428 PRACTICAL ELECTRONICS FOR INVENTORS

TABLE 4.3

DIODE TYPE SYMBOL MODE OF OPERATION

Acts as one-way gate to current-flow, from anode (A) to

cathode (C). Comes in silicon and germanium types. Both
require a forward-bias voltage to conduct; typically 0.6
p-n Junction to 1.7 V for silicon, and 0.2 to 0.4 V for germanium.
Used in rectification, transient suppression, voltage
multiplication, RF demodulation, analog logic, clamps, fast
switches, and voltage regulation.

Similar in operation to p-n junction diode, but designed with

special metal semiconductor junction instead of a p-n
junction. This provides for extremely low junction capacitance
that stores less charge. Results of this junction yield quicker
switching times, useful in fast clamping and high-frequency
Schottky applications approaching the gigahertz range. Also, generally
has a lower forward-bias voltage of around 0.4 V (average)—
but can be from 0.15 to 0.9 V or more. Used in similar
applications as p-n junction diode, but offers better low-signal
level detection, speed, and low-power loss in rectification due
to low forward threshold.

Conducts from A to C like p-n junction diode, but will also

conduct from C to A if the applied reverse voltage is greater
than the zener’s breakdown voltage rating VZ. Acts like a
Zener voltage-sensitive control valve. Comes with various breakdown
voltages—1.2 V, 3.0 V, 5.1 V, 6.3 V, 9 V, 12 V, etc., and power
ratings. Applications include voltage regulation, waveform
clipping, voltage shifting, and transient suppression.

Light-emitting diode (LED) emits a near constant wavelength of

light when forward-biased (A > C) by a voltage of about 1.7 V.
Comes in various wavelengths (IR through visible), sizes, power
ratings, etc. Used as indicator and emitting source in IR and
light-wave communications. Laser diode is similar to LED, but
provides a much narrower wavelength spectrum (about 1 nm
LED & Laser compared to around 40 nm for LED), usually in the IR region.
They have very fast response times (lns). These features provide
clean signal characteristics useful in fiber-optic systems, where
minimized dispersion effects, efficient coupling, and limited
degradation over long distances are important. They are also
used in laser pointers, CD/DVD players, bar-code readers, and
in various surgical applications.

Generates a current when exposed to light, or can be used to

alter current flow passing through it when the light intensity
changes. Operates in reverse-bias direction (current flows from
Photo C to A) when exposed to light. Current increases with light
intensity. Very fast response times (ns). Not as sensitive as
phototransistors, but their linearity can make them useful in
simple light meters.

Acts like a voltage-sensitive variable capacitor, whose

capacitance decreases as the reverse-bias voltage on the
diode increases. Designed with a junction specifically
Varactor
formulated to have a relatively large range of capacitance
(Varicap)
values for a modest range of reverse-bias voltages. Capacitance
range in the picofarad range, so they are usually limited to RF
applications, such as tuning receivers and generating FM.

Most of these are resistance devices used in RF, microwave,

PIN,
and millimeter wave applications (e.g., amplifiers and
IMPATT Gunn,
oscillators). Unique conduction physics yields much faster
Tunnel,
response times when compared to standard diodes that use
etc.
charge carrier dispersion across a p-n junction.