DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

3.5
39.35 x 10-d x
NN,= 64
or = 2.15 mW
N
n) Signal power S, and SNR can be calculated as under

=
A = .

Output signal power max Ans.

2

So 1/2
Output signal to noise ratio N.
q (2.15x10
or (SNR), = 232.3 or 23.66 dB. Ans.

EXAMPLE 3.34. The bandwidth of TV video

plus audio signal is 4.5 MHz. If this signal i
into PCM bit stream with 1024
quantization levels, determine number of bits/sec of thoverted
signal. Assume that the signal is sampled at the rate 20% above
Solution : Given that
Nyquist rate.
fm 4.5 MHz, q= 1024

or
f= 20% above the Nyquist rate =1.2 x 2 f1.2 x 2x 4.5 MH.
f,= 10.8 MHz.
Let us calculate the number of bits/sec.

r=vf
But, we do not know the value of v.
We know that
2
2 1024
V 10
= x
Therefore, bits/sec 10 10.8 MHz =
108 M bits/sec. Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.35. If a voice frequency is sampled at the rate of
characterized by peak value of 2 Volts,signal 32,000 samples/sec and
What is determine the value of step size to avoid
quantization noise power N, and corresponding SNR ? slope overload.
kHz. Assume bandwidth of as4 signal
Solution:Given that f 32,000 samples/sec.
Peak value of the =
signal A 2 V.
Bandwidth BW 4 kHz. =

4) Step size A to avoid slope overload

can be caleulated as under
To avoid slope overload the
following condition must be satisfied:
AS
2 T 2 Afg
27Tfm
Substituting the values, we obtain
2s4x32000

21tx 4x103

or
2x 27T x 4x10*
A2
32000
or A2 1.57 Volt Ans.
(i) Next, we find the quantization noise power (N,).
The quantization noise power for a delta modulator is given by

N=157 .

0.822 W
Gii) We know that the signal to noise ratio is
given by
3r 3x(32103)3 = Ans.
19.45
SNR R2 2
BW 8t x(4 x103 2 x 4x103
 WAVEFORM CODING TECHNIQUES

EXAMPLE 3.36. A compact disc (CD) records audio signals digitally PCM. Assume audio
by
bandwidth to be 15 kHz. If signals are sampled at a rate 20% above signal's
rate for
Nyquist practical
reasons and the samples are
encode
quantized into 65,536 levels. Determine bits/sec required to
the signal and minimum bandwidth required to transmit encoded
signal.
(WBTU, Kolkata, Sem. Exam., 2006-07)
Solution: Given that m15kHz f= 1.2 x 2 fm
2.4 x 1.5 kHz =
36 kHz
q 65,536.
Signaling rate (r) can be calculated as under:
We know that q 2
V= log,

or V (65,536) =16
log102
Now, sigmaling rate r = vf, = 16 x 36 kHz = 576 Kbits/sec. Ans.
Hence, the signaling rate r is 576 Kbits/sec.
i) Minimum bandwidth can be calculated as under
576
BW (signaling rate) = Kbits/sec.
Therefore, minimum bandwidth, BWmin
min
288 kHz. Ans.

EXAMPLE 3.37. In a single integration DM scheme, the voice signal is sampled at a rate of 64 kHz.
The maximum signal amplitude is 1 Volt.
(6) Determine the minimum value of step size to avoid slope overload.
(ii) Determine granular noise power Ng, if the voice signal bandwidth is 3.5 kHz.
(ii) Assuming signal to be sinusoidal, calculate signal power S, and signal to noise ratio (SNR).
(iv) Assuming that the voice signal amplitude is uniformly distributed in the range (-1, 1),
determine S and SNR.
= 1 Volt
Solution: Given that f= 64 kHz A
0) Minimum step size to avoid slope overload is given by

AS Afg
21t fm

27Tfm A 2Tx3.5x10" x1
or
Amin 64 x103
or min0.3436 Volt. Ans.
Dnin
1) Granular noise power is expressed as

(0.3436)2 3.5
X
3 64
Solving, we get = 2.15 x 10- W Ans.
N.
FYAMn nlituda of innut signal m(t) is confined
 EXAMPLE 3.40. Atelephone signal with cut-off frequency of 4kHz is digitized into 8 bit PCM, sample
t Nvquist rate. Calculate the baseband transmission bandwidth and quantization S/N ratio.
Solution:
G) The Nyquist rate = 2 x 4 kHz= 8 kHz.

Transmission bandwidth, B = N f = x 8 x 8 kHz = 32 kHz

i i ) SNR,= (1.8 + 6N) dB = 1.8 + (6 x 8) = 49.8 dB

EXAMPLE 3.41. In a single integration DM scheme, the voice signal is sampled at a rate of 64 kH:
The maximum signal amplitude is 2 volts. Voice signal bandwidth is 3.5 kHz. Determine th
minimum value of step size to avoid slope overload and granular noise power.
Solution: Given that: f =64 kHz, Amax2V, fm = 3.5 kHz

G) Mininmum step size to avoid slope overload

We know that, minfs

Amax 21tfm
21t fm Amax 2tx3.5x10 x2
NZE| 0.6872 volt Ans.
min 64x10

(ii) Granular noise power

8xfm(0.6872) 3.0 = 8.6 x

We have N 64
10-3 W Ans.
3f 3

has a bandwidth of 3.5 MHz. This signal

EXAMPLE 3.42. A television signal (video and audio)
to obtain a PCM signal.
sampled, quantized and binary coded
Determine the sampling rate if the signal
is to be sampled at a rate 20% above the Nyquis
(i)
rate.
determine the number of binary pulse
are
quantized into 1024 levels,
If the samples
(ii)
required to encode each sample. minimuur
second) of binary coded signal and the
iii) Determine the binary pulse rate (bits per
bandwidth required to transmit the signal.
converted to companded PCM, will
the output bit rate changec
Ifabove linear PCM system is
Justify.
W 4.5 MHz
Solution: Given that, 2 W
= 1.2 x Nyquist rate =1.2 x
Sampling rate
= 10.8 MHz
= x 2 x 4.5 x 106
1.2

(11) Given that number of quantization levels,

Q 2N

Hence, number of binary pulse per word

N= log2Q
N= log, 1024
or,
or N 10
=
= x 10.8
= 10 MHz 108 Mbps
i) Binary pulse rate (bit rate) Nf,
=
= bit rate 54 MHz
Also, bandwidth
EXAMPLE 3.40. A telephone into 8 bit PCM, sampled
at Nyquist rate. Calculate the baseband transmission bandwidthdigitized
signal with cut-off frequency of 4 kHz is and quantization SIN ratio.

Solution:
) The Nyquist rate = 2 x 4 kHz = 8 kHz.

i) Transmission bandwidth, B =N x8x8 kHz =32 kHz

i SNR, = (1.8 + 6N) dB = 1.8+ (6 x 8) =49.8 dB

EXAMPLE 3.41. In a single integration DM scheme, the voice signal is sampled at a rate of 64 kHz.
The maximum signal amplitude is 2 volts. Voice signal bandwidth is 3.5 kHz. Determine the
minimum value of step size to avoid slope overload and granular noise power.
Solution: Given that: , = 64 kHz, Amax2V, fm =3.5 kHz
to avoid slope overload
a) Minimum step size

We know that, A min's

max 21th m

21tfm Amax 2tx3.5x103x2 = 0.6872 volt Ans.

min f, 64x103

(i) Granular noise power

8 xfm(0.6872)x 3.= 8.6x 103 W Ans.

We have N 3 3 64

has a bandwidth of 3.5 MHz. This signal is

EXAMPLE 3.42. A television signal (video and audio)
obtain a PCM signal.
sampled, quantized and binary coded to
to be sampled at a rate 20% above the Nyquist
i)Determine the sampling rate if the signal is
rate.
number of binary pulses
If the are quantized into 1024 levels, determine the
(ii) samples
required to encode each sample.
coded signal and the minimumn
rate
(bits per second) of binary
(iii) Determine the binary pulse
bandwidth required to transmit the signal.
will the output bit rate changed?
PCM is converted to companded PCM,
Ifabove linear system
Justify. W= 4.5 MHz
Solution: Given that, = x 2 W
= 1.2 x Nyquist rate 1.2
Sampling rate
x 2 x 4.5 x 106 =10.8 MHz
1.2
levels,
i) Given that number of quantization
Q 2
word
Hence, number of binary pulse per
N log
N log, 1024
or,
N= 10
or =
= 10 x 108 Mbps
( ) Binary pulse rate (bit rate) Nf, 10.8 MHz
rate =54 MHz
Also, bandwidth =bit
 EXAMPLE 3.43. A compact disc (CD) records audio signals digitally by using PO
audio M.
signal bandwidth to be 15 kHz.
(i) What is Nyquist rate. Assume the
(i) fthe Nyquist samples are quantized into L= 65,536 levels and then binary end.
the number of binary digits required to encode a sample. oded, etermine
(ii) Determine the number of binary digits per second (bit/s) required to
encad.de
signal.
the audio
iw For practical reasons, the signals are sampled at a rate well above Nyquist w
Samples per second. IfL = 65, 536, determine number of bits per second requiredt at 44, 100
Signal and transmission bandwidth of encoded signal. ncode the
Solution: Given that W 15 kHz
() Nyquist rate = 2 W= 2 x 15 kHz = 30 kHz.
(i) Number of quantization levels
Q= 65.536
We know that Q 2N
2N=65-586-
or
N 16 bits.
Hence, number of bits to encode each sample is N= 16
(ii) Number of bits per second Number of samples/sec.
=
x Number of bits/ sample
=
15 x 103 x 16 240 k bits/sec.
iv) Hence practical sampling rate f = 44.1 kHz
Also, number of bits per second 44.1 x 16 103
=
x
=705.6 k bits/sec.
Transmission bandwidth B Bit rate 705.6x10 = 352.8 kHz.
2 2

EXAMPLE 3.44. A delta Modulator

system operates at 3 times Nyquist rate for
bandwidth. The quantization step is 250 mV. signal with 3.3 kHz
Determine the maximum
sinusoid for which the DM does not
show slope overload.
amplitude of a 1 kHz input
Solution: Given that W =3.3 kHz,
fm 1kHz, 8 250 m V, f =8 x 2W 19.8 kHz.
= =
=

) Let the maximum amplitude of 1 kHz input sinusoid be A.

The condition to avoid the
slope overload is given by
AS

2n 28f,_fm
Hence, maximum value of A

250 x10 x19.8x103

Substituting the values, we
get, max = 0.787 Ans.
2Tx1x10
EXAMPLE 3.45. An audio signal with highest
frequency
with asampling rate of 8000 samples/sec. The requiredcomponent 3300 Hz is pulse code modulated
(i) What is the minimum number of uniform signal-to-quantization noise ratio is 40 dB.
quantising levels needed?
(ii) What is the minimum number of bits per sample needed?
(iii) Calculate the minimum number of bits per sample needed?
olution: Given that f= 8000 samples/sec., fm=3300 Hz, = 40 dB
Na
Value of Q and N
Assuming the input signal to be non sinusoidal, we write
S/N (4.8 + 6 NdR
 2b 2

Examples with Solutions

Example 14. A signal mlt) bandlimited to 4 KHz is sampled at a rate 50 % higher than Nyquist rate. The maximum acceptable
error in the sample amplitude is 1 % of peak amplitude. The quantized samples are binary coded. Find minimum bandwidth of a
channel reguired to transmit the encoded binary signal. SPPU Dec-10, Marks 8
Solution : To obtain samplling rate ()
Here W = 4000 Hz and f, = 50 % higher tharn Nyquist rate. This means,

Ss= 1.5 xNyquist rate

= 1.5x2 W (since Nyquist rate = 2 W)

1 . 5 x 2 x 4000 = 12000 samples/sec.

To obtain bits per sample (v)

We know that f o r normalized signal. Here peak amplitude is 1V for normalized signal. Here 1 % of 1v

is 0.01 V. Thus maximum acceptable error (emax) is 1% or 0.01 V. For uniform quantization,

Emax

0.01 2 Here emax = 0.01 is maximum acceptable error.

Or 8 = 0.02

And

2
4 O07 100 levels.

And 4 2

or v = 1og10 Tog102100= 6.643

log104log10
log29 log102
since v is integer, v 7 bits.

Minimum bandwidth

For PCM, Er = vf= *7 x1200=42kHz.

 Tcation
Digitel Transmisslon of
EXample 1.4.7
1-42 Anelog Sipn
13mission having
A binary channel UTth bit-rate of 56 kbps is available for uniform PCM voice tranismission having sigral
signal ba
of 3.4 kHz. with bit-rate of 56 kbps 1s
ma banduwidth
Calculate
Sampling frequency i Number of bits per SAmple
Quantization levels toith step size tv) Transmission bandwidth for two channels
D Sigral to
noise ratio. SPPU Dec. 09,
Solution : Given data: Marks 8
W =3.4 kHz, r= 56 kbps
D Sampling frequency

s22W
2 2x34 kHz 2 6.8 kHz
i) Number of blts
per sample
r vfs

56x103 vx68x103= =8.23

=
v = 9 bits/sample
l) Quanttzation levels with
step size
levels,
2 =2" =512 levels
Step size, 88 4maz2x1
a
= =
assuming mar =
1V = 3.9 mv

) Transmission bandwldth for two channels

.Transmission bandwidth for one channel
will be,
B2 vW
2 9x34kHz 30.6 kHz =

Hence transmission bandwidth for two

channels will be,
Br (two channels) 2
2xBr
2
2x30.6kHz =
61.2 kHz
vSignal to nolse ratio

dB (4.8+60)dB 48+ (6x9) =58.8. =

dB
 Digital Communication
1-46
*****************
*********nt m vo
re
igital
Transmisslon
ano D

e*******"****'********************"*********"********""*******************
************************************ ot
Output Analr

Small step size

at.
Low input levels
x(nT
Input
*** ***

"**** *****
**s*********

Quantization error (e)

Small quantization error (b.

at low input levels

**********AA **AA*AAAAAmAAA AAAnsAANAAAAMeMAAs

AMAnAaaMARARAAaeaaLAa**** **tsewnAAAALUN AAuaeanss
*ANa*suAsAAALAvastuueaMAAAAARMAASAanuA*oAAtARMAASA ANANnwAA SMARA
AAMAAAMAAA
Fig. 1.5.1 (a) Nonuniform
quantlzation transfer characteristic
(b) Quantization error
1.5.2 Need of Non-uniform Quantization
i) The
or
Companding
signal to
quantization noise ratio should remain uniform for all
i) The
signal levels.
signals with high crest factor (ratio of peak value to rms value) have poor signal
ratio for uniform
quantization. Hence high crest factor
to
quantiza ise
with non-uniform quantization. signal such as
speech and music must
be
ii) Signal to
quantization noise ratio for weak
signals is very poor, Hence nonuniform quantization is reqt
for such signal.

iv) Signals with wide dynamic range must be sampled using non-uniform quantization.
5.3 Companding
Normally we don't know how
the signal level will vary in advance. Therefore the nonuniform quantization
(variable step size ') becomes difficult to implement. Therefore the signal is amplified at low signal levels and
attenuated at high signal levels. After this process, uniform quantization is used. This is equivalent to more ste
size at low signal levels and small step size at high signal levels. At the receiver a reverse process is done. Th
is
s signal attenuated at low signal levels and amplified at high signal levels to get original signal. Thus
t
compression of signal at transmitter and expansion at receiver is called combinely as companding. ig 13|
shows compression and expansion curves.
Digital Communicetion
1-47 Digital Transmlssion of Analog Signal

As can be seen from

************A*AwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwAww**NNAw*ww**P******A********

Fig. 1.5.2, at the

receiver, the signal is Vout
expanded exactly -Compression
opposite to compression curve at transmitter
to get original signal. A dotted line in the
Expansion
Fig. 1.5.2 shows uniform quantization. The
compression and expansion is obtained by Linear characteristics
passing he signal through the amplifier
having nonlinear transfer characteristic as Expansion
at receiver

shown in Fig. 1.5.2. That is nonlinear

transfer characteristic means
compression
and expansion curves.
Compression
at transmitter

****AAAAw*MA MAAAMAA M aAmwwwwwwammn

Fig. 1.5.2 Companding curves for PCM

1.5.4 - Law Companding for Speech Signals
.Normally for speech and music signals a -law
compression is used. This compression is defined by the
50
following equation, With companding
40
Z(x) = (Sgn x) xlS1
(1.5.1)
30
Fig. 1.5.3 shows the variation of signal to noise ratio Without companding
with respect to signal level without companding and 20-
with companding.
40 -30 -20 -10 0
I t can be observed from Fig. 1.5.3 that signal to noise Signal level dB
* ** ww.w* wwww.w.ww

ratio of PCM remains almost constant with companding.

wwwwwwwww wwwwww.wwwwww.wwwwwww.*****

Fig. 1.5.4 (a) shows the compressor characteristic for

Fig. 1.5.3 PCM perfomance with law companding
-law.

1.5.5 ALaw for Companding

The A-law provides piecewise compressor characteristic. It has linear segment for low level inputs and
logarithmic segment for high level inputs. It is defined as,

AX for 0sxls
1+InA
x) (1.5.2)
1+ In( Ax|)
+ InÅ for forxs1 s1

.When A = 1, we get uniform quantization. The practical value for A is 87.56. Both A-law and -law

companding is used for PCM telephone systems. Fig. 1.54 (b) shows the characteristic for A-law.
 ********************************************* *********************.*******************vnae ssaud bessee sanoo

a***

Normalised olp z(x) ;

"T******;******"j******g***** *?***** *i n

Normalised olp z({x)-

**********************

wwwwwo***wwwwwww.ww
Digital Communication 1-49
Digital Transm/ssion of Analog Signal
Solution: Here fs = 8000 Hz
40 dB.
S
= 10 l0810 N
40 10log10 = 10 = 10,000
i) Number of levels (4) and number of bits (v)
For audio signal. 4.8 +6 v
JdB
40 4.8 + 6 v
v = 5.86 - 6 bits.
And 2 = 64 levels.
i Bandwidth (B)
Br f =x6x8000=24 kHz
ii) Number of levels (q), bits (v) and bandwidth (B, ) for A-law companding
used). From equation (1.6.15)
of Ais not specified. Hence assume A =87.56 (which commonly
is
.Here value
3gPA2
(1+ InA)
S
Putting forand
N A,
10,000 34(8756
(1+In87.56)
9= 3.6 4 levels
log104 loB10=2 bits
v =
log29 log10 2 log102
B f-*2x8000=B000Hz
than the Nyguist rate and quantized into
256
1 MHz is sampled at a rate 50 % higher
Example 1.6.2 A signal bandlimited to
255.
evels ustng 4 p law guantizer with
desired SNR
Deternmine the signal to quantization noise ratio. must be increased byatleast10 dB. Would you be able to obtain the
The SNR found in part i) was
unsatistactory, t Nyquistrate is adequate ? f so
sampling ate 20 % above the
banduridihifit was found that a SPPO Dec-07, Matts 10
hout inCreasing the transmission
thatcan be realizedinthisway
eplainhoD What ismaximumSNR
****
Solution Given data:
1MHz.
Bandwidth of signal, W
=
IFSS THAN PHOT0cOPY PRICE
 Digital Transmission of Analog Sion
Communication 1-50
Nyquist rate = 2W = 2 MHz
unce sampling rate is 50 % higher than (ie. 1.5 times) rquist rate
a m p l i n g frequency, f = 1.5 x Nvquist rate = 1.5 x 2 MHZ = 3 M
Quantization levels, q = 256
Quantization O8 250_ 8 bits
bits, o
Quantization bits, o' loga
log2 4 08104 a =
Tog12 log2
Transmission bandwidth, Br = , =x8x3 MHz = 12 MHz
255
i) To obtain signal to quantization noise ratio
34 3x(256)2 = 6393.96 = 38 dB
1+4) [n(1+255)
) To increase signal to noise ratio by atleast 10 dB without Increasing bandwidtn
The new sampling
rate must be atleast 38 + 10 48 dB.
The sampling frequency of 20 % above Nyquist rate is said to be adequate. Hernce new sampling rate 1s,
s 1 2 x Nyquistrate = 1.2 x2 MHz = 24 MHz
Let the bandwidth, B, 12 MHz=
remains same.
.Then number of bits for new sampling rate becomes,
12 MHz =
x2.4 MHz » D = 10 bits
9 2 210 1024.
S 3x(1024)
3x(1024)2
N =
102303.45 50 dB
tn(1+ p) bn(1+255)]
Comment Thus the signal to noise ratio
increased is by 10 dB, without
increasing the transmission bandwidth.
A sampling rate of 20 % above Nyquist rate is adequate. Hence number of quantization
are increased such that bandwidth remain bits (& hence levels)
same. This increse in
signal to noise quantization levels increases
ratio.
Maximum signal to noise ratio
The minimum sampling rate, f, 2W = 2 MHz
T6 the bandwidth, Br = 12 MHZ remains same,
tnen number of bits for
this new
sampling rate becomes,
12 MHz =xvx2MHz » D =
12 bits
 q 2= 4096
N
342 3x(4096)21636855.2 =
62.1 dB
n(1+) [n(1+255)2
Example 1.6.3 For 255 determine the maximum adoantage over linear quantizer if the peak power to áverage power ratio is 9
and dynamic range of input signal is 30 dB and quantizer uses 256 levels. SPPU Dec-05, Mark 10
Solution: Linear quantizer
Here q = 256
Average signal power is given as x(t), The peak signal power is given as xmax. The peak power to average
power ratio is givern as 9. Hernce,
AX=9 (Given)
x(t)
Average signal power, S 0) (1.5.5)
Noise power, N
Here 4 max then above equation becomes,
N -max / 9) Xnax
12 3q
and above equation signal to noise ratio becomes,
From equation (1.5.5)
S m a 3 2 342 )
N 2 max
noise ratio ie,
9 in above equation we will get maximum sigmal to
Putting for q =256 and =
x2t) 43.4 dB.
S 3(256) 21845.33 =
( N
signal to noise ratiò will be,
input signal is 30 dB, the minimum
Since dynamic range of
- (Dynamic range of signal)
( min (8). max
= 43.4 -30 13.4 dB.
-law compounding
to noise ratio is given as,
For -law, the signal
S 3q
in(1+
3 x(256)2
For = 255, N In(1+ 255)]F
PHOTOcOPY PRICE
@LESS THAN
 Analo-
= 6394 = 38 dB.

Maximum advantage over linear quantizer

e maximum advantage over linear quantizer can be given as

Advantage- with companding

-( without companding.
= 38 dB - 13.4 dB =24.6 dB

Example with Solutions

ample 1.5.4 A signal mt) of bamdwidth B=4 kHz is transmitted using a binary companded PCM with
trarsmission barndtwidth and output SNR for 256 =
100. C
Solution: Given W
quantizat107 0eis SPPU: May-03, M
B =
4 kHz

4 100, q = 256

i)Transmission bandwidth
The transmission
bandwidth is given as,
Br= vW
Here
2 or v log2g log2 256
=
=
=
8

Br 8x4 kHz =
32 kHz
i) Output SNR
.The signal to noise ratio of
companded PCM is given by
equation 1.5.3 as,
S 32
N 3x(256)2
ln(1+))2 In (1+ 100)12 230.71 = 39.65 daB
Review Questions
1, What is the necessity of nonuniform
quantization and explain
companding ? Explain A-low and
PPU Aug 15(in Semi u-law of companats
2. Write a short note on
comparnding.
Marks Deca
2
Fplain the SPPU Nov 95,
necessity of non-unijorm
quantizationi for speech Dec.96. 99,Moy May-98, 98, 001, 03,
03, Marks 6, Dec
Dec -08
0
signal. How it is
4. Plot -law compression achieved,
characteristic forp =255. SPP Mav 96 Marks b; ww.o

5. How May1 9
companding improves signal to noise ratio
6. Explain how
companding improves the signal to
?
PPUMay 97, Marks
www.ww* 4: Dec..05
noise ratio of no
 TO De Dncreasea to aVo1d
diStoru the signal.
Example 174 Consider a DM system designed to accomodate analog message signals limited to
stnusoidal test signal of amplitude A 1 volt and frequency f 1kHz is applied to the system.
bandwidth W 5 kHz. A
50 kHz
The sampling rate of the systemis
i Calculate the minimum step size A reguired to minimize
slope overload.
) Calculate signal-to lquantization) noise ratio of the system for the specified sinusoidal test
*************** signal
** ************************************** SPPUMar 13 Marks &
Solution: Am =1 V, Jm =1 kHz, T, =T 50
50xx103
103 s

i) Minimum step size

Am 2TfmTs

1
or 82 21 mT,Am 227nx1000 x x1 =0.125 V
50 x103
i) Signal to quantization noise ratio
S 3 3
949.88
N 8m WfTS 2 x5000 x(1000) 1
*50
50xx103
103
= 10log10 949.88 = 29.77 dB

Examples with Solutions

Erempla 76 Asigrnal having banduidth 3 kHz is to be encoded using
8 bitPCM i) DM system
F 10 cycles of the signal are digitized, state how marty bits willt#here in digitized, output in etch case ifsenpling frequency is 10
KHz. Also find bandwidth reguired in each case
************* *******************************
SPPU Dec 10, Marks8
Solution : Given:fs 10,000 samples/sec
DM transmits 1 bit/sample
PCM transmits v =8 bits/sample
Digital communication 1-66 uiaog Signel

Here W 3 kHz. Hence period of one cycle will De

T 30006

Hence time for 10 cycles will be,

10
T10 10 xT=3000 300

i)8-bitPCM
Signaling rate in 8-bit PCM will be,
= 80,000 bits/sec.
=vf = 8 bits/sample x 10,000 samples/sec

Bandwidth, Br =r ;x80,000 40 kHz.

Number of bits in 10 cycles (or T10 = 00 sec wl De)

Number of bits = r x Tio

=
80,000 bits/sec x sec 266.67 »267 bits.

i DM system

Signaling rate in DM system will be,

f s = 10,000 bits/sec

Bandwidth, Br = r=xx 10,000 =5 kHz.

Number ofbits = r x Tio = 10,000 bits/sec x 1 sec = 33.33 34 bits.

Example 1.T.6 In a single integration DM scheme,the voice signal is sampled at a rate of 64 kH The maximum signal ampihude
is 1 volt, voice signal bandwidth is 3.5 kHz
i Determine the mininmum value of step size to avoid slope overload.
) Determine granular noise N. .

ä) Assuming signal to be sinusoidal, calculate signal power and signal to noise ratio
io) Assuting #hat noise signual amplitude is uniformly distributed in the range (-1, 1) determine the signal power and sigmal to no

ratio SPPU Dec.98 2000 Marks 8 Dec ol, Marke Dec-2000a

Solution The given data is,

6464 kHz A 1 V, W= 3.5 kHz.

) To obtain step size

Slope overload will not occur if,

Am2 fm Ts
Putting values in above equation with
T 64 x 103 dia Jm = 3.5 kHz
 1S
27T x 3500 x-
64 x 103

820.3436 volts
it) To obtain granular noise power
Noise power is given by equation (1.7.8) as,

No WT,8_w&_3.5 x103 x(0.3436)2 2.15 mW

3 3x64 x103

ii) To obtain S/N ratio

Amplitude of the signal is 1 v. For sinusoidal signal, the signal power will be

Hence signal to noise ratio will be,

Signal power
Noise power

1/2 = 232.3
2.15 x 103

or
= 10log10 23.66 dB
****""******************************************************************************

aB

calculate ratio if signal is unifommly

v) To
distributed overthe range (-1, 1)

Fig. 1.7.11 shows the pdf of the signal.

if it is distributed
easily calculated thatSx(x)
=
It can be
value of the signal can be
over (-1, 1). Hence mean square
calculated as,
Fig. 1.7.11 Uniformly distributed signal

- sioe-jj-
= X with R = 1
Normalized signal power

W
Hence signal to noise ratio becomes,

Signal power -

2.15x 10
3 = 155

Noise power

21.9 dB
155
or dB
10log10
 ww

2.2 Data Formats and their Spectra

SPPU Dec92000.01.02.03.04.05 06,o7.09.1.12:Mas 2000301302.05407.08,09.10,12,15.Aug:15,0 16
. Definition : The analog waveforms are converted to digital signals by PCM, DM, ADM, DPCM etc. techniques
This digital data can be represented by different formats or waveforms. These waveforms are commonly know
as digital data formats or their representaton is called as line coding.
Digital symbols can amplitude modulate some carrier to generate amplitude modulated pulse train. Such sIgna

may be represented as,

x(t) =
an p(t-nt) 2.2.1

Here a modulating amplitude. It is the r" symbol in the

is the
message sequence.
p(t) is the carrier signal. I's pulses are modulated by a
Tis the maximum duration (time period) allowed for the carrier pulse. The unmodulatea 1)is
pu
rectangular pulse and it can take variable
duty cycle. It be
can
represented as,
 Digital Communication
2-115
Baseband Digital Trasnmission
p (t) -
for t = 0
0 for t = t t,t 2
x(t) is the baseband signal (2.2.2)
and continuous in time. To recover the
x(t) at some fixed intervals and original digital signal, we have to
check the signal in these intervals.
sample
transmitted symbols. This
checking is the detection of the
From equation (2.2.1) we see that when p(t) is zero,
P(t) is zero. That is at this time x(t) is zero. Therefore
preferable to sample x(t) when it is
[P (t) 0]
digital information is present/
=
no
Therefore x(t) can be
sampled periodically at t =nt where n= 0 t 1,t 2, etc.transmitted in the baseband signal.
can be written as, p(t) is the rectangular pulse and
...

P(t)=rect
(2.2.3)
Here 'o is the width of the
pulse. The signaling rate will be equal to signaling rate, r =
.(2.2.4)
2.2.1 Unipolar RZ and NRZ
In Unipolar Format the waveform does have a
single polarity. The waveform can have +5 or +12 volts when
high. The waveform is simple on-off. In the
unipolar RZ form, the waveform has zero value when symbol is
transmitted and waveform has 'V volts when '1' is '0
transmitted. In RZ form, the V" volts is for
present T, /2
period if symbol '1' is transmitted and for remaining T»/2 waveform retums to zero
form,
RZ value, ie. for unipolar
If symbol '1' is transmitted,

x (t)
V for 0st<T, / 2 (Half interval)
0 for Th /2 St< Th (Half interval)
and if symbol '0' is transmitted,

x(t) = 0 for
0st<T (complete interval)
Thus in Unipolar RZ format every pulse returms to a zero value. Fig, 2.2.1 (a) shows this signal format. A
unipolar NRZ (not return to zero) format is shown in Fig 2.2.1 (b). When symbol 1 is to be trarismitted, the
signal has 'A' volts for full duration. When symbol '0' is to be transmitted, the signal has zero volts (no signal)
for complete symbol duration. ie. for unipolar NRZ form.

I f symbol 1' is transmitted,

x(t) = A for 0St<T, (complete interval)
.If symbol '0' is transmitted,
x(t) = 0 for 0St<Th (complete interval)
For NRZ format we can see that, the pulse does not return to zero on its own. If symbol '0' is to be
transmitted, then pulse becomes zero. Internal computer waveforms are usually of unipolar NRZ type.

Since there is no separation between the pulses, the receiver needs synchronization to detect unipolar NRZ
interval is same) is more. Hence energy of
pulses. As compared to RZ format, NRZ pulse width (pulse pulse
to

This DC value does not carry any information.

the pulse is more. Unipolar format has some average DC value.

@LESS THAN PHOTOCOPY PRICE

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS An up thrust for knowledge
nication
2-16 Baseband Digitel Trasnmiaso
2.2.2 Polar RZ and NRZ slon
In the
polar RZ fornmat, symbol '1 represented by positive voltage polarity and symbol O'
negative is 1 is
represented
voltage polarit Since this is RZ format, the tion. That is by
pulse, is transmitted only for half duratio
polar RZ, ior
if symbol 1' is transmitted,

for 0St
for
st<T
and if symbol '0' is transmitted,

for 0st
x ()=
Polar RZ waveform is
forstT
shown in Fig. 2.2.1 (c). The polar NRZ format is shown in
Fig. 221(d). In polar NRZ
format, symbol 1' is
represented by positive polarity and symbol '0' is represented by negative
polarities maintained over the
are
polarity. These
complete pulse duration. ie. for polar NRZ,
if symbol 1 is transmitted,
for 0St<T,

and if symbol '0' is transmitted,

z(t)= - for 0St<T

Since polar RZ and NRZ formats are bipolar, the average DC value is minimum in these waveforms. If
probabilities of occurrence of symbols 1' and 0' are same, then average DC components of the waveform will
be zero. (See Fig. 2.2.1 on next page)
3 Bipolar NRZ [Pseudo-trinary or Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)]
. In this format successive '1's are represented by pulses with alternate polarity and 0's are represented by no

pulses. Fig. 2.2.1 (e) shows the Bipolar NRZ or AMI waveform. f there are even number of 1's, the DC
component of the waveform will be zero. The advantage of this format is that the ambiguities due to
transmission sign inversion are eliminated.

4Split Phase Manchester

This type of waveform is shown in ig. 22.1 (. Here if symbol 1' is to be transmitted, then a positive half
interval pulse is followed by a negative half interval pulse. If symbol '0' is to be transmitted, then a negative
half interval pulse is followed by a positive half interval pulse. Thus for any symbol the pulse takes positive as
well as negative value ie.,

I f symbol 1' is to be transmitted,

for 0St
x (t) =

forst<T
 Bas

* * *******************A4 *********assAaAAMe

*****************aAaAaaA

******
*****
Unipolar
RZ ******.

*****
**** Unipolar
NRZ *?***

V/2
Polar
RZ
V/2
****°*************** :

"*VI2
Polar
NRZ
-VI2J
**{**********" *****

Bipoler
NRZ
*************"*****************

Split
phase
VIZFEFE
Manchester
-V/2
*************?****************g*******g*******f******************** **
Combination of
3V/2 successive bits.
Polar
quatemary V2

*******?****°***"****":******** V/2 ****?*******f************

-3V/2
1 1
******e*** mnoosoo. **

essage bis
*******
Cray Codp
*** VIZ.. ***s**s*nosn*** *i**** ***** *** ** *****.

Gray V2"}
coding
-VI2{
***************7"
3VI2 |
*wwwwvY wvrervrwwir wwwwww.w*****www* wN**** ****"************* * * * * * **www

formats
Fig. 2.2.1 Various digltal PAM signals
Polar RZ (d) Polar NRZ (e) Blpolar NRZ
(a) Unipolar RZ (b) Unipolar NRZ (c)
NRZ (h) Gray coding
() Split phase manchester (9) Polar quatemary
Digital Communication
2-18
Baseband Digital Trasnmisslon
and if symbol '0' is to be transmitted,

for 0St
(t)
forst<T
The main
advantage of this format is that of the probability of occurence of
irrespective symbole 'n
waveform has zero average value. Therefore by this mode, the power saving is more. and , the
The drawback of this format is that it needs absolute sense of polarity at the receiver.
2.2.5 Polar Quatemary NRZ
ig 2.2.1 (g) shows the
waveform of this format. This format is derived to reduce the
message bits signaline m.
are
grouped in the blocks of two. Therefore there are four possible The
To these four combinations 00.01 10
combinations, four amplitude levels are assigned. The Table 2.2.1 shows 1
how this is done

Table 2.2.1 Polar

I n the
quaternary NRZ: combinations of bits
waveform of Fig. 2.2.1
(g)
the first combination of two bits is 11.
Therefore from Table 2.2.1
that the level should be 3V
The second combination in
we
can see
Fig. 2.2.1 (g) is 01, hence from Table
taken is 22.1, the leve
Similarly other levels are selected. Thus for two
duration 2Th, ie., message bits only one
pulse is transmitted wi
T 21T

and
signaling rate is given as,

(2.2.5
2.2.6 Gray Coding
.
The messages are gray coded and
polar
message and its
equivalent Gray code. quaternary NRZ encoding is done.
Table 2.2.2 (a) shows

Message bits
00 01
10 11
Gray c0de
wwww

ew

Table 2.2.2 (a)

Digital C o m m u n i c a t i o n
- 19
Baseband Digital Trasnmission

Table 2.2.2 (b) shows the

Gray code and encoded
signal amplifides.
ray code 00 1

x(t) V

Table 2.2.2 (6)

Fig. 2.2.1 (h) shows the waveforms of Gray coding. Observe that the first pair of message bits is 11. Fs

equivalent Gray code is 10. Hence encoded amplifide level for first pair of message bits is V/2.
2.2.7 M-ary Coding
In polar quaternary NRZ type of coding we combine two successive bits. In
M-ary coding, we combine k
successive message bits. Hence we get M= 2* distinct symbols or levels. Therefore this type of coding is called
M-ary coding. For example consider that the given message string of Fig. 2.2.1. ie. 10110100.
Let k= 3, Then we have M=23 =8 distinct levels or symbols. Thus this coding will be 8-ary coding. The

duration of each symbol will equal to 3 bits, 3 Th. Thus the signaling rate is reduced.
Let us represent the signaling rate of 2 level coding (i.e. RZ and NRZ) be r,. Then the signaling rate of M-ary
coding is given as,

.. (2.2.6)

Here k is the message bits in M-ary coding.

and, M = 2k

. k = log 2M
.(2.2.7)
Hence equation (2.2.6) becomes,

log2 M .(2.2.8)

.Complexing increases in M-ary coding.

2.2.8 Desirable Properties of Line Codes

***

.We studied different types of line codes. The choice of the particular line code depends upon type of
application.

1. The line code should have adquate timing conternt, so that clock information can be extracted from the
waveform.
2. The line code should be immune to channel noise and interference.
3. The line code should allow error detection and correction.
4. The power spectrum of line code should be matched to that of channel to reduce signal distortion.
5. The waveform of the line code should be transparent to the digital data being transmitted.

2.2.9 Spectral Features of Line Codes

The line codes have different amplitudes and shapes. Therefore spectral properties of these signals arealse
different. Some of their important features are discussed next.

IRSS THANN PLIOTOCOpy DDIC

 Baseband Digital Tre
2-20
ommunicetion
the signal is
www.w

****
s (A
nawreN****
g*******g******Y*****"******""Y*****
***A*Awrm
****|****T***T*****g a8nmls lon
In this format,
NRZ Unipolar Format: Hence
be +A or zero.
unpolar. Its amplitude can

Hence most of
*************i******* ...

ne signal has some DC component.

0.25
the
the power lies between DC and bit rateT
is sinc
input signal. Observe that the power spectra ***;"

shaped and its main lobe extends from DC to T nuuwnas*antussasscaauasAAAASAASA asneaanAnaa******* ******a****** d

Fig. 2.2.2 (a) psd of NRZ unipolar

Power contained in frequencies above bit rate 1s
.**************i ***********************************
**********"****************************s
very small ....

i NRZ Polar Format In this fomat the waveform

S)
takes positive as well as negative amplitudes. If
***** *** "**********

occurrence of binary 1 or 0 is not equal, then ************

|.0
waveform has some DC value. The power spectra is
****

shown in Fig. 2.2.2. It is sinc pulse and contains

. ******e*e**i **i*a*seee.

most of the power from DC to bit rate|T The ******

main lobe of sinc pulse is from DC to bit rate

*****

frequency. The power contained in frequencies

************* wwww.m

above bit rate is very small.

Flg. 2.2.2 (b) psd of NRZ polar
ii) NRZ Bipolar Format: In this format, the successive
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwvewwwwww*w*wwww.ww.******************wwwwwww.
****"******"**** ***** **"*************"*****a****aaaa**y*
1's assigned pulses of
are
alternating amplitudes.
Hence waveformn SO
does not contain any DC

componernt. This is reflected in the power spectra 0.5

also. The spectra is a pulse
having peak power near
1
7 ie. half bit rate and negligible power at DC and
27,
bit rate. Thus power lies inside the
bandwidth equal
to bit rate The power content in
frequencies Fig. 2.2.2 (c) psd of NRZ blpolar
above bit rate is very small.
iv)Manchester Format: In manchester format S(
every *****?******f***********"*******
symbol is transmitted with positive as well as
negative amplitude. Hence there is no
possibility of
******
*"

DC component in the signal.

Fig. 2.2.2 shows the
**** ****

power spectra of manchester format. Most of

the
power lies in the bandwidth of twice of bit
rate ************f*********"*****|******

Negligible power is contained at DC and ***********************

***n***4aee sasidasseaasssearenease*
** e n n e s e n n s u a t e e d nes *****

Flg.2.2.2 (d) pad of manchester

Peak of the spectra occur
somewhere near bit
rate. Observe that the widt
idth of the main pulse is
twice of other
formats.
 2-21 Baseband Digital Trasnmissie
Digital Communicetion

2.2.10 Comparison of Line Coding Formats

Various line coding formats can be compared on the basis of their power spectra, bandwidth, frequer
content, noise immunity peak power requirement and amplitude variation etc. Table 2.2.3, lists comparison

line codes based on above points.

Parameter
Unipolar Unipolar Polar RZ Polar NRZipolar NRZ Manchester Polar Quaterna
RZ NRZ (AMI)
- - -

*
****************
* ****

Nature/ Unipolar Unipolar Bipolarve Bipolar Bipolar +ve Bipolar +ve, and Bipolar
polarities of the 0 andve 0 and +ve ve and zerc +ve arnd ve and zero -ve Fourlevels
Two levels Three levels ve Three levels Two levels
signal Two levels
Two levels

DC component in the Present Present maybe may be Absent Absent may be present
signal present present

Signal frequency f f
(Bandwidth)

Peak high high law low high low very high

Power requirement

Noise immunity Poor fair fair fair good 80od

Cross talk high high high moderate low low low

Synchronization better poor better poor good good poor

capability (effect of
strings of 0's or 1's
ww.www

Table 2.2.3 Comparison of line coding formats