LEARNING OUTCOMES

FLUID DEFORMATION CONCEPTS PRESSURE AND FLUID STATIC

Acquire and to understand the concepts of fluid Acquire the concepts of pressure and to have the working
deformation under applied stress and its relation to knowledge of hydrostatic pressure and pressure drop
fluid flow. determination through pressure measurement devices.
TYPES OF STRESS

There are two types of stress that can be experienced by

fluid namely normal stress and shear stress.

1. Normal stress (𝝈):

Acts perpendicularly or normal to the surface

area.

Pressure is a normal stress.

2. Shear stress (τ):

Acts parallel or tangent to the surface area.

NORMAL STRESS
Tensile stress:
Elongation
1. Normal stress (𝝈):
𝐴

When forces acted perpendicularly

𝐹! 𝐹!
(normal) to the surface, it exerts a
normal stress.

Mathematical expression: Compressive stress:

Pressure is a type of compressive
𝜎 = 𝐹! ⁄𝐴 stress which act perpendicularly
inwards to the surface.

𝐹! 𝐹!
SHEAR STRESS 𝑑𝛾
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑑𝑡
𝐴

2. Shear stress (τ): 𝐹"

𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
When forces acted parallel or tangent 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹"
to the surface. 𝛾

Mathematical expression

𝜏 = 𝐹" ⁄𝐴 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∆𝑢 =
𝑑𝑦

𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦

𝑥
𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
FLUID DEFORMATION CONCEPTS

Mathematical expression

Moving plate exerts shear

stress on the fluid molecules
at the surface. 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝛾 𝑑𝑢
= =
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑢

Shear stress can be express in terms of

𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 velocity gradient as:

𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
Shear stress is transmitted through
fluid by interactions between
adjacent molecules. For Newtonian fluid:

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 or 𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
CONCEPTS OF PRESSURE
Types of pressure

Pressure is the normal force exerted by fluid

Absolute pressure, 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔
per unit area.
Actual pressure at a given point.
SI Unit: Pascal (Pa) or Newtons per square
Measured relative to absolute vacuum
meter 𝑁⁄𝑚# .
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 (absolute zero pressure).
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆

Common pressure units

Gage pressure, 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆:
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 10$ 𝑃𝑎
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄 Difference between 𝑃+,- and 𝑃+./
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 101325 𝑃𝑎
𝑃4+45 = 𝑃+,- − 𝑃+./
101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔
1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟
Vacuum pressure, 𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄:
1 𝑘𝑔𝑓⁄𝑐𝑚# 9.807 𝑁⁄𝑐𝑚# 0 Absolute vacuum
9.807×10% 𝑃𝑎 Pressures below 𝑃+./
9.807 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑃2+3 = 𝑃+./ − 𝑃+,-
9.679 𝑎𝑡𝑚
TYPES OF
PRESSURE Indicates pressure
above 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑃+,- = 𝑃4+45 + 𝑃+./

Vacuum, gage and absolute

pressure.
𝑃4+45
Indicates
𝑃+,- = 𝑃+./ + 𝑃4+45 pressure below
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑃+,- = 𝑃+./
𝑃2+3 = 𝑃+./ − 𝑃+,-

𝑃2+3 𝑃+,-
𝑃+./
𝑃+./

𝑃+,- = 𝑃+./ − 𝑃2+3

𝑃+,- = 0
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
 Solution
Types of pressure

EXAMPLE 1 𝑃2+3 = 𝑃+./ − 𝑃+,-

𝑃+,- = 𝑃+./ − 𝑃2+3

A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 40
kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure
is 100 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the
chamber.

𝑃2+3 = 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑃+./ = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎

PRESSURE AT A POINT

Pressure is the compressive force per unit

area.

Pressure is a scalar quantity.

The pressure on a fluid has the same magnitude in all

directions. 𝑃

𝑃
Pressure acts uniformly in all
directions.
𝑃 𝑃
Pressure is a scalar
quantity. It has magnitude
𝑃
but not a specific direction.
𝑃
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Mathematical expressions

To obtain the relation of pressure variation

with depth: From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, at
equilibrium, the net force on z-direction:
∆𝑧
𝑧 𝑃" V 𝐹6 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0

𝑧" 𝑔
∆𝑦
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝐹7 − 𝐹# = 𝜌𝑉 𝑔
∆𝑧
𝑃7𝐴7 − 𝑃#𝐴# = 𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝑧!

𝑃7∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑃#∆𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑥∆𝑦 ∆𝑧

𝑃!

𝑥 𝑃7 − 𝑃# − 𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 = 0

∆𝑃 = 𝑃# − 𝑃7 = −𝜌𝑔∆𝑧
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE 𝑃+./

Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest increase with

depth as more fluid rests on the deeper layers.

The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid is due to

𝜌𝑔ℎ
the force of gravity from the weight of the fluid: ℎ

𝑃4+45 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃+,- = 𝑃+./ + 𝑃4+45 = 𝑃+./ + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Absolute pressure at any

point in static fluid
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE - GASES
Mathematical expressions

Liquids are incompressible and therefore the

variation of density with pressure is constant. Liquid:

Gases are compressible with density nearly 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

proportional to pressure. Thus, in this case, the
density of gas must be treated as a variable.
Gases:
#
∆𝑃 = 𝑃# − 𝑃7 = Y −𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧
7

For ideal gas and for isothermal conditions, the

pressure can be approximated as:

−𝑔(𝑧# − 𝑧7)
𝑃# = 𝑃7 exp
𝑅𝑇
PASCAL’S LAW
Applications
Pascal’s Law - Blaise Pascal (1623-1662):

Pressure on any horizontal directions in a

Hydraulic jack:
fluid remain constant. As a result, “the
pressure applied to a confined fluid increases 𝑃7 = 𝑃#

the pressure throughout the fluid by the same 𝐹7⁄𝐴7 = 𝐹#⁄𝐴#

amount.”

𝑷𝟐 Pressure measurement
𝑷𝟏
devices:

Barometer

From Pascal’s law: 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟏

BAROMETER
Force balance

The simplest practical application of the hydrostatic pressure 𝑃=0

formula is the measurement of atmospheric pressure using a
device called barometer.

Vacuum 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

ℎ 𝑃+./ Commonly used to measure 𝑃+./

atmospheric pressure.
𝐴 𝐹: + 𝐹; + 𝐹< = 0

𝑃+./ 𝐴 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0

An inverted tube filled with mercury is submerged in a reservoir 𝑃+./ 𝐴 − 𝜌ℎ𝐴𝑔 = 0

that is exposed to the atmosphere.
𝑃+./ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
MANOMETER
Mathematical expressions

From the hydrostatic pressure formula, we can see that the change
of elevation in a fluid corresponds to ∆𝑃/𝜌𝑔. This suggest that a At equilibrium:
fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences between
two points. The device that applied this principal is manometer. Pressure of the gas in
the tank
𝑃7 = 𝑃#

Commonly used to measure small Pressure due to liquid

to moderate pressure or pressure column.
difference.

The U-tube can contain one or

Hence the pressure of the gas in the tank can
more fluids.
be calculated as:

𝑃7 = 𝑃# = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
 Single fluid
manometer

EXAMPLE 2

Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. The fluid in

manometer has a SG of 0.85 (relative to water) and the
local atmospheric pressure is 96 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
 SOLUTION
The pressure in the tank is equivalent to the hydrostatic pressure of the elevation
of fluid column in the barometer.
MULTIPLE FLUIDS MANOMETER

Manometers can also use multiple immiscible fluids of different

densities. In this type of system, similar law and principal are FORMULA/RULES
applied with the single fluid system.

1. Pressure change across liquid column of

𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏
height ℎ is ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ.
𝜌* ℎ!

𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐 2. Pressure increases downwards the fluid and

𝜌+ ℎ" decreases upwards 𝑃,>. > 𝑃?@A+BC .

𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟑
𝜌, ℎ# 3. Two horizontal points in a continuous
fluid at rest has the same pressure.

Point A 𝑃: = 𝜌7𝑔ℎ7 + 𝜌#𝑔ℎ#+ 𝜌=𝑔ℎ=

 Multiple fluids
manometer

EXAMPLE 3
A water tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is
measured by a multifluid manometer. The tank is located on
a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if
ℎ7 = 0.1 𝑚, ℎ# = 0.2 𝑚 and ℎ= = 0.35 𝑚. The densities of
water, oil and mercury is 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚= , 850 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚= and
13600 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚=.
 SOLUTION

Manometer formula:

1. Going down across a same fluid:

Pressure increase (+ve)

2. Going up across a same fluid:

Pressure decrease (-ve)

3. Starts from 𝑃7 to 𝑃#:

𝑃7 + 𝜌A 𝑔ℎ7 + 𝜌>DE 𝑔ℎ# − 𝜌/ 𝑔ℎ= = 𝑃#

MANOMETER: PRESSURE DROP

Manometer can also be used to measure pressure drops Mathematical expression

across horizontal flow section between two specified
points.
Relate the pressure at point 1 and point 2 as a
mathematical expression.

From manometer formula:

𝑃7 +𝜌7𝑔(𝑎 + ℎ)−𝜌#𝑔(ℎ) −𝜌7𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑃#

𝑃* − 𝑃# = 𝜌# − 𝜌7 𝑔ℎ

Change in manometer fluid

level corresponds to the
pressure difference between
the two points.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE/FORCE
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES 𝐹

On the plane of submerged surfaces, the hydrostatic

forces form a system of parallel forces. In this case,
the magnitude of the force and its point of
application which is called center of pressure need
to be determined.

ℎ3 ℎ@ 𝑜𝑟 𝑦@

ℎ
Centroid
Center of
Line of action 𝐹F pressure
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE/FORCE
Inclined submerged rectangular plane:
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES Line of action
𝜃
ℎ3
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of
𝐹F = 𝑃G 𝐴
a completely submerged plate in a homogenous (constant density)
𝑦3
fluid is equal to the product of the pressure 𝑷𝒄 at the centroid of
the surface and the area of the surface:
𝑦@
𝐹F = 𝑃+24 𝐴 = 𝑃G 𝐴 Pressure at the centroid represent the
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑
average pressure on the submerged
surface. i.e 𝑃+24 = 𝑃3
Where: 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃G = 𝜌𝑔ℎ3
ℎ3 = 𝑦3 sin 𝜃
The line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force, 𝐹F does not
passes through the centroid but lies underneath where the pressure 𝐼HH,3
𝑦@ = 𝑦3 +
is higher. The point of intersection of the line of action and the 𝑦3 + 𝑃J/ 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃

surface is the center of pressure.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE/FORCE
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES

Centroid location varies with the geometries:

𝑅 2𝑏/3
𝑐 𝑏⁄2 𝑏
𝑐 𝑅
𝑏
𝑏/3
𝑏⁄2 𝑅
𝑎/2 𝑎/2
𝑎⁄2 𝑎⁄2 𝑎

𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏, 𝐼HH,3 = 𝑎𝑏 =⁄12 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅 #, 𝐼HH,3 = 𝜋𝑅 %⁄4 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏, 𝐼HH,3 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 =⁄4 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏/2, 𝐼HH,3 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 =⁄36

Rectangle Circle Ellipse Triangle

 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON A
𝑃+./
SUBMERGED SURFACE
𝜃

ℎ3
𝑠 Inclined submerged rectangular surface:

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒:

𝑃G = 𝜌𝑔ℎ3

𝑏 𝑎 𝑃G = 𝜌𝑔(𝑠 + 𝑏⁄2) sin 𝜃

𝑐 𝑏⁄2
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒:
𝑏
𝑏⁄2 𝑃+,- = 𝑃+./ + 𝜌𝑔(𝑠 + 𝑏⁄2) sin 𝜃
ℎ3 = (𝑠 + 𝑏⁄2) sin 𝜃
𝑎⁄2 𝑎⁄2
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒:

𝐹 = 𝑃+./ + 𝜌𝑔(𝑠 + 𝑏⁄2) sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑏

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE/FORCE
Horizontal projection of
SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACES
curved surface

In many practical applications, submerged surfaces are not flat. For

submerged curved surfaces, the determination of the resultant
𝐹K
hydrostatic forces requires the integration of the pressure forces that
change direction along the curved surface.

The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved

Vertical projection of
surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the vertical projection
curved surface
of the curved surface:

𝐹L = 𝐹H
𝐹L
The vertical component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved 𝐹H
𝐹M
surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the horizontal
projection of the curved surface plus/minus the weight of the fluid block. 𝐹F

𝐹M = 𝐹K ± 𝑊

The resultant force: 𝐹F = 𝐹L # + 𝐹M #