.
For example, orange carrots, red peppers, yellow bananas.
In flowers, the pigments are important to attract pollinating
agents such as birds and insects.
Vacuoles
Position:
Vacuoles are found in the cytoplasm of both plant and animal
cells.
Structure:
In animals there are many small temporary ones.
Young plants cells have many small vacuoles.
As the plant cell matures so the vacuoles join together to form
one very large vacuoles which can take up most of the space
of the cell.
The membrane surrounding the vacuole is called the
tonoplast and the contents is called the cell sap.
Functions:
Storage of water and dissolved substances such as minerals,
pigments and sugars.
Support: When water moves into the cell by endosmosis the
vacuole becomes very full and pushes against the
cytoplasm, which then pushes against the cell wall.
The cell is then said to be turgid. This makes the
cell firm and, collectively, all the firm cells together
support the plant in an upright position.
If the cell loses water by exosmosis the vacuole
loses water. The vacuole no longer pushes against
the cell wall. The cell loses its firmness and
becomes flaccid. The plant loses its support and
wilts. This happens in very dry conditions.
The vacuole is well suited to its functions:
• The vacuole stores cell sap (water and dissolved minerals
and sugars) acting as a storage ‘tank for the cell.
• In plants, some vacuoles contain pigments which give blue
or purple colour to flowers and fruit.
• In plants, the vacuole, when filled with cell sap, makes the
cell turgid hence giving support to the plant.
Some special types of vacuoles:
a) Contractile vacuoles
Found in the cells of aquatic organisms.
The excess water that moves into cells is collected up by
contractile vacuoles.
When the vacuole is full it moves to the edge of the cell and
gets rid of the water that it contains.
This is known as osmoregulation.
b) Food vacuoles
Contain food to be digested.
 Differences between Plant cells and
Animal Cells
Plant Cells Animal cells
Most plant cells have a Most animal cells have an
regular shape. irregular shape.
Cell wall present Cell wall absent
Vacuoles are large Vacuoles are small or
absent
Cell membrane lack Cell membrane may have
microvilli microvilli
Plastids may be present No plastids present
No centrosome present Centrosome present
Mitosis