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ADVANCED

LANGUAGE LESSONS

GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION

SHELDON AND COMPANY

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO
 THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY
794158A
ASTOR, LENOX AND
TILOtN FOUNDATIONS
R 1936 L

Copyright, 1895, by
SHELDON AND COMPANY.

Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston, Mass., U.S.A.

~
 PREFACE.

To experienced teachers it has long been evident that

pupils trained in old-style grammar too often lack the
power of expression. Indeed, it has been charged, that
though their heads are full of theory, and though they
have hundreds of rules at the end of their tongues, they
are unable to write a single clear, strong, smooth English
sentence.
Sheldon's Language Lessons will be welcomed by all
who believe that technical grammar should be developed
side by side with practical composition. In the second
book of this comprehensive series, rules and principles are
accompanied by illustrative extracts from good authors,
and followed by attractive problems in construction.
In connection with sentence building, punctuation is
introduced ; and the rules are correlated with the laws
of English expression.
o By easy lessons in synonyms and figures, and occasional
=> reference to the fundamental principles of effective dis-
£5 course, students are gradually prepared for a systematic
o view of rhetoric.
3
4 PREFACE.

A method of English work exceedingly valuable in

high schools has been simplified, and adapted to the needs
of lower grades. Numerous well-defined plans for experi
ments in narration and description are presented, together
with models and suggestions designed to encourage habits
of thoughtful observation, and to stimulate a taste for good
literature. Every lesson has borne the test of the class
room, and has proved repeatedly the educating power of
what has been called "laboratory work in English."
The Appendix contains an introductory outline of versi
fication, a complete system of diagrams applied to typical
sentences, and a brief sketch of the English language,
with ample material for elementary work in the analysis
of words.
Selections from the works of Lowell, Saxe, Longfellow,
Holmes, and Hawthorne, are offered for study by permis
sion of, and by arrangement with, Messrs. Houghton,
Mifflin, & Co. Extracts from other copyrighted works
are used through the favor of the Century Company and
of the publishers of "The Critic."
 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.

LESSON I.

THE SENTENCE.

Think of some fact, and make a statement.

Examples. — Wild flowers are beautiful.
Stars shine at night.
Think of something you wish to know, and ask a ques
tion.
Examples. — Have you studied your lessons ?
Why do clouds float in the air ?
Think of something you wish done, and give an order or
command.
Examples. — Let me see your drawing.
Ask the teacher to explain the example.
Suppose yourself to be very much interested, surprised, or
excited, and express your thought by making an exclama
tion.
Examples. — What beautiful flowers you have 1
How glad I am to see you !
The bell is ringing ! We are late !
6 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS

A thought expressed in words is called a sentence.

In how many different ways have you expressed thought ?
A thought expressed in the form of a statement is called a
DECLARATIVE SENTENCE.
A thought expressed in the form of a question is called an
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE.
A thought expressed in the form of a command is called an
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE.
A thought expressed in the form of an exclamation is called an
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE.

LESSON II.

KINDS OF SENTENCE. — PUNCTUATION.

Study the following sentences, and be prepared to write

them from dictation : —
1. See that black cloud !
2. It has hidden the sun.
3. How dark it seems !
4. It will rain very soon.
5. Do you like to hear the thunder?
6. How grand it sounds !
7. Come into the library.
8. Is it not a pleasant room ?
9. This is my favorite chair.
10. I always study by this window.
11. Shall I show you my favorite books ?
12. How are books written ?
13. We express our thoughts in words.
14. A book expresses somebody's thoughts.
1 5. I wish I could write a book !
 THE PARAGRAPH. 7

Which of the above are declarative sentences ? Why ?

Which of the above are interrogative sentences ? Why ?
Which of the above are imperative sentences? Why?
Which of the above are exclamatory sentences ? Why ?
With what kind of letter does each sentence begin?
A declarative sentence is one used to state or declare something.
An interrogative sentence is one used to ask a question.
An imperative sentence is one used to express a command.
An exclamatory sentence is one used to express an emotion.
In the preceding examples, a period (.) is placed at the close
of what kind of sentences? At the close of what kind of sen
tences is an interrogation point (?) placed? An exclamation
mark (!) is placed at the close of what kind ?
The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital
letter.
A declarative and an imperative sentence should end with a
period.
An interrogative sentence should end with an interrogation point.
An exclamatory sentence should end with an exclamation mark.

LESSON III.
THE PARAGRAPH.
WILLIAM PENN'S TREATY WITH THE RED MAN.

Two hundred years ago William Penn called the Indian

chiefs to a great council on the banks of the Delaware.
Unarmed, and in the plain dress of the Quaker, he and his
companioi s met the Red Men under an elm tree.
Standing before them, he said, " My friends, we have
met on the broad pathway of faith and good will. We are
all of one flesh and blood. Being brethren, no advantage
8 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

shall be taken on either side. When disputes arise, we

will settle them in council. Between us there shall be
nothing but friendship."
The chiefs replied, " While the rivers run, and the sun
and moon shall shine, we will live at peace with William
Penn and his children."
The treaty made under the old elm tree was never
broken by the Indians. They were always friendly with
Penn and his people. The Quaker coat and hat proved a
better defense than the sword or rifle.

What does the first group of sentences tell about? When,

where, and how did William Penn meet the Red Men?
What is the subject of the second group of sentences ? What
did Penn say as he stood before the Indian chiefs ?
What is the subject of the third division of the story? In what
words did the chiefs promise to live at peace with William Penn
and his people ?
What is the subject of the fourth division of the story? What
advantages resulted to Penn and his people from the treaty made
under the old elm tree ?
How many principal divisions are there in the story of " Wil
liam Penn's Treaty with the Red Man " ?
Do all the sentences in each division relate to the same sub
ject of thought?
Each of these divisions is called a paragraph.

A paragraph is one of the parts into which a prose compo

sition is divided. It may consist of a single sentence, or of a
series of sentences relating to the same subject of thought.

Write from memory, in four paragraphs, the story of

"William Penn's Treaty with the Red Man."
 WORDS USED AS NAMES. 9

LESSON IV.

WORDS USED AS NAMES.

1. Write the names of five objects you saw on your way

to school this morning.
2. Write the names offive objects in this room.
3. Write the first or given names of five friends, begin
ning each with a capital letter.
4. Write five names which stand for things that can be
thought about, but never seen.
A word used as a name is called a noun.

LESSON V.

WORDS USED TO ASSERT.

i. Birds sing.
2. Birds fly.
3. Birds build nests.
4. The birds have flown.
In the first sentence, what word is used to assert something
about birds?
What word is used in the second sentence to assert something
about birds?
What is said about birds in the third sentence ? How many
words are there in the sentence? Which of the words are
names? Is the second word used as a name? Is it used to
tell or assert something of birds ?
Words like sing, fly, build, used to assert, are called verbs.
10 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

In the fourth sentence, what two words together assert some

thing about birds ?
A verb may be made up of one or more words.
Complete the following sentences by supplying verbs : —
Trees Ii. The bell
Stars - 12. Boys ball,
The wind . 13- Girls violets.
The lightning — 14. People .
5. The thunder 15- Snow the ground.
The sun . 1 6. The ice .
I a rainbow. 17- Spring .
Fishes 18. Foxes grapes.
Bees — honey. 19. I a story.
10. The clock 20. Who a song ?

LESSON VI.
WORDS USED WITH NOUNS.

i. Cool water is a refreshing drink.

2. Have you the answer to the fifth example ?
3. You were early this morning.
4. Bring me the red apples from the large basket.
What kind of water is spoken of in the first sentence ? Which
word tells what kind of water? What kind of drink is men
tioned? Which word tells the kind of drink?
What example is spoken of in the second sentence? Which
word tells the example we mean? Which word limits the noun
answer?
In the third sentence, which word tells a particular morning ?
What kind of apples are spoken of in the fourth sentence?
 EXEHCISES. 11

Which word qualifies the noun apples ? Which words qualify the
noun basket?
Words like cool, refreshing, fifth, this, the, red, and large, used
to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, are called
ADJECTIVES.

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences : —

1. A black crow sat in a tall tree.
2. She held in her beak a small piece of cheese.
3. A sly fox came under the tree.
4. He wanted some cheese for his breakfast.
5. He praised the crow's shiny black coat.
6. He praised her graceful form.
7. He wished to hear her beautiful voice.
8. The foolish crow tried to sing.
9. The coveted cheese fell to the ground.
10. The mischievous fox seized it, and ran.
11. The silly crow never finished her song.
12. Beware of insincere praise.
13. The wise ^Esop wrote many fables.
14. He closed each fable with some good advice.
15. This bit of good advice is called the "moral."

LESSON VII.
EXERCISES.
1. Study the sentences in the preceding lesson and be
prepared to write them from dictation.
2. Make a list of ten nouns found in the sentences.
3. Make a list of ten verbs found in the sentences.
4. Write five sentences, each of which shall contain a
noun, a verb, and an adjective.
12 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON VIII.

WORDS USED TO TELL HOW, WHEN, WHERE.

i. The brook runs noisily over the pebbles.

2. It will soon reach the river.
3. The river flows onward.
How does the brook run ? Which word tells how it runs ?
When will the brook reach the river? Which word tells when?
Where does the river flow ? Which word tells the direction ?
Words like noisily, soon, and onward, used to modify the
meaning of a verb, are called adverbs.

Copy the following, filling the blanks with suitable

adverbs : —
1. The children slept .
2. They were dreaming.
3. The moon shone . .
4. the smooth snow glistened !
5. The north wind was blowing .
6. Jack Frost was working .
7. the clock struck twelve.
8. Sleigh bells jingled .
9. Santa Claus rode .
10. —— did he come in ?
11. I do know. Do you ?
12. He filled the stockings.
13. he drove .
14. Next morning all rose .
15. Oh ! the children shouted.
 MODIFIERS OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. 13

LESSON IX.

MODIFIERS OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES.

1. It is a very pleasant day.

2. The carriage is almost here.
3. Do not drive too fast.
4. We will ride only two hours.
What adjective describes the day ? What word modifies the
adjective?
What adverb tells where the carriage is ? What word modifies
the adverb?
What two adverbs modify the verb drive ? What word modifies
one of the adverbs ?
What adjective modifies the noun hours ? What word modifies
the adjective?
Words like very, almost, too, and only, used to modify the
meaning of an adjective or an adverb, are called adverbs.

Point out the adverbs in the following sentemes : —

1. The mountain is almost visible through the mists.

2. I have heard several very good stories lately.
3. Have you a fairly good memory ?
4. A friend gave me some very excellent advice.
5. Do not keep too many irons in the fire.
6. Through wind and wave, right onward steer!
7. The branches sighed overhead in scarcely audible
whispers.
8. Does the magnetic needle always point directly
northward ?
14 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON X.

COMPOSITION.

AN ANXIOUS MOTHER.

Audubon once came upon a wild duck with her brood.

The mother raised her feathers, and hissed ; the ducklings
skulked and hid in every direction. His well-trained dog,
however, hunted them all out, and brought them to the
bag without injury. All this time the old duck fluttered
before the dog to draw away his attention. When the
little ones were all in the bag, she came and stood before
the sportsman, as if deeply grieved. What could he do
less than give her back her babies ? The mother, he says,
seemed to smile her gratitude, and he felt a great joy in
her happiness.

What did Audubon once see? When the duck raised her
feathers, and hissed, what did the ducklings do ? When the dog
found the little birds, and brought them to his master's bag, what
did the mother duck do? Did the sportsman feel sorry for her?
What did he do ? What does the great observer of birds tell us
about the gratitude of the mother? Did he enjoy her happiness?

i. Write in your own words the story told by Audubon.

Describe as ifyou had been present : —

The appearance of the little family.

The well-trained dog catching the ducklings.
The anxiety of the mother duck.
The kindness of the great naturalist.
The lesson taught by the incident.
 THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. '5
2. Give an account of some similar incident you have
witnessed, or, if you prefer, write a story from the follow
ing notes : —
Dr. Livingstone once met a brood of little ostriches led
by a male who pretended to be lame, that he might attract
attention from his tender charge.
Try to imagine, and then describe, the capture of the
small ostriches, the appeal of the anxious father, the result.

LESSON XI.
THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

i. Dogs bark.
2. The birds flew away.
3. The children skate gracefully.
4. The shadows of the clouds rest on the moun
tain.
What animals bark? About what is something said in the
first sentence?
What is the second sentence about ?
What is the third sentence about?
Of what is something said in the fourth sentence ?
Dogs do what? What did the birds do? The children do
what? The shadows of the clouds do what?
The subject of a sentence is the part which mentions that
about which something is said.
The predicate of a sentence is that part which states what
is said about the subject.
Either the subject or the predicate may be expressed in a
single word, or may be made up of several words.
16 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

i. Complete the following sentences by supplying predi

cates : —
i. Wild violets .
2. A rolling stone .
3. The ten o'clock train .
4. The best oranges .
5. Sixty minutes .
6. The flag of our country
7. The needle of the compass
8. The moss-covered bucket —
2. Complete the following sentences by supplying sub
jects : —
should be finished with a period.
can learn to talk,
build paper nests,
walk on the ceiling.
has five petals.
spoil the garden.
have round leaves.
grows in China.
9 flies about in the night.
10. made music all the evening.

LESSON XII.
THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. — SUBJECT AND PREDI
CATE.

1 . Have you studied your lesson ?

2. What did Harry say ?
3. How came these books here ?
 THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. 17

The subjects and predicates of an interrogative sentence will

be readily seen if the sentence be first changed to the declarative
form. Thus the above sentences may be rewritten : —
i. You have studied your lesson.
2. Harry did say .
3. These books came here .
It is then evident that you, Harry, and these books, are respec
tively the subjects, and have studied your lesson, did say ,
and came here , are the predicates of the sentences.

Rewrite the following sentences in the declarative form,

and tell the subject andpredicate of each: —
1. Was Audubon a great naturalist ?
2. Had he a very kind heart ?
3. Could his dog have caught the mother duck ?
4. Would you have given back the ducklings ?
5. Are some animals very intelligent ?
6. Is your dog very brave ?

Mention the subject andpredicate of each of the following

sentences: —
1. Can you keep a secret ?
2. Must I tell you the whole story ?
3. Will you come with me ?
4. Ought we to go home now ?
5. Will next year be leap year ?
6. Has the thrush a beautiful song ?
7. Is the lion a king among beasts ?
8. Have you seen the falls of Niagara ?
9. Have we a national park ?
10. Should every line of poetry begin with a capital ?
 18 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XIII.
THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

i. Listen.
2. Read carefully.
3. Copy the marked paragraphs.
The subject of an imperative sentence is the pronoun thou or
you, representing the person or persons commanded. Usually
the subject is not expressed, but understood.
The predicate is the word or words expressing the command
or request.
Write imperative sentences, using the following as predi
cates orparts of predicates : —
sing touch go
remember whisper listen
come try ask
think tell knock

LESSON XIV.
THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

i. This is cruel !
2. How could you do it !
3. Oh, leave me !
The first sentence is declarative in form. Its subject is this;
and its predicate, is cruel.
The second sentence is interrogative in form. Its subject is
you ; and its predicate, could do it how.
 COMPOSITION. 19

The third sentence is imperative in form. Its subject is thou

or you understood ; and its predicate, leave me.
Exclamatory sentences are either declarative, interrogative, or
imperative in form, and their subjects and predicates are deter
mined accordingly.

Tell the form of each of the following exclamatory sen

tences, andpoint out its subject andpredicate : —
1. It cannot be done!
2. What shall we do !
3. Come here quickly !
4. Soldier, rest !
5. The Eternal City shall be free !
6. This is my own, my native land !
7. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State !
8. I was once a barefoot boy !
9. How pleasant is Saturday night !
10. Woodman, forbear thy stroke !

LESSON XV.
COMPOSITION.

A MORTIFYING MISTAKE.

I studied my tables over and over, and backward and

forward too ;
But I couldn't remember six times nine, and I didn't
know what to do,
Till sister told me to play with my doll, and not to bother
my head.
" If you call her ' Fifty-four ' for a while, you'll learn it
by heart," she said.
20 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

So I took my favorite, Mary Ann (though I thought 'twas

a dreadful shame
To give such a perfectly lovely child such a perfectly
horrid name),
And I called her my dear little " Fifty-four " a hundred
times, till I knew
The answer of six times nine as well as the answer of
two times two.

Next day Elizabeth Wigglesworth, who always acts so

proud,
Said, " Six times nine is fifty-two ; " and I nearly laughed
aloud !
But I wished I hadn't when teacher said, " Now, Dorothy,
tell, if you can,"
For I thought of my doll, and — sakes alive ! — I answered
— " Mary Ann ! " anna m. pratt.

This poem from " St. Nicholas " will show you how to make
an interesting story out of an every-day experience.

Recall some occurrence in the schoolroom, and give the

leading incidents as clearly as you can. Choose, ifyou like,
one of the following subjects : —
A Mouse's Short Visit. An Absurd Mistake.
A Lesson in Obedience. An Undeserved Reproof.

HINTS.

i. Select a title for your story. 2. Keep the title in

your mind, and think carefully before you begin to write.
3. Write down the principal points you mean to mention.
4. From these notes complete your story, making as many
paragraphs as there are topics in your outline.
 SIMPLE AND MODIFIED SUBJECT. 21

LESSON XVI.
SIMPLE AND MODIFIED SUBJECT.

i. The great wheel stopped.

2. The dusty old mill was still.
3. William's first letter came yesterday.
What one word in the subject of the first sentence tells what
stopped ? What part of speech is it ? What do the other words
do ? Which is the principal word ? Which words are modifiers
of the principal word ?
What is the subject of the second sentence? What word in
the subject is a noun ? What three adjectives modify it ?
What is the subject of the third sentence ? What is the prin
cipal word in the subject? Do the first two words modify the
noun letter?
The principal word in a subject is called the simple subject.
The simple subject, together with the word or words which
limit it, is called the modified subject.
Find out the simple subject and the modified subject in
each of the following sentences : —
1. The tallest trees grow in Australia.
2. The largest trees grow in California.
3. The trailing arbutus is the Mayflower of Plymouth.
4. Many precious stones come from Africa.
5. Five little squirrels live in a hollow tree.
6. Their busy parents gather nuts for winter.
7. The most delicate ferns grow in shady places.
8. A good name is a great treasure.
9. The sunset clouds are beautiful.
22 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Complete the following sentences by supplying suitable

modifiers for the simple subjects : —
i. clouds floated in the sky.
2. music filled the air.
3. clock ticked steadily.
4. poppies grow among the wheat.
5. roses covered the porch.
6. knife has three blades.
7. bird catches the worm.
8. cloud hid the sun.
9 flowers grow in the woods.
10. evenings are pleasant.
11 hills look blue.
12 umbrella came from London.

LESSON XVII.

SIMPLE AND MODIFIED PREDICATE.

i. The summer rain falls softly.

2. The wind blows furiously.

What is the predicate of the first sentence? What word

modifies the verb in the first sentence? Do the two words
together tell more about the subject than the verb alone?
What is the predicate of the second sentence ? By what word
is it modified ? Do these two words together make a more com
plete assertion about the subject wind than the verb alone does?
The verb in the predicate is called the simple predicate, or
the PREDICATE.
The simple predicate of the first sentence is falls; of the
second, Hows.
 SIMPLE AND MODIFIED PREDICATE. 23

The simple predicate, together with its modifiers, is called the

MODIFIED PREDICATE.
The modified predicate in the first sentence is falls softly; in
the second, blowsfuriously.
Mention the simple predicate and the modified predicate
in each of the following sentences : —
i. The century plant never blossoms twice.
2. The tired horses trotted steadily homeward.
3. Kitty was here just now.
4. Now the full moon rises slowly.
5. Presently a sweet voice sang softly.
6. Never speak unkindly.
7. The stormy waves thundered louder.
8. The lightning flashed vividly.
9. Gradually the storm died away.
10. The singing lark soared continually higher.
Complete the following sentences by supplying suitable
modifiers for the simple predicates : —
1. The cold north winds blow .
2. The thrush sings .
3. The cat approached .
4. May we go ?
5. The tide rises .
6. the door bell rang
7. Will you come
8. The young robins ate
9. we have come
10. Plants grow .
1 1. Oak trees live .
12. The train rushes
 24 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XVIII.
REVIEW.

i. Words used to modify nouns are called what? Give an

illustration.
2. Words used to modify verbs are called what? Give an
illustration.
3. Words used to modify adjectives and adverbs are called
what? Give illustrations.
4. Point out the adjectives and adverbs in the selection
entitled "An Anxious Mother," Lesson X.
5. Into what two parts may every sentence be divided? Give
illustrations.
6. What is the simple subject of a sentence ? The modified
subject? Illustrate.
7. What is the simple predicate of a sentence ? The modified
predicate ? Illustrate.
8. Write five sentences, drawing a line under the simple sub
ject and the simple predicate of each.

LESSON XIX.
OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS OF VERBS.

i. The lambs play.

2. The girls found a nest.
3. Trees grow.
4. The boy hit the ball.
What is the predicate of the first sentence? Why? What do

I the lambs do? Does play make a complete assertion about

lambs?
 OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS OF VERBS. 25

What do trees do? Does the predicate grow make a com

plete assertion about trees f
What is the predicate of the second sentence? Does the verb
alone make a complete assertion ? Could the girls find and not
find something? What word completes the assertion made by
the verb found7
Does the verb hit make a complete assertion about the subject
boy ? What word completes the assertion ?
Nouns that complete the assertion made by the verb, like
nest and ball above, are therefore called complements.
A noun that completes the assertion made by the verb, and
names that on which the action terminates, is called the object
OF THE VERB, Or the OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.

Mention the simple predicate in each sentence below, and

tell its objective complement : —
1. We climbed the steep stony path.
2. We could see the river below.
3. A cloud obscured the sun.
4. Its shadow covered the fields.
5. The haymakers saw the cloud.
6. They gathered the hay quickly.
7. The wind rustled the poplar leaves.
8. The birds sought their leafy shelter.
9. How the thirsty plants welcomed the shower !
10. See the bright rainbow !
1 1. Hear the sparrow's happy song !
12. A wise son maketh a glad father.
13. A soft answer turneth away wrath.
14. Have you enjoyed the vacation ?
15. How doth the little busy bee
Improve each shining hour !
26 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XX.

COMPOSITION.

Write an account of the last picnic you attended. Tell

in a simple and straightforward way what you did and
what you saw.
HINTS.

On what day of the week was the excursion ? What

can you say of the weather ?
What preparations had you made ? Who went with
you?
Did you make the journey in a car, a carriage, or a
boat ? What did you see on the way ?
What did you most enjoy during the day ? Describe
the scenes and amusements.
Tell what happened on the way home, and give your
opinion of the picnic.
You may, if you prefer, write a composition on one of the
following subjects: —
A HUTTING PARTY.

Describe the weather, the party, the place. Tell what

kind of nuts you gathered, what animals you saw, where
you ate luncheon. Tell about your journey home. De
scribe the collection of things you gathered.

A HUNT FOR WILD FLOWERS.

Tell where you went, what you found, what you looked
for longest. Name the friends who went with you. Tell
about their mishaps and successes. Describe the most
beautiful spot you found. Tell what you took home.
 PREDICATE NOUNS. 27

LESSON XXI.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

1. That man is a physician.

2. The girl became an artist.
3. The child will be a builder.
Read the subject and predicate of the first sentence. Does
the verb make a complete assertion about the subject? What
noun is necessary to complete the assertion ? What is the com
plement in the first sentence ?
What noun is the complement in the second sentence ? Why ?
What noun is the complement in the third sentence ? Why ?
Notice that while the nouns physician, artist, and builder, are
complements, they do not name anything on which the action
terminates. Physician refers to the same individual as the sub
ject man, and explains it. Artist refers to the same person as
girl, and explains that noun. Builder refers to and explains the
noun child.
A noun used like physician, artist, or builder, — to complete
the assertion of the verb, and refer to or explain the subject, —
is called a predicate noun.
Mention the predicates in the following sentences, and
tell the predicate noun belonging to each : —
1. Hans Christian Andersen was a Dane.
2. Copenhagen was his home.
3. He was the children's favorite story-teller.
4. A popular story is his " Ugly Duckling."
5. The " duckling " was really a cygnet.
6. The cygnet became a beautiful swan.
28 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

7. Can you be a hero ?

8. Abraham Lincoln was a great man.
9. He became President.
10. Cornelia was a Roman mother.
11. Two Roman boys were her sons.
12. A chrysalis becomes a butterfly.
13. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

LESSON XXII.
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES.

i. The old pine is straight.

2. The green fields are beautiful.
3. Children should be obedient.
What is the predicate of the first sentence ? Does it assert an
action of the tree, or a quality? What does the adjective straight
do?
What is the predicate of the second sentence? Is the subject
represented as doing anything? What is asserted of fields?
What word completes the assertion ? What part of speech is it ?
What is the predicate of the third sentence ? Does it make a
complete assertion ? What word completes the assertion ? What
part of speech is it ? What word does it modify ?
Adjectives used like straight, beautiful, and obedient, — to com
plete the predicate, and modify the subject, — are called predicate
adjectives.
Because a predicate adjective completes the assertion of the
verb, it is called a complement.
Predicate adjectives and predicate nouns are called attribu
tive COMPLEMENTS.
 THE COMPLETE PREDICATE. 29

Mention the predicates in the following sentences ; point

out the attributive complement in each case, telling whether
it is a predicate adjective or a predicate noun : —
1. November days often seem chilly.
2. How cheerful the open fire looks !
3. How pleasant the long evenings are !
4. Mountain scenery is sublime.
5. On high mountains the weather is always cold.
6. Brave boys should be kind.
7. Is not sleep wonderful ?
8. The live oak is an evergreen.
9. Oak wood is strong.
10. In the autumn, oak leaves become brown.
1 1. Among the ancient Britons, the oak was a sacred
tree.
LESSON XXIII.
THE COMPLETE PREDICATE.

1. Dorothy reads many stories.

2. These peaches are ripe.
3. My pony is a gentle creature.
What is the predicate of the first sentence ? Of the second ?
Of the third?
What is the complement of the predicate in the first sentence ?
What kind of complement is it? Why?
What is the complement of the predicate in the second sen
tence? What kind of complement is it? Why?
What is the complement of the predicate in the third sentence ?
What kind of complement is it ? Why ?
A simple predicate, together with an objective or attributive
complement, is called a complete predicate.
30 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Complete the following sentences by supplying the simple

predicates with suitable complements. Tell in each instance
whether the complement supplied is objective or attributive.
1. Pride must have .
2. A small leak may sink .
3. Some days must be .
4. The hour has seemed .
5. Always keep .
6. William Penn was
7. He founded .
8. The Indians were -
9. King Croesus was .
10. Remember
1 1. The moon is .
1 2. Oh, give me .
13. The Lord is .
14. are the peacemakers.

LESSON XXIV.
COMPOSITION.

A TENDER-HEARTED SOLDIER.

A Southern newspaper tells the story of a soldier who

saw a little kitten on the battlefield. Shot and shell were
falling around him ; but he sprang from his horse, and saved
the kitten. It afterward became the pet of the company,
and often took its nap on the top of a cannon.
The bravest are the kindest. The coward is always
cruel to those weaker than himself. He kills flies, and
steps on caterpillars, and pulls off butterflies' wings. He
thinks it fun to torment kittens, and whip horses. Some-
 WORDS USED INSTEAD OF NOUNS. 31

times he trips up small boys, and teases his sisters. He

never touches anything big enough to hit back. He does
not know that
"The bravest are the tenderest;
The loving are the daring."
Study carefully the story of "A Tender-hearted Soldier"
and then write a similar account of "A Tender-hearted
Boy." Without using unnecessary words, tell: —
i. Where the lad found a kitten.
2. What he did with it.
3. How it improved in appearance.
4. What he taught his new pet.
5. How he defended it from a dog.
You may, if you prefer, write a composition on one of the
following subjects : —
The Rescue of an Unhappy Dog.
The Sufferings of a Colony of Ants.
The Victims of a Bad Boy.
A Gentle Little Girl and her Dumb Friends.
A Brave Boy and his Pets.

LESSON XXV.
WORDS USED INSTEAD OF NOUNS.

i. I met a friend and asked him to go with you

and me.
2. He asked his mother to lend us her boat.
3. She said that we might use it.
What does the word / stand for? In place of what noun is
him used ? What word denotes the person spoken to ?

f
32 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

In place of what noun is he used ? His ? What words repre

sent the person speaking and another ? In place of what noun is
Abused? She? What does we represent ? It?
Words like I, you, we, us, which are used to denote the person
speaking or the person spoken to, are called pronouns.
Words like he, she, his, her, and it, used instead of nouns, are
also called pronouns.
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
The noun in place of which the pronoun is used is called its
ANTECEDENT.

Mention the pronouns in the following sentences : —

i. Trees drop their leaves in autumn.
2. I could hear the strange notes of wild geese as they
followed their leader.
3. The sunshine touched the waves, and they glittered
like gold.
4. We cannot honor our country with too deep a rever
ence.
5. Dame Barbara snatched the silken scarf.
She leaned far out on the window sill,
And shook it forth with a royal will.
" Shoot, if you must, this old gray head,
But spare your country's flag," she said. — whittier.
6. Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime. — Longfellow.
7. The rivers rush into the sea,
By castle and town they go ;
The winds behind them merrily
Their noisy trumpets blow. — Longfellow.
 WORDS USED INSTEAD OF NOUNS. 33

8. The babbling brook doth leap when I come by,

Because my feet find measure with its call ;
. The birds know when the friend they love is nigh,
For I am known to them, both great and small.
JONES VERY.

9. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy

youth. — BIBLE.
Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with
suitable pronouns : —
1. father said would write a letter.
2. know will keep promise.
3. Have ever seen puss carry kittens in
mouth ?
4. might think would hurt , but
do not cry.
5. can fly kites to-day, but must mend
first.
6. teacher explained to how a partridge tries
to protect chickens when a person comes near .
7. See that tall pine : has a crow's nest on one
of highest branches.
8. Let take knife. will sharpen .
9. The boys are going fishing. May go with
>
10. neighbors will move into new house next
week.
11. Ask Henry if watch is right.
12. The tree sends roots deep into the earth.
13. Alice thinks that has written exercise
without a mistake.
34 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XXVI.
REVIEW.

i. Write three sentences in which the verbs have objective

complements.
2. Write three sentences in which the verbs are followed by
predicate nouns.
3. Write three sentences in which the verbs are followed by
predicate adjectives.
4. Distinguish between a modified predicate and a complete
predicate.
5. Point out the objective complements and the attributive
complements in the selection entitled "A Tender-hearted Sol
dier," Lesson XXIV.
6. A word used instead of a noun is called what? Point out
the personal pronouns in the selection entitled " William Penn's
Treaty with the Red Man," Lesson III.

LESSON XXVII.
WORDS USED TO SHOW RELATION.

i. The house near the lake is deserted.

2. Our teacher is kind to us.
3. We rested under a great elm.

Read the phrase in the first sentence. What word does it

modify? What kind of word is lake?
Read the phrase in the second sentence. What does it modify?
What kind of word is us 2
 WORDS USED TO SNOW RELATION. 35

Read the phrase in the third sentence. What word does it

modify? What kind of word is elm ?
Words used like near, to, under, — to introduce a phrase, and
show the relation of a noun or pronoun following to some other
word, — are called prepositions.
That a preposition shows the relation of the noun or pronoun
following it to some other word will be shown by rewriting each
of the following sentences several times, using a different preposi
tion each time.
Thus, in the sentence,
The worm crawled the leaf,
the prepositions to, under, over, on, around, near, etc., may be
successively used in the blank.
Give for each of the following sentences two or more
prepositions that may be successively used in the blank. Be
careful that only appropriate prepositions are used.

i. We came home the shower.

2. Will you read me?
3. This letter is Sarah.
4. I found this book your chair.
5. The birds flew us.
6. We walked building.
7. The bird flew tree.
A preposition is a word used in a phrase to show the rela
tion of a noun or pronoun that follows it to the word which
the phrase limits.

Mention the prepositions in the sentences in Lesson

XXVIII., and tell between what words each one shows
relation.
36 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XXVIII.
PHRASES.

i. The children in the grove are happy.

2. They are playing among the trees.
3. Would you like to be with them ?
What children are happy? Which words tell what children are
happy ? Do these three words taken together modify children f
They are playing where? Which words tell where they are
playing ? Do these three words taken together modify the verb
are playing ?
Where would you like to be? Which words tell the place?
Do these two words taken together modify the verb be ?
Two or more words taken together and used (like in the grove,
among the trees, with them) to limit or modify, as an adjective or
adverb is used, are called a phrase.
Point out the phrases in the following sentences, and tell
what word each one modifies, and whether it is used like an
adjective or like an adverb : —
1. The water of the ocean is salt.
2. Rivers pour fresh water into the ocean.
3. Glaciers flow slowly downward toward the sea.
4. White strawberries grow in Chile.
5. Humboldt discovered potatoes in Mexico.
6. New York is the largest city in the United States.
7. Brooklyn is a city of homes.
8. Did some one knock at the door?
9. A word of three syllables is a trisyllable.
10. The cold winter is a season of rest for many plants.
 WORDS USED TO CONNECT. 37

1 1. In winter the reindeer lives chiefly upon lichens.

12. There is a steamboat on the lake.
13. In New Hampshire, the Old Man of the Mountains
looks down on Profile Lake.
14. The wise men from the East followed the Star of
Bethlehem.
15. At night the light from Vesuvius is seen in the
city of Naples.
LESSON XXIX.
WORDS USED TO CONNECT.

i. Men and women gathered in the village.

2. They came in wagons or on horseback.
3. Many remained until night came on.
4. Some went home happy, but all were tired.
What does the word and connect in the first sentence ? Or in
the second? Until in the third? But in the fourth ?
Words used like and, until, or, but, — to connect words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences, — are called conjunctions.
A series of words like until night came on, when used to explain
or limit a word in the principal sentence, is called a clause.
Sentences like some went home happy, and all were tired, when
connected by a conjunction to form one sentence, are called
MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE.

A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases,

clauses, or sentences.
Mention the conjunctions in the following sentences, and
tell what each connects : —
1. Time and tide wait for no man.
2. Have you been well since I saw you ?
38 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

3. Is this stone a diamond, or a crystal of quartz ?

4. We looked for the cardinal flower, but we did not
find it.
5. Shall you spend the vacation at home, or in Boston ?
6. To-morrow will be pleasant, for the sunset is bright.
7. The brook will be dry unless we have rain soon.
8. I hope that it will not rain before we go home.
9. I have read the entire letter, though the handwrit
ing is not plain.
10. Spiders catch flies, and wasps catch spiders.
11. If you will help me, we can do it.
12. Poplar leaves rustle easily, because their stems are
flattened sidewise.
1 3. Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
14. The well looked up with its eye of blue,
And asked the sky for rain and dew.

Copy the following sentences, supplying suitable conjunc

tions in place of the blanks: —
1. Water oil will not mix.
2. The ice cracked it did not give way.
3. We will go on Monday on Tuesday.
4. You cannot learn you do not study.
5. you study the lesson, it will seem easy.
6. Wait I come.
7. We made a fire it was so cold.
8. I was not looking for a four-leaved clover I
have found it.
9. How many years have passed this country was
discovered ?
10. Have you a gold watch, a silver one ?
 COMPOSITION. 39

LESSON XXX.

COMPOSITION.

A CHANCE ACQUAINTANCE.

He was a very pretty little creature, with a beautiful

bang hiding a pair of soft, gentle brown eyes. His man
ners were perfect. He never spoke a loud word, and was
so quiet at the table, that if you had not seen him come
into the dining-room you would never have known he was
there. His toilet was as perfect as his manners, from his
necktie to the last curl in his bushy tail. Yes, of course it
was the dog Tobey. No one received more attention, and
no one could have been less affected. When you patted
him on the head, his jolly tail responded in the merriest
fashion. He had one trick that would delight you. If
you dropped a spool, no matter where it went, Tobey
would not stop until he found it, and returned it to you.
And if you rolled his own special ball through the rail
ing of the piazza, where it would hide in the shrubbery
and tall grass, Tobey would go nearly wild with delight,
and hunt until he found it, and returned it to you, when he
would dance and caper until you threw it again. Indeed,
more than once I saw Tobey continue the game long after
he was tired out, because some thoughtless child would
throw the ball with no thought of the tiny little fellow who
worked so hard to bring it back. But, no matter how tired
Tobey was, he always was cheerful while the game lasted,
though he panted when he went back to his rug.
MARGARET HASTINGS.
40 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Study carefully the account of Tobey, and then write

a similar composition about some dog you have met.

1. Where did you first see the dog ?

2. Tell of its appearance.
3. Describe its intelligence.
4. Give some incidents showing its disposition.
5. Add your opinion of the animal.

If you prefer to do so, you may write on one of the

following subjects: —
An Intelligent Dog.
One of my Kittens.
My Mother's Canary.
The Elephant in the Park.
The Gentlest Horse I ever Saw.

LESSON XXXI.

INTERJECTIONS.

1. Aha! now I have caught you.

2. What ! can't you go ?
3. Oh, how beautiful it is !
What is the subject of each of the above sentences ? What is
the predicate of each ? What words have no grammatical connec
tion with other words in the sentences?
Words used like aha, what, oh, to express surprise or emotion,
are called interjections.

An interjection is a word used to express surprise or emotion.

 INTERJECTIONS. 41

Mention the words that are used as interjections in the

following sentences : —

i. Hark ! I hear the bell.

2. Hurry ! We shall be late.
3. Halloo ! Here we are.
4. Wait ! They are not ready yet.
5. Hush ! Do not waken the baby.
6. Come, come, do not cry over spilled milk !
7. Well, well, begin again !
8. Hurrah ! We have won the game.
9. Why, how quickly you have done it !
10. Indeed ! I am very much surprised.
11. No, indeed! I cannot think of it.
1 2. O Mary ! That was my last chance.
13. Ah! Is it you?
14. Oh, how glad I am to see you !

Write twelve sentences, using one of thefollowing words

as an interjection in each : —

0 why help
oh hush come
ah there stop
alas halloo see
hurrah look hark
well aha wait

An exclamation point (!) is usually placed immediately after

the interjection. When the interjection forms a part of an
exclamatory sentence, the point may be placed at the end of the
sentence.
42 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XXXII.

A, AN, AND THE.

i. A man gave me the orange.

2. The man gave me an orange.
3. The man gave me a peach.

Words that limit or qualify nouns are adjectives : therefore a,

an, and the in the sentences above, are adjectives. These three
little words are, however, usually called articles.
In the first sentence above, does a man mean some particular
man, or any man ?
In the second sentence, does the man mean any man, or a
particular man? How does the expression the orange differ from
an orange ?
Because the article the is used to point out a particular man or
particular orange, it is called the definite article.
Because the articles a and an are used when speaking or
writing without regard to particular objects, they are called indef
inite articles.
The definite article the is used when either one or more than
one object is spoken of; as, the man, the men.
The indefinite articles a and an may be used only when a
single object is spoken of; as, a pear, an oyster.
A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound ; as,
a peach, a ripe apple. An is used before a word beginning with
a vowel sound ; as, an elephant, an elegant dress.
The is used before words beginning with either a vowel or a
consonant sound; as, the pear, the oyster, the elephant, the
elegant dress.
 COMMA. — SERIES OF WORDS. 43

Complete the following sentences by supplying articles.

Give a reason for the one you use in each blank.
i . Oaks often live more than hundred years.
2. I once planted acorn.
3. Now tree which grew from it is foot high.
4. Let us go to post office.
5. I may receive letter.
6. I once read story of elephant.
7. man tried to teach elephant to perform
tricks.
8. elephant was found practicing tricks alone
on moonlight evening.

LESSON XXXIII.

COMMA. — SERIES OF WORDS.

i. Pines, birches, spruces, and hemlocks grow

around my house.
2. Great, wide, beautiful, wonderful world, you
are beautifully dressed.
3. The happy children run, jump, dance, and
shout.
What part of speech is the word pines ? Birches ? Spruces ?
Hemlocks ?
In the second sentence, what part of speech is great? Wide ?
Beautiful? Wonderful?
In the third sentence, what part of speech is run ? fump ?
Dance? Shout?
A mark like the one used between the words in the sentences
at the head of the lesson is called a comma.
44 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Place a comma after each word in a series of words alike

in grammatical construction.

Combine the following sets of sentences into single sen

tences, and insert commas according to the above rule : —

Example. — I have roses in my garden.

I have lilies in my garden.
I have pansies in my garden.
I have pinks in my garden.
I have roses, lilies, pansies, and pinks in my garden.

i. Tobey was a bright dog. 2. He was polite.

Tobey was a little dog. He was handsome.
Tobey was a shaggy dog. He was quiet.
Tobey was a brown dog. He was jolly.

3. We bring coffee from the West Indies.

We bring sugar from the West Indies.
We bring spices from the West Indies.
We bring dyestuffs from the West Indies.

4. Intemperance leads to poverty.

Intemperance leads to crime.
Intemperance leads to degradation.

5. Abraham Lincoln was a great man.

Abraham Lincoln was a good man.
Abraham Lincoln was a noble man.

6. A heavy mist came in from the sea.

A cold mist came in from the sea.
A dense mist came in from the sea.
A penetrating mist came in from the sea.
 STUDY OF SELECTION. 45

LESSON XXXIV.
STUDY OF SELECTION.
GENERAL JUNOT.

In 1793, when Bonaparte was besieging Toulon, which

was then in the possession of the English, he was one
day directing the construction of a battery. The enemy
perceived the work, and opened a warm fire. Bonaparte
was anxious to send off a dispatch, and asked for a ser
geant who could write. One immediately stepped out of
the ranks, and wrote a letter to his dictation. It was
scarcely finished when a cannon ball fell between them,
and covered the paper with dust. The sergeant, looking
towards the English lines, said, " Gentlemen, I am much
obliged to you. I did not think you were so polite. I
was just wanting some sand for my letter."
The expression and the coolness of the sergeant struck
Napoleon, and he did not forget the incident. The
sergeant was soon promoted, and finally became a general.
He was the brave Junot, whose name is so often found
in the annals of French campaigns.

By what other name do you know Bonaparte? On what

occasion did he wish to send a dispatch ? How did he find a
man to prepare the letter? What happened while the young
sergeant was writing? What did he remark? Have you ever
seen sand used instead of blotting paper?
What reward did Junot receive for his coolness? How long
ago did all this happen? Do you know the names of Napoleon's
marshals ? Do you know what battles Napoleon won ? Have you
ever heard of Waterloo?
46 ADVAN'CED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Write in your own words a description of the coolness of

GeneralJunot in the face of danger.

Equivalent expressions : —
i. Besieging, investing, attacking. 2. Directing, superin
tending, looking after. 3. Opened a warm fire, began to fire
upon. 4. Anxious, desirous of. 5. Finished, ended, com
pleted. 6. Covered, besprinkled. 7. Expression, remark, say
ing. 8. Struck, impressed. 9. Promoted, advanced. 10. Brave,
valiant, courageous. 11. Annals, records, history.

LESSON XXXV.
ABBREVIATIONS.

i. Doctor James Knight Johnson resides in

South Manchester, Thetford County, Missouri.
2. Dr. James K. Johnson resides in S. Man
chester, Thetford Co., Mo.
Compare these two ways of writing the same thing. In the
second example, how is the title Doctor shortened ? How is the
name Knight shortened? How is the word South shortened?
The word County? What is the shortened form of the name
Missouri? What mark is placed after each of these short forms?
Shortened forms like Dr. for Doctor, S. for South, Co. for
County, are called abbreviations.
Every abbreviation should be followed by a period.
Learn the following abbreviations : —
amt. amount Aug. August
ans. answer chap. chapter
Apr. April C.O.D. Collect on delivery
 ■CONTRACTIONS. 47

Cr. Creditor lb. pound

cts. cents Nov. November
Dec. December Oct. October
do. ditto. The same oz. ounce
doz. dozen p- page
Dr. Debtor or Doctor pt. pint
Esq. Esquire qt. quart
ex. example Rev. Reverend
Feb. February Sept. September
ft. foot or feet Sr. or Sen. Senior
Gen. General Supt. Superintendent
Hon. Honorable U.S.A. United States of
Jan. January America
Jr. or Jun. Junior yd. yard

Write ten sentences, using correctly at least twenty of

the above abbreviations.

LESSON XXXVI.

CONTRACTIONS.

i. Why don't you go to the beach ?

2. It's a fine day: I'll go with you.
3. We'll watch the waves come in.
In shortening do not to don't, what letter is left out? Where
is the apostrophe placed? What two words are shortened to
make the word its? What letter is omitted? Where is the
apostrophe placed? What is the short form of / will? How
many letters are omitted? Where is the apostrophe placed?
What is the short form of we will? How many letters are
omitted? Where is the apostrophe placed?
48 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

A shortened form of words, in which the apostrophe shows the

place of omitted letter or letters, is called a contraction.
Contractions may be used in conversation, whether oral or
written. They are sometimes used in poetry in order to secure
the desired number of syllables in a line.
Commit to memory, and use in sentences, the following
contractions : —
I'm for I am can't for cannot
you're for you are weren't for were not
we're for we are haven't for have not
they 're for they are they've for they have
there's/*??- there is I'd for I would
'tis or it's for it is she's for she is or she has
isn't for is not he's for he is or he has
doesn't for does not let's for let us
didn't for did not o'er for over
hasn't/or has not o'clock/0r of the clock
thro' for through ne'er for never

LESSON XXXVII.
QUOTATIONS.

i. " Annie, here is a letter for you," said Harry.

2. As soon as Annie saw the writing, she ex
claimed, " Oh ! it is from auntie, I know! "
3. " Well, when you have read it," said Harry,
" please give me the stamp."
Are there any words in the first sentence which Harry did not
say? Read his exact words. When we give the exact words
used by another, we make a direct quotation.
 QUOTATIONS. 49

What direct quotation is made in the second sentence ?

Read Harry's last remark just as he made it.
In the first sentence, notice the double commas above the
beginning and end of the quotation. These are called quotation
marks. Is the second quotation also inclosed in quotation
marks ? In the third sentence, which words were not spoken by
Harry ? Do these words divide the quotation into two parts ? Is
each part inclosed in quotation marks?
Does the first quotation begin with a capital ? The second ?
The third?
A direct quotation should be inclosed by quotation marks
(" ").
Begin with a capital the first word of a direct quotation.
Copy the following fable, carefully noticing the capitals
and all marks of punctuation : —

THE CRICKET AND THE ANT.

A cricket came one cold day in winter to her neighbor,

the ant, and said, " My dear neighbor, let me have a little
food, for I am very hungry and have nothing to eat."
" Did you lay up no food for the winter ? " asked the ant.
"Indeed, I had no time to store up food," was the
answer.
" No time, Madam Cricket ! What did you have to do in
summer ? "
" I was singing all the time," replied the cricket.
" Very good," said the ant. " If you sung in summer,
you may dance in winter."
After studying Lesson XXXVIII. , rewrite the fable of
" The Cricket and the Ant," changing the quotations from
the directform to the indirect.
50 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XXXVIII.

INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.

i. A wise man once said that he could not afford

to waste his time in making money.
2. A wise man once said, " I cannot afford to
waste my time in making money."
Do these two sentences tell the same thing? How do they
differ? Are the exact words of the speaker given in the first sen
tence ? Are they changed in the second ?
Are any quotation marks used in the first sentence? In the
second ?
When we tell in our own words what another has said, we make
an INDIRECT QUOTATION.
An indirect quotation should not be inclosed in quotation
marks, and it need not begin with a capital.

Rewrite the following fable, changing the indirect quota

tions so that they shall be direct : —

THE OX AND THE FLY.

An ox was grazing in the field when a fly alighted on

one of his horns. Presently the fly asked him if her weight
did not inconvenience him.
The ox did not notice her until she spoke again, saying
that she would willingly fly away if he thought her too
heavy.
Then the ox replied that she might make herself quite
easy, for he had not known when she alighted, and proba
bly should not know when she thought best to fly away.
 COMPOSITION. 51

LESSON XXXIX.

COMPOSITION.

A LITTLE KNIGHT OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

We met him on the elevated road. He was about twelve

years old. His hat, a shabby felt, was pulled down as far
as possible on his head ; his trousers were ragged and
faded ; his jacket was much too large. There was nothing
remarkable about this boy until you looked sharply into
his face ; then you saw an expression that made you think
he was a boy who would not be moved to do a thing until
he had thought it over. Beside him, on the next seat, tied
carefully, was a very large bundle of papers. He looked
up, saw us standing, and at once removed his papers to
the floor, saying, "Here's a seat." We thanked him, and
then he discovered that one of us was standing. Imme
diately he jumped up, and insisted on giving up his own
seat. He was so cordial that it would have been discour
teous to refuse. His face was cheerful, and you could
not feel that he suffered, in spite of the poor, thin clothes.
He picked up his bundle of papers — which he told us
contained six hundred — long before the train stopped at
City Hall, and, in reply to the question why he took up
his burden so soon, he answered, giving it another hitch
higher up on his shoulder to balance it more evenly, " I
want to get used to it."

Read thoughtfully the description of a newsboy. Recall

some similar incident, and write a composition on "An
Unknown Hero."
52 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XL.
RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.

i. Begin the first word of every sentence with a capital.

Stately elms grew on the lawn.
The gentle rain refreshes the thirsty flowers.
2. Begin the first word of every line of poetry with a capital.
No mortal builder's most rare device
Could match this winter palace of ice. — lowell.
3. Begin with a capital the first word of a quotation, precept,
or question, if introduced in a direct form.
Direct. — The father of modern philosophy said, " Knowl
edge is power."
Indirect. — The father of modern philosophy said that knowl
edge is power.
4. Begin every proper noun with a capital.
Paris is the capital of France.
Having collected his army, Hannibal began his march.
5. Begin with capitals words derived from proper nouns.
The English language is spoken in many European countries.
Thomas Moore was an Irish poet.
6. Begin with capitals all appellations of God and of Jesus
Christ.
The Lord is my shepherd.
The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee. — moore.
7. Begin with capitals titles of honor and respect.
His Excellency the Governor of Massachusetts was present,
and made a speech.
 RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. S3

8. Write with capitals the pronoun I and the interjection 0.

If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.

Guide me, O thou great Jehovah !

9. Begin with a capital the names of the days of the week

and the months of the year.

School will open the first Tuesday in September.

The last Thursday in November is usually a day of public
thanksgiving.

10. Begin with a capital the important words in the subject of

a composition.

You have written compositions on " An Anxious Mother," " A

Mortifying Mistake," " A Tender-hearted Soldier."

Justify the use of the capitals in the following. Write

the sentences from dictation.

1. Have you read Irving's " Sketch-Book " ?

2. A Mohammedan mosque is a place of worship.
3. A lecture will be given by President Adams.
4. The author of " Home, Sweet Home," was an
American named John Howard Payne, who was born in
June, 1792.
5. The vessel was flying before the wind.
6. The bleak winds of March
Made her tremble and shiver.
7. Remember the maxim, "Know thyself."
8. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell is the author of "In War
Times," a story which originally appeared in "The Atlantic
Monthly."
54 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

9. In the New Testament is found the question, " O

death, where is thy sting ? "
10. " Little Lord Fauntleroy " is a charming story for
children.
11. The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante
as the hieroglyphics of Egypt differ from the picture
writing of Mexico.
12. To me the meanest flower that blows can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.

LESSON XLI.
REVIEW.

1. Words used to show relation are called what? Jllustrate.

2. What is a phrase ? Illustrate.
3. Mention what a phrase may do. Illustrate.
4. Point out the phrases in the selection "General Junot,"
Lesson XXXIV., and tell what each modifies.
5. Illustrate the different uses of conjunctions.
6. Point out the conjunctions in the selection entitled "A
Chance Acquaintance," Lesson XXX.
7. Write three sentences in which interjections are used.
8. Mention the three adjectives that are called articles.
How do a and an differ from the ?
9. What mark is used to separate a series of nouns, adjec
tives, verbs, or adverbs ?
10. Write five sentences, each containing an abbreviation.
1 1 . Write five sentences, each containing a contraction.
12. Write five sentences in which quotation marks are used.
13. Give, with illustrations, ten rules for the use of capitals.
 COMPOSITION. 55

LESSON XLII.
COMPOSITION.

A LETTER.
THy CUOVU tfiv :
Lit wii pbixint to you a n&w ftut&ncL
of mono, will u,mm/mindid fuynv (.iyond
tJu, watii&, and of a felia&ant ^wzlity
in kOm&ibff : Ttti. ttmhy fia/unavd, fiom
@/>nnmtwufc, Jriw- Snaland. W~Azn ki
vv&itb $laaaow, wilt you, loofdxu/yi to ki/m
a tvttli whxit hi Jva& to &n ; ami tvim,
fiiitfiiiani&o and wil&omz &imJv a& a
atumaii, niidfr and wiiiita, ?
J tvav-i mv-iv yit min yoiiv wovbh/if
6-votAiv, (ywt nnon oAirmly to do it. J
oJiall fbia'b of you, fnifvafi^ &n yaw, in
(Znnandat'i, wkiii wi Jwfoi um lona to 6-1.
W-vtfb tjowi aood wulAsIQs,
fev-i'b faith,fniHy,
^A^maa, (Qailyli.
3o A /{opi, &&a.

Study carefully Thomas Carlyles letter of introduction,

then write a similar letter, introducing one of your friends
to a relative in another city.
56 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XLIII.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

A sentence is a thought expressed in words. We use sentences

when speaking. The words of which sentences are composed are
therefore called parts of speech. They are classified as nouns,
PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNC
TIONS, and INTERJECTIONS.
They may be defined as follows : —

A noun is a word used as a name.

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of
a noun or pronoun.
A verb is a word used to assert something about some person
or thing.
An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
A preposition is a word used in a phrase to show the relation
of the noun or pronoun following it, to the word which the phrase
limits.
A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses,
or sentences.
An interjection is a word used to express surprise or emotion.

Read the following extract, and tell the part of speech of

each Italicized word.

THE STUDY OF WORDS.

The study of words has always been regarded as one of
the most valuable of intellectual disciplines, independently
 COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 57

of its great importance as a guide to the right practical use

of words.
The habit of thorough investigation into the meaning
of words, and of exact discrimination in the use of them,
is indispensable to precision and accuracy of thonglit ; and
it is surprising how soon the process becomes spontaneous
and almost mechanical and unconscious, so that one often
finds himself making nice yet sound distinctions between
particular words which he is not aware that he has ever
made the subject of critical analysis. — g. p. marsh.

LESSON XLIV.

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS.

i. A city is the capital of a state.

2. Columbus is the capital of Ohio.
3. Florence is a good girl.
4. Huron is a large lake.
Can you tell from the first sentence alone, what city and what
state are meant? Can you tell from the second sentence, what
city and state are meant? How do the nouns city and state differ
from Columbus and Ohio f Which nouns begin with capitals ?
Is Florence the name of a particular individual ? Is girl the
name of a particular individual only, or may each of many indi
viduals be called a girl ?
In the fourth sentence, which noun is a particular name?
Which noun may be applied to many other things of the same
sort? Which nouns begin with capitals?
Nouns like city, state, girl, lake, which are the names of classes
of persons or objects, are called common nouns.
58 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Nouns like Columbus, Ohio, Florence, Huron, which are the

names of particular individuals, places, or objects, are called
PROPER NOUNS.

Some proper nouns are made up of two or more words, as

Jersey City, Ralph. Waldo Emerson, Emancipation Proclamation,
Declaration of Independence.

A common noun is the name common to all of a class of indi

viduals or objects.
A proper noun is the name of a particular individual or object.
The first letter of a proper noun should always be a capital.

Write ten sentences, each containing a common noun.

Write ten sentences, each containing a proper noun.

Mention the nouns in the following sentences. State of

each whether it is common, or proper, and why.

1. The old town of Salem in Massachusetts was once a

famous seaport, and ships sailed out of its harbor to the
ends of the world.
2. Up from the meadows rich with corn,
Clear in the cool September morn,
The clustered spires of Frederick stand,
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. — whittiek.
3. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must
remember the Catskill Mountains.
4. What rice is to the Hindu, what wheat is to the Euro
pean, the banana is to the natives of the tropical islands.
5. The whole German race honor the robin ; and the
Scotch and the French consider the wren sacred.
 COLLECTIVE, ABSTRACT, AND VERBAL NOUNS. 59

6. And now the glad, leafy midsummer, full of blos

soms and the song of nightingales, is come.
7. As Longstone looks now, so it looked many years
ago, when Grace Darling was living there with her father
and mother.
8. The soul of Jonathan was knit with the soul of
David.
9. No man can gather cherries in Kent at the season
of Christmas !
10. Welcome, O wind of the East ! from the caves of
the misty Atlantic.
11. An acre in Middlesex is better than a principality
in Utopia. — macaulay.
12. No truer American ever existed than Thoreau.
EMERSON.
13. A barge across Loch Katrine flew,
High stood the henchman on the prow. — scott.
14. The catbird is found in certain seasons all over
North America, from Florida to Canada, and from the
Atlantic coast to the Pacific Ocean.
15. High up in the tower of the old moss-covered
church, against which the winds and storms of many
years have beaten, hangs the village bell.

LESSON XLV.
COLLECTIVE, ABSTRACT, AND VERBAL NOUNS.

i. A flock of birds flew over our heads.

2. There were ten men on the committee.
3. A family of five moved into the house.
60 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Is flock the name of a single individual, or of several taken

together? Does committee mean one man, or a number taken
together? Of what is family the name?
Nouns like flock, committee, family, etc., which are the names
of a collection of objects, are called collective nouns.

i. Politeness is kindness kindly expressed.

2. Beauty is its own excuse for being.
3. Pride goeth before destruction.
Is politeness the name of a person, or a quality of a person ?
Is kindness the name of a quality ?
Is beauty the name of a thing, or of an attribute of a thing?
Is pride the name of a quality?
Nouns like politeness, kindness, beauty, pride, etc., which are
names of qualities or attributes of objects, are called abstract nouns.

1 . Skating and coasting are winter sports.

2. Boys enjoy walking and rowing.
Is skating the name of an action? Of what is coasting the
name? Walking? Rowing?
Nouns like skating, coasting, walking, rowing, etc., which are
used as names of actions, are called verbal nouns.

A collective noun is the name of a collection of objects.

An abstract noun is the name of a quality or attribute con
sidered apart from its object.
A verbal noun is the name of an action.

State whether the nouns in the following sentences are

proper, common, collective, abstract, verbal, and why.

1. Man is a thinking being.

2. A little weeping would ease my heart.
 COLLECTIVE, ABSTRACT, AND VERBAL NOUNS. 61

3. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of, and

memory is accumulated genius.
4. Walking is a healthful exercise.
5. The other weapon with which he conquered all
obstacles in science was patience. — emerson.
6. Wounds are not healed
By the unbending of the bow that made them.
LONGFELLOW.
7. They say of Giotto, that he introduced goodness
into the art of painting. — Bancroft.
8. That they surpass the European species in sweet
ness, tenderness, and melody, I have no doubt ; and that
our mocking bird in his native haunts in the South sur
passes any bird in the world in fluency, variety, and exe
cution, is highly probable. — burroughs.
9. There have been holy men who hid themselves
Deep in the woody wilderness, and gave
Their lives to thought and prayer. — bryant.
10. All the hearts of men were softened
By the pathos of his music ;
For he sang of peace and freedom,
Sang of beauty, love, and longing ;
Sang of death, and life undying. — Longfellow.
1 1. Hang around your walls pictures which shall tell sto
ries of mercy, hope, courage, faith, and charity. — mitchell.
12. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Await alike the inevitable hour :
The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — gray.
62 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Write ten sentences each containing a collective noun.

Write ten sentences each containing an abstract noun. Write
ten sentences each containing a verbal noun.

LESSON XLVI.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

i. Edison invented the electric doll.

2. Newton discovered the law of gravitation.
Did Edison construct the first electric doll? Had the law of
gravitation always existed ? In what respect do the verbs in the
foregoing sentences agree in meaning? In what respect do they
differ?

Complete the following sentences by supplying the proper

words : —

i Columbus America.
2 Howe the sewing machine.
3 Who the planet Neptune ?
4 Who the telephone ?
5 Whitney the cotton gin.
6. The Phoenicians Britain.
7 Stephenson the locomotive engine.
8 What navigators have tried to the North Pole ?
9 De Soto the Mississippi River.
io. Who the trolley ?
11 Galileo Jupiter's satellites with the telescope
which he is said to have
12. The barometer was by Torricelli.
 THE PARAGRAPH. 63

LESSON XLVII.

THE PARAGRAPH.
CARRIER PIGEONS.

The use of pigeons for carrying messages was practiced

by the Romans two thousand years ago. Navigators from
Egypt were accustomed to take on board their ships
carriers, which they released from time to time, to bear
messages to their families. William, Prince of Orange,
employed pigeons to carry letters to the besieged city of
Leyden in 1574; and so delighted was he with their
faithfulness, that he ordered them to be fed on strawberries,
and to be embalmed after death. During the siege of
Paris in 1871, pigeons were employed to carry messages
to and from the city. These postboys were out of the
reach of the German soldiers.
The carrier pigeon is by nature strongly attached to its
home. In training it is taken, perhaps, a mile from home
in a basket, and let loose. Then the distance is increased
daily, until the bird can be moved to any distance, when, on
being released, it will take a direct course for home. Once
trained, the bird, with the letter tied to its wings or to its
feet, is set free, rises high in the air, makes one or two
circular flights, and then darts off in the proper direction,
like an arrow.

Into how many parts is the selection divided ? What does the
first paragraph tell ? What does the second paragraph describe ?
How wide is the margin at the left of the page ? How wide is the
space at the beginning of the first line of each paragraph ?
64 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Write from memory what you have learned about carrier

pigeons. In your composition mention : —
1. Pigeons as messengers among the ancients; how
the Prince of Orange rewarded carrier pigeons for carrying
letters to Leyden ; pigeons as postboys during the siege
of Paris.
2. The training of carrier pigeons ; why they can be
trained to return home ; how the distance is increased ;
where the letter is tied ; what the bird does when it is
set free.
LESSON XLVIII.
GENDER OF NOUNS.

i. John, boy, brother, heir, manservant.

2. Mary, girl, sister, heiress, maidservant.
3. Knife, cup, pen, farm, inkstand.
4. Child, teacher, parent, neighbor, cousin.
Of what sex are the objects denoted by the nouns in the first
line?
Of what sex are the objects denoted by the nouns in the second
line?
Do the nouns in the third line, knife, cup, etc., denote objects
of either sex, or without sex ?
Do the nouns in the fourth line, child, teacher, etc., denote
objects of one sex, or of either ?
No: ns 'ike fohn, boy, brother, heir, manservant, etc., which
denote objects of the male sex, are called masculine nouns, or
NOUNS OF THE MASCULINE GENDER.
Nouns like Maty, girl, sister, heiress, maidservant, etc., which
denote objects of the female sex, are called feminine nouns, or
NOUNS OF THE FEMININE GENDER.
 GENDER OF NOUNS. 65

Nouns like knife, cup, pen, farm, inkttand, etc., which denote
objects without sex, are called neuter nouns, or nouns of the
NEUTER GENDER.
Nouns like child, teacher, parent, neighbor, cousin, etc., which
may be applied to either sex, are by some grammarians said to be
of the common gender. The gender of such nouns is usually
indicated by the context, and they are said to be masculine or
feminine, as the context determines.

Make a list of the masculine nouns in the following sen

tences. Of the feminine. Of the neuter. Which of these
nouns may be either masculine orfeminine ?

i. Mary has a bed of -mignonette in her father's

garden.
2. The sweetest word that ear hath heard
Is the blessed name of " Mother."
3. Charles V., when he abdicated a throne, and retired
to the monastery of St. Juste, amused nimself with the
mechanical arts.
4. O well for the fisherman's boy,
That he shouts with his sister at play !
TENNYSON.
5. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower,
And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down.
KINGSLEY.
6. Chisel in hand stood a sculptor boy, t
With his marble block before him. .... . hk
7. A cloth weaver whose name was Columbus once
lived in the city of Genoa.
8. At one end of the island stands the lighthouse, with
the little cottage attached, where live the keeper and his
family.
66 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON XLIX.
HOW TO TELL THE GENDER OF NOUNS.

The gender of nouns is distinguished in three ways : .

I . By different words ; as, —

MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE.

brother sister nephew niece

earl countess sir madam
father mother son daughter
king queen uncle aunt
man woman wizard witch
Most given or Christian names are of this class, and show of
which gender they are : James, Patrick; Sarah, Kate.

2. By different endings ; as, —

MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE.

count countess duke duchess

heir heiress executor executrix
actor actress hero heroine
tiger tigress Julius Julia
emperor empress Paul Pauline

3. By prefixing a distinguishing word ; as, —

manservant, maidservant ; male child, female child.

Be prepared to write the feminine of the following nouns

by adding ess : —
Quaker Jew prior
baron poet heir
giant priest count
tailor patron lion
 STUDY OF SELECTION. 67

Be prepared to write the feminine of the following nouns

by changing the ending er, or, or rer into ress : —
founder actor enchanter
arbiter proprietor sorcerer
adventurer traitor benefactor
ambassador idolater protector

LESSON L.
STUDY OF SELECTION.
ICHABOD CRANE AND HIS BORROWED HORSB.

The animal was a broken-down plow-horse that had

outlived almost everything but his viciousness. He was
gaunt and shagged, with a ewe neck, and a head like a
hammer. His rusty mane and tail were tangled and
knotted with burs. One eye had lost its pupil, and was
glaring and spectral ; but the other had the gleam of a
genuine devil in it. Still he must have had fire and
mettle in his day, if we may judge from the name he bore
of Gunpowder. He had, in fact, been a favorite steed of
his master's, the choleric Van Ripper, who was a furious
rider, and had infused, very probably, some of his own
spirit into the animal ; for, old and broken-down as he
looked, there was more of the lurking devil in him than
in any young filly in the country.
Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He
rode with short stirrup, which brought his knees nearly
up to the pommel of the saddle. His sharp elbows stuck
out like grasshoppers'; he carried his whip perpendicularly
in his hand like a scepter ; and, as his horse jogged on,
68 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a

pair of wings. A small wool hat rested on the top of his
nose, for so his scanty strip of forehead might be called ;
and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out almost to the
horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his
steed as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van
Ripper, and it was altogether such an apparition as is
seldom to be met with in broad daylight. — irving.
1. Study very carefully the sketch from Washington
Irving s " Legend of Sleepy Hollow."
Was the horse young ? Was it a saddle-horse ? Was it smooth
and beautiful? Notice the words that describe the head, the
neck, the mane, the tail, the eyes. What is said of the disposition
of the animal? Do you think the name " Gunpowder " suggests
a fiery temper ? Who owned the broken-down plow-horse ?
How did Ichabod look on horseback? What is said of his
knees ? Of his elbows ? How did he carry his whip ? How did
his arms move as the horse jogged along? Notice his hat, his
forehead, the skirt of his coat. What do you understand by the
word shambled?
2. Try to imagine, and then describe, Ichabod Crane and
his borrowed horse as they rode awayfrom the gate of Hans
Van Ripper.
3. Read Irving s sketch again. Now read aloud your
own composition. Which description sounds better ? Which
is more laughable ? What points have you omitted?
4. Try to imagine the accident that happened to Ichabod
Crane, and complete in your own way the story of his
misfortunes.
5. Compare again your work with the original, and
improve your composition by adding interesting incidents.
 NUMBER OF NOUNS. 69

- LESSON LI.

NUMBER OF NOUNS.

i. The girl reads. 3. The man works.

2. The girls read. 4. The men work.
Mention the noun in the first sentence. Does it denote one, or
more than one? Mention the noun in the second sentence.
Does it denote one, or more than one ?
How many does the noun in the third sentence denote? The
noun in the fourth?
Nouns like girl and man, which denote but one, are in the sin
gular number.
Nouns like girls and men, which denote more than one, are in
the PLURAL NUMBER.

Point out the nouns in the following sentences. Tell the

kind and number, and give reasons.

1. The mind should have its palace halls

Hung with rich gifts and pictures rare.
j. w. MILLER.
2. Of all the old festivals, however, that of Christmas
awakens the strongest and most heartfelt associations.
IRVING.
3. New England, at least, is not based on any Roman
ruins. We have not to lay the foundations of our houses
on the ashes of a former civilization. — thoreau.
4. Order is a lovely nymph, the child of beauty and
wisdom ; her attendants are comfort, neatness, and activity;
her abode is the valley of happiness. — johnson.
70 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

5. How pleasantly the rising moon,

Between the shadows of the mows,
Looked on them through the great elm boughs !
WHITTIER.

6. As for marigolds, poppies, hollyhocks, and valorous

sunflowers, we shall never have a garden without them,
both for their own sake and for the sake of old-fashioned
folks who used to love them. — beecher.
7. When heats as of a tropic clime
Burned all our inland valleys through,
Three friends, the guests of summer time,
Pitched their white tent where sea winds blew.
WHITTIER.

8. The crows flapped over by twos and threes,

In the pool drowsed the cattle up to their knees,
The little birds sang as if it were
The one day of summer in all the year,
And the very leaves seemed to sing on the trees.
LOWELL.

LESSON LII.
HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL OF NOUNS.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

boy boys glass glasses

lesson lessons watch watches
house houses bush bushes
town towns fox foxes
What letter is added to the nouns boy, lesson, house, town, to
form the plural?
 HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL OF NOUNS. 71

The plural of nouns is usually formed by annexing s to the

singular.
With what letter does the noun glass end? With what two let
ters does the noun watch end? The noun bush? With what
letter does the noun fox end ? How is the plural of each of these
nouns formed?
The plural of nouns ending in s, ch, sh, or x, is formed by
annexing es to the singular.
i . Write sentences, using the plural of each of the fol
lowing nouns : —
bench chair moss match
box circus pen blush
light suffix brush patch
2. Copy the following, and notice how each plural is
formed : —
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

alley alleys jelly jellies

essay essays duty duties
journey journeys ruby rubies
When the singular ends in y preceded by a vowel (a, e, /',
0, or u), the plural is formed by annexing s; but when the
final / is preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed by
changing / into /', and annexing es.
3. Write sentences, using the plurals of the following
nouns : —
enemy jury poppy
colony ferry city
fury dairy copy
72 .ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

4. Form the plurals of the following nouns: —

By annexing s. By changing forfe into vt

gulf fife life wife
proof safe loaf beef
grief strife knife half
dwarf roof self thief

Most nouns ending in / or fe form their plural by annexing s.

A few form their plural by changing f or fe into v, and annex
ing es.

5. Write sentences, using the plural form of each of the

following nouns: —

Annex s. Annex es.

quarto proviso calico tomato
palmetto canto grotto cargo
memento tyro torpedo negro
folio piano buffalo potato
halo solo tornado veto

When the singular ends in 0 preceded by a vowel, the plural is

formed by annexing s. The plural of most nouns ending in 0 pre
ceded by a consonant is formed by annexing es.

Learn the following nouns which form their plurals by

change of vowel : —

Man, men ; woman, women ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ;

mouse, mice ; tooth, teeth ; child, children ; ox, oxen ;
louse, lice.
 CHOICE OF WORDS. 73

LESSON LIII.
CHOICE OF WORDS.

1. My uncle sent me a number of foreign postage

stamps, and my cousin sent me a quantity of maple sugar.
2. There is less carelessness on the cable road, and
therefore fewer accidents.

Do you think the stamps could be counted ? Could the

maple sugar be weighed ?
In speaking of things that may be counted, use number.
In speaking of substances that may be measured or weighed,
use quantity.
Which word means smaller in number, — less, or fewer?
Which refers to something that cannot be counted ?
In referring to numbers, use fewer. In speaking of
quantity, use less.
Construct six sentences, using the words quantity and
number with nice discrimination.
Write three sentences containing the word less, and three
containing the word fewer.

LESSON LIV.
COMPOSITION.

FIVE PEAS IN ONE POD.

Once there were five peas growing in one pod. The

peas were green, the pod was green, the vine was green,
the leaves were green ; and they thought all the world was
green. The warm sun shone on the vine, the summer
74 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

rain watered it. The shell grew larger, and the peas
grew bigger and bigger.
" Are we to lie here cooped up forever ? " asked one.
" I am tired of it," said another.
" I fear we shall become hard," said a third.
"I want to see what there is outside," said a" fourth;
while the fifth, a very little pea, cried because he could not
get out.
At length the vine turned yellow, the pod turned yellow,
and the peas turned yellow.
" All the world is turning yellow," said the peas, with
one voice.
Then there came an earthquake. The pod burst open
with a crack, and all five peas rolled out into the yellow
sunshine. A little boy clutched them, and said they were
fine peas for his pea shooter. He put the biggest one into
his gun, and shot it out.
" Catch me if you can ! " said the big pea.
"I shall fly straight into the sun," said the next one.
" I shall travel farthest," said the third pea.
" Let me alone," said the fourth.
" What is to be will be," said the little pea, as he shot
up, and lodged in an empty flowerpot in the window of a
room where lay a poor sick girl.
Pretty soon the little pea sprouted, and began to grow
into a beautiful vine.
" Dear mother, I think I shall get well," said the little
girl one day ; "for my pea is growing famously."
"God grant it!" said the mother; and she took a stick
and tied a string to it, so that the green vine might have
something to cling to.
 NOUNS IN THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 75

After many days there stood a beautiful pink pea blos

som smiling in the warm sunshine. The little girl kissed
it, and said, " Now I am sure I am going to get well."
HANS ANDERSEN.

Study carefully the story of the "Five Peas in One Pod."

Observe the arrangement of the paragraphs, and the use of
quotation marks.
Write in your own words one of the following tales : —
Cinderella. Whittington and his Cat.
Ali Baba. Little Red Riding Hood.
Joan Gilpin. The Golden Fleece.

LESSON LV.
NOUNS IN THE NOMINATIVE CASE.

i. The summer rain falls softly.

2. Shakespeare was a great poet.
What is the simple subject of the first sentence? Why?
What part of speech is it? What is the simple predicate of the
first sentence ? What part of speech is it ?
A noun used like rain, as a simple subject, is called the subject
OF THE VERB.
Point out a predicate noun in the second sentence. Does it
refer to the same person as the subject?
A predicate noun like poet, referring to the same person or
thing as the subject, is said to be in the nominative case.
By the case of a noun, we mean its relation to other words
in the sentence. The case of the subject of a verb is called
the subject nominative ; the case of a predicate noun is called the
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE.
76 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

In the following sentences, point out each noun that is a

subject nominative or a predicate nominative, and give the
reason in each instance : —
i. The summer breeze sighs gently.
2. Stanley is a great explorer.
3. Ruth and Lucy are studious girls.
4. The linden is a beautiful tree.
5. The captain and the mate are brave sailors.
6. It was a night of lovely June,
High rode in cloudless blue the moon. — scott.
7. John Gilpin was a citizen
Of credit and renown,
A trainband captain eke was he,
Of famous London town. — cowper.
8. The twilight is sad and cloudy,
The wind blows wild and free,
And like the wings of sea birds
Flash the whitecaps of the sea. — longfellow.

LESSON LVI.

NOUNS IN THE OBJECTIVE CASE.

i. The dead leaves covered the ground.

2. The rabbits jumped across our path.
What is the subject of the verb covered? What did the
leaves cover? Is ground a predicate noun? Why not? Does
it name the object of the action expressed by the verb covered?
A noun like ground, used in the predicate to name that on
which the action expressed by the verb terminates, is called the
OBJECT OF THE VERB.
 NOUNS IN THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 77

What is the simple predicate of the second sentence ? By what

is it modified? What part of speech is across? What part of
speech is path ?
A noun used like path, with a preposition, to form a limiting
phrase, is said to be the object of the preposition.
A noun which is used as the object of a verb or of a preposi
tion is in the objective case.

Name the case of each noun in the following sentences,

giving the reason in every instance : —-

1. The frost has killed the flowers.

2. The Normans conquered England.
3. The waves break on the shore.
4. The bird built its nest in a climbing rosebush near
the house.
5. The gray-haired boatman rowed us across the little
inlet to the sea.
6. Did you see the ships sail into the harbor ?
7. The triumph of modern art in writing is manifested
in the structure of the paragraph. — earle.
8. I climbed up to the old mill on top of the hill, and
then went down through the green meadows by the side
of the river.
9. Far up the blue sky a fair rainbow unrolled
Its soft-tinted pinions of purple and gold. — welby.
10. I stood on the bridge at midnight,
As the clocks were striking the hour,
And the moon rose o'er the city,
Behind the dark church tower. — longfellow.
11. The sun broke forth again in the east, and gilded
the mountain tops. — barbauld.
78 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON LVII.
COMPOSITION FROM OUTLINE.

Write a composition from the following outline : —

HOW WE CAMPED OUT.

The plans for the outing.

The persons invited to join our party.
Our preparations for a week in the woods.
The place we chose for our tent.
The food and the cooking.
Disadvantages of life in camp.
What occupations we enjoyed.
What we collected and brought home.
If you have never camped out, you will perhaps prefer to write
on one of the following subjects : —
A Saturday Afternoon. Thanksgiving Day .
A Visit to the Museum. A Fishing Excursion.
A Shopping Expedition . Having my Picture Taken .

LESSON LVIII.
NOUNS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

1. Arthur's bicycle is very light.

2. We escaped the storm's fury.
3. He has children's books for sale.
What is the simple subject of the first sentence? What word
tells you who owns the bicycle? What does the word Arthur's
denote? What is added to the word Arthur, when used to de
note ownership or possession?
 NOUNS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 79

A noun used like Arthur's, to denote ownership or possession,

is said to be in the possessive case.
What does the noun storm's denote in the second sentence?
What is annexed to the noun storm, when used to denote source
or origin ?
A noun used like storm's, to denote source or origin, is said to
be in the possessive case.
What books are for sale? What does the noun children's
denote ? What is added to the noun to denote that the books are
suitable for children ?
A noun used like children's, to denote fitness, is said to be in
the possessive case.

The possessive case is always found in connection with another

noun, expressed or understood, whose meaning it limits by con
necting with it the idea of origin, fitness, or possession.

Tell the case of each noun in the following sentences, and

give the reason. If in the possessive case, state whether ori
gin, fitness, or possession is indicated.

i.The ship's sails are white.

2. The clock's hands are always moving.
3. Frank's call sounded loud and clear.
4. My mother's voice is soft and sweet,
Like music on my ear.
5. Each man's chimney is his golden milestone.
LONGFELLOW.
6. Happy hearts are watching out
The old year's latest night.
7. The blue sky is the temple's arch. — whittier.
8. A soldier's death thou hast boldly died,
A soldier's grave won by it. — l. e. landon.
80 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON LIX.
FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

POSSESSIVE SINGULAR. POSSESSIVE PLURAL.

A woman's dresses. The women's dresses.

A girl's dolls. The girls' dolls.
A fairy's wings. The fairies' wings.
A lass's laughter. The lasses' laughter.
What is added to the nouns woman, girl, fairy, and lass, to form
the possessive singular?

The possessive singular of nouns is formed by annexing an

apostrophe and s to the nominative.

What is the possessive plural of woman ? Does the nominative

plural end in s ? How is the possessive plural formed? What is
the possessive plural of girl? Of fairy? Of lass ? With what
letter does the nominative plural of these nouns end ? How is
the possessive plural formed?

When the nominative plural does not end in s, the possessive

plural is formed by annexing an apostrophe and s / but, when
the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive plural is formed
by annexing simply the apostrophe.

Write both the possessive singular and the possessive

plural of each of the following nouns : —

ox fox butterfly
scholar wasp company
parent angel teacher
farmer friend Indian
 POSSESSIVE NOUNS EQUIVALENT TO PHRASES. 81

State the difference in meaning between these pairs of

expressions, and tell what makes the difference : —

i. The pupil's efforts. 6. The patriot's devotion.

The pupils' efforts. The patriots' devotion.
2. The rainbow's tints. 7- A fly's wings.
The rainbows' tints. Flies' wings.
3- The band's music. 8. The teacher's patience
The bands' music. The teachers' patience,
4- The tree's fruit. 9- The man's duty.
The trees' fruit. The men's duty.
5- The servant's wages. IO. Woman's work.
The servants' wages. Women's work.

LESSON LX.

POSSESSIVE NOUNS EQUIVALENT TO PHRASES.

i. A man's voice. 4. The voice of a man.

2. A lion's roar. 5. The roar of a lion.
3. The tree's leaves. 6. The leaves of the tree.
Are a man's voice and the voice of a man equivalent expressions ?
What is the difference in their form? In what case is man's?
What does it show? What do you call the expression, of a man ?
What does the phrase limit?
A lion's roar is equivalent to what? How is the change made?
By what is the noun leaves modified or limited in the third
expression? By what is the noun leaves modified or limited in the
sixth expression?
A noun in the possessive case is frequently equivalent to a
phrase, — the preposition of followed by the same noun.
6
82 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Rewrite the following expressions, using an equivalent

phrase in place of each possessive noun : —
The sun's rays. America's history.
The story's end. The navigator's compass.
A bird's wing. The ship's crew.
The parrot's beak. A mother's love.
A lily's perfume. The mountain's height.
The acorn's cup. The ocean's waves.
A flower's petals. A father's care.
The river's bed. The doctor's skill.
A man's reputation. The forest's shade.
The book's cover. A city's population.

Rewrite the following, using an equivalentpossessive noun

in place of each Italicizedphrase : —
The streets of the city.
The sweetness of music.
The depth of the river.
The walls of the castle.
The nest of the swallow.
Dreams of boyhood.
The wand of a fairy.
The hands of a watch.
The cell of the prisoner.
The verdict of the jury. ,
The conscience of a man.
The colors of the rainbow.
The voice of the singer.
The beauty of the landscape.
The friends of his childhood.
The blue eyes of the child.
 CHOICE OF WORDS. 83

LESSON LXI.
CHOICE OF WORDS.

Study carefully the words in the following pairs. Use

each word correctly in two sentences.

Peaceable. Quiet in reference to outside disturbance.

Peaceful. Quiet in reference to inside disturbance.
Examples. — He is peaceable who makes no tumult.
He is peaceful who lives in calm enjoyment.

Stop. To arrest the progress of.

Stay. To continue in a place.
Think. To employ the intellect.
Guess. To hit upon by accident.
Like. To be pleased with in a moderate degree.
Love. To delight in with preeminence.
Empty. Containing nothing.
Vacant. Unoccupied.

LESSON LXII.

COMPOSITION.

HOW CRUSOE MADE POTTERY.

It would make you pity me, or rather laugh at me, to

know how many awkward ways I took to make earthen
vessels ; what odd, misshapen, ugly things I made ; how
many of them fell in, and how many fell out, the clay not
being stiff enough to bear its own weight ; how some
84 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

cracked by the great heat of the sun ; and how others

crumbled into dust the moment I touched them.
In short, after having labored hard for two months to
find the right kind of clay, — to dig it, to bring it home,
and to shape it, — I had only two great ugly earthen things
not worthy to be called jars.
Now, it happened one day that I made a hotter fire than
usual for cooking my meat ; and when I went to put it
out, after I had done with it, I found in the ashes a broken
piece of one of my earthenware vessels, burnt as hard as a
stone and as red as a tile.
I was agreeably surprised to see it, and said to myself
that certainly these vessels might be made to burn whole
if they would burn broken.
I had no notion of a kiln such as potters use, nor of
glazing the pots with lead, although I had some lead ; but
I placed three large pipkins and two jars in a pile, one
upon another, and heaped my firewood all round them,
with a great mass of embers underneath.
The fire I plied with fresh fuel round the outside and
on the top till I saw the jars inside were red-hot through
and through, and I observed that they did not crack at all.
When I saw that they were clear red, I let them stand in
that heat for five or six hours.
At last I found that one of the jars, though it did not
crack, had begun to melt, or run. The sand which was
mixed with the clay had melted by the violence of the
heat, and would have run into glass if I had gone on.
So I slacked my fire gradually till the earthenware
began to lose its red color; and watching all night, — lest
the fire should die out too fast, — I had in the morning
 NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 85

three very good pipkins and two jars, as hard burnt as

could be desired, and one of them perfectly glazed with
the melted sand.
After studying carefully the simple narrative style of the
extract from " Robinson Crusoe;" write an account of one of
your own experiences. Perhaps you will choose one of the
following subjects : —
How we Made Maple Sugar. A Good Way to Catch Rats.
Our Snow Fort. How to Make a Kite.
An Experiment in Building. My First Attempt at Cooking.

LESSON LXIII.
NOUNS IN APPOSITION.

I Longfellow the poet lived in Cambridge.

2 Longfellow lived in Cambridge, a city near
Boston
What word in the first sentence is used to explain the noun
Longfellow ? If there were several men by the name of Long
fellow, which word would help to explain the one we mean?
What word in the second sentence means the same as Cam
bridge, and explains it?
Nouns used like poet and city, to explain or limit the meaning
of other nouns, and referring to the same persons or things, are
said to be in apposition with those nouns.
With what noun is poet in apposition ? With what noun is city
in apposition?
The case of a noun in apposition is the same as the case of the
noun which it explains.
In what case is Longfellow? Why? In what case is poet?
Why ? In what case is Cambridge ? Why ?
86 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

When two or more possessives aie in apposition, only one takes

the sign ; as, —
Longfellow the poet's home was in Cambridge.
Here Longfellow is in the possessive case because it denotes
the ownership of the house. The noun poefs is in the possessive
case because it is in apposition with Longfellow. But only the
noun poets takes the sign.
A noun in apposition, if accompanied by modifiers, should be
set off by commas. If the appositive has no modifiers, no commas
are needed ; as, —

The Emperor William reviewed the German troops.

William, the Emperor of Germany, reviewed the troops.
Tell the case of each noun in the following sentences, and
give the reason. Give the reason for each punctuation mark.

1. Swift, the author of "Gulliver's Travels," had a

brilliant intellect and a selfish heart.
2. Those green-coated musicians the frogs make holi
day in the neighboring marshes.
3. The lark, that airy little musician, is known as an
early riser.
4. Miss Alcott, the author of "Little Women," lived
in Concord.
5. Sir Walter Scott, the novelist and poet, had a very
strong affection for animals.
6. It was the great hall of William Rufus; the hall
which had resounded with acclamations at the inaugura
tion of thirty kings ; the hall which had witnessed the
just sentence of Bacon and the just absolution of Somers.
MACAULAY.
 STUDY OF SELECTION. 8?

LESSON LXIV.
STUDY OF SELECTION.

HABITS OF FLOWERS.

Nearly all flowers turn towards the light, as if they loved

it. This habit can be seen by watching plants that are
standing near a window. The flowers will all be bent
towards the light, if the pots are allowed always to stand
in the same position. But by turning them round a little
every day, while the blossoms are opening, the plants can
be made to show flowers on all sides.
Some flowers shut themselves up at night, as if they
were going to sleep, and open again in the morning.
A lazy bee was once imprisoned in a tulip. Perhaps he
had done a hard day's work in gathering honey, and at last
had become sleepy. At any rate, he staid too long in
the flower, and so was shut in for the night.
The daisy is one of the flowers that close at night.
When it shuts itself up, it forms a little green ball, not
unlike a pea, and can hardly be known from the green
grass amidst which it lies. But look next morning, and
the ball is open, showing, as the poet says, " a golden tuft
within a silver crown." It is a very beautiful sight indeed
to see the grass spangled with daisies shining in the bright
sun. It is said that this flower was at first called days
eye, because it opens its eye at the dawn of day, and that
afterward the name became daisy.
The golden flowers of the dandelion are shut up every
night ; and they are folded so closely together in their
green coverings, that they look like buds which have never
88 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

been opened. In places where the sun is very hot, the

dandelion shuts itself up, even during the day : in this way
it is sheltered in its green covering from the sun, and kept
from fading.
Some flowers hang down their heads at night, as if
nodding in their sleep ; but in the morning they lift them
up again to welcome the light. Other flowers have a par
ticular time to open. The evening primrose, for example, is
so called, because it does not open till evening. Through
spring, summer, and autumn, we have a constant succes
sion of flowers, each having its own season, and opening at
its appointed time every year.

In what direction do flowers always turn ? How can you make

a plant show flowers on all sides ?
Do flowers close at night ?
What happened one afternoon to a bee that lingered too long
in a tulip ?
How does the daisy look at night? What does the poet say of
the daisy? Why is the flower called daisy?
When does the dandelion close its golden flowers?
Do flowers sometimes droop at night ? Do certain flowers open
at a particular hour of the day ? At an appointed time of the year ?

1. Write from memory what you have learned of the

habits offlowers.
2. Find out by observation, and then describe, the habits
of the dandelion blossom, the clover leaf, the morning-glory.
3. Write a composition on " The Habits of Strange
Plants." You will find in botanical text-books and encyclo
pedias interesting accounts of the Venus's flytrap, the pitcher
plant, the sensitive plant, the night-blooming cereus.
 HO W TO PARSE NOUNS. 89

LESSON LXV.

HOW TO PARSE NOUNS.

To parse a noun, state : —

1. Class — whether it is common, proper, collective,
abstract, or verbal, and why.
2. Gender — whether it is masculine, feminine, or neu
ter, and why.
3. Number — whether it is singular or plural, and why.
4. Case — whether it is in the nominative, objective,
or possessive, and why.

MODEL FOR ORAL EXERCISE.

A bound volume has a charm in my eyes similar

to what scraps of manuscript possess for the good
Mussulman. — hawthorne.
Volume is a common noun because it is the name of a class of
things ; it is of the neuter gender because it is the name of some
thing without sex ; it is of the singular number because it denotes
but one ; it is in the nominative case because it is the subject of
the verb has.
Charm is an abstract noun because it is the name of a quality ;
it is of the neuter gender because it is a name without sex ; it is
of the singular number because it denotes but one ; it is in the
objective case because it is the object of the verb has.
Eyes is a common noun because it is a name common to a class
of things ; it is of the neuter gender because it is the name oi
objects without sex ; it is of the plural number because it denotes
more than one ; it is in the objective case because it is the object
of the preposition in.
90 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Scraps is a common noun because it is a name of a class

of objects ; it is of the neuter gender because it is the name of
objects without sex ; it is of the plural number because it denotes
more than one ; it is in the nominative case because it is the sub
ject of the verb possess.
Manuscript is a common noun because it is the name of a class
of objects ; it is of the neuter gender because it is the name of
an object without sex ; it is of the singular number because it de
notes but one ; it is in the objective case because it is the object
of the preposition of.
Mussulman is a proper noun because it is derived from the
name of a particular country ; it is of the masculine gender
because it is the name of a male person; it is of the singular
number because it denotes but one ; it is in the objective case
because it is the object of the preposition for.
After the reasons for the several classifications are well
understood, a briefer form may be used ; as, —
Volume is a noun, common, neuter, singular, nominative, sub
ject of the verb has.
Model for Written Exercise.

Nouns Class GenDer Number Case

volume common neuter singular nominative

charm abstract neuter singular objective
eyes common neuter plural objective
scraps common neuter plural nominative
manuscript common neuter singular objective
Mussulman proper masculine singular objective

Parse according to the model the nouns in Lesson LXIV.

 PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

LESSON LXVI.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

i. I stood on the bridge at midnight.

2. Listen, my children, and you shall hear
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere.
3. Let him not boast who puts his armor on
As he who puts it off, the battle done.
4. Words of welcome and gladness
Fell from her beautiful lips, and blessed the
cup as she gave it.
What part of speech is / in the first sentence? You, in the
second sentence ? He, his, him, in the third ? It, in the fourth ?
Pronouns used to denote the person or persons speaking are
said to be of the first person ; as, /, my, me, we, our, us.
Pronouns used to denote the person or persons spoken to are
said to be of the second person ; as, thou, thy, thine, you, your.
Pronouns used to denote persons or things spoken of are said
to be of the third person ; as, he, she, it, his, her, its, they, their,
them.
Pronouns that have a different form for each person and num
ber are called personal pronouns.

Point out the personal pronouns in the following sen

tences : —

1. We judge ourselves by what we feel capable of

doing, while others judge us by what we have already
done. LONGFELLOW.
92 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

2. I vowed that I would dedicate my powers

To thee and thine : have I not kept the vow ?
3. Spider, your web is so light that a dewdrop is
enough to break it.
4. And she glides
Into his darker musings with a mild
And healing sympathy, that steals away
Their sharpness ere he is aware. — bryant.
5. And we like, too, old Winter's greeting :
His touch is cold, but his heart is warm ;
So, though he may bring to us wind and storm,
We look with a smile on his well-known form,
And ours is a gladsome greeting.
6. Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice :
Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment.
7. Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee,
Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears,
Our faith triumphant o'er our fears,
Are all with thee, — are all with thee !
LONGFELLOW.

LESSON LXVII.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

NUMBER, GENDER, AND CASE.

Pronouns, like nouns, are of the singular or plural number ; of

the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender ; and in the nomina
tive, possessive, or objective case.
The following table gives the different personal pronouns with
their modifications : —
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 93

Declension of Personal Pronouns.

The First Person.

Nom. I Nom. we
Poss. my Poss. our
Obj. me Obj. us

The Second Personi.

Ancient Form. Com mon Form.
SINGULAR. plural. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. thou ye Nom. you you

Poss. thy your Poss. your your
Obj. thee you Obj. you you

The Third Person

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. All genders.
Nom. he she it Nom. they
Poss. his her its Poss. their
Obj. him her it Obj. them
The pronouns thou, thy, thee, and ye, are not now used, except
in poetry or in prayer. They will be found, however, in old writ
ings, particularly in the Bible.
Mine and thine are sometimes used for my and thy before words
beginning with a vowel sound ; as, —

Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the

Lord.
If thine enemy hunger, feed him.

The English language lacks a pronoun of singular number,

common gender ; for example. Who has lost his or her book i
In such cases, the masculine form is usually preferred.
94 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Point out the personal pronouns in the following sen

tences. Give the person, number, gender, and case of each,
with reasons.
1. Ah! what would the world be to us
If the children were no more?
2. And I'd feed the hungry, and clothe the poor,
And all should bless me who left our door.
WHITTIER.
3. If we say, The darkness shall cover us — in the
darkness, as in the light, our obligations are yet with us.
WEBSTER.
4. Sister and brother wound their arms around each
other, and the golden light came streaming in, and fell upon
them. — dickens.
5. The land
Is never lost that has a son to right her.
6. Oh, hear your father, noble youth ! hear him.
SCHILLER.

7. He grew to be revered and admired by his towns

men, who had at first known him only as an oddity.
EMERSON.
8. I know not how long it was before, to his unspeak
able joy, he beheld the huge shape of the giant, like a cloud
on the far-off edge of the sea. — hawthorne.
9. Ye sons of freedom, wake to glory !
10. Wit makes its own welcome, and levels all distinc
tions. — EMERSON.
1 1. How poor they are that have not patience !
SHAKESPEARE.
 CHOICE OF WORDS. 95

12. The mind of the scholar, if you would have it large

and liberal, should come in contact with other minds.
13. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought,
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought,
Our hearts, in glad surprise,
To higher levels rise. — longfellow.
14. 'Tis willing hand ! 'tis cheerful heart !
The two best friends I know.
Around the hearth come joy and mirth,
Where'er their faces glow. — mackay.

LESSON LXVIII.

CHOICE OF WORDS.

i. The minister hastened up the aisle.

2. The boy hurried toward the schoolhouse.
Do you think of any difference between the motion of the
minister and that of the boy ? Which was quiet, but rapid ?
Which was both rapid and irregular?
Hasten and hurry both imply a quick movement ; hurry
always adds the idea of excitement or irregularity.

Construct four original sentences illustrating the correct

use of: —
hasten hurry

Construct sentences to show the proper use of the following

words : —
enough healthy pride
sufficient wholesome vanity
96 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS

LESSON LXIX.

COMPOSITION.

A LETTER.

Elmwood, Cambridge, Mass.,

Jan. 2, 1890.
Dear Friends :
Here I am again in the house where I was born longer
ago than you can remember, though I wish you more New
Year's Days than I have ever had. 'Tis a pleasant old
house, just about twice as old as I am, four miles from
Boston, in what was once the country, and is now a popu
lous suburb.
My library occupies two rooms opening into each other
by arches at the side of the ample chimneys. The trees
I look out on are the earliest things I remember.
Now for out of doors. What do you suppose the
thermometer is about on this second day of January ? I
was going to say he was standing on his head : at any
rate, he has forgotten what he is about, and is marking
sixty-three degrees Fahrenheit on the north side of the
house and in the shade !
I forgot one thing. There are plenty of mice in the
wall, and, now that I can't go to the play with you, I
assist at their little tragedies and comedies behind the
wainscot in the night hours, and build up plots in my
fancy. 'Tis a French company, for I hear them distinctly
say, " Wee, wee!'
Good by, and take care of yourselves till I come with
the daffodils. I wish you both many a happy New Year
 COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 97

and a share for me in some of them. Poets seem to live

long nowadays, and I, too, live in Arcadia after my own
fashion.
Affectionately yours,
James Russell Lowell.
To the Misses Lawrence,
London, England.
Study carefully the arrangement of the letter and the
style.
Write a letter to one of your relatives who has never seen
your home. Describe : —
1. The location of the house.
2. Your room and its contents.
3. The view from your windows.
4. Your occupations.

LESSON LXX.
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

i. I enjoyed myself. We enjoyed ourselves.

2. You enjoyed yourself. You enjoyed yourselves.
3. He enjoyed himself. They enjoyed themselves.
Pronouns like myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, themselves,
etc., which are formed by annexing self or selves to one of the
personal pronouns, are called compound personal pronouns.
What other compound personal pronouns may be formed
besides those given above?
Mention the compound personal pronouns of the masculine
gender. Mention those of the feminine gender. Mention those
that are neuter. Which are used for either gender ?
98 ADVANCED LANdUAGE LESSONS.

Which of the compound personal pronouns are of the first per

son ? Which are of the second ? Which are of the third ?
Which compound personal pronouns are of the singular num
ber? Which are plural? What word is used to form the sin
gulars ? What to form the plurals ?
In what case are all the compound personal pronouns given
above?
The compound personal pronouns are usually in the objective
case. •
Sometimes, when used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, they
are by apposition in the nominative case ; thus, —

I myself will do it.

The general himself ordered it.
You yourselves have defeated it.

Tell the gender, person, number, and case of each com

pound personal pronoun in the following sentences : —

1. If you would have it well done, — I am only repeat

ing your maxim, —
You must do it yourself, you must not leave it to
others.
2. Let us, then, be what we are, and speak what we
think, and in all things
Keep ourselves loyal to truth.
3. My father is old, and has nobody but myself to love
him. Hard as you think his heart is, it would break to
lose me.
4. He who destroys a good book kills reason itself.
MILTON.
5. Each man makes his own stature, builds himself.
YOUNG.
 ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 99

LESSON LXXI.
ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

This house is my house.

This house is mine.
This house is thy house.
This house is thine.
This house is her house.
This house is hers.
This house is our house.
This house is ours.
This house is your house.
This house is yours.
This house is their house.
This house is theirs.
What is the difference between the first and second sentences ?
Do they mean the same ? The word mine in the second sentence
takes the place of what words in the first ? The words thine, hers,
ours, yours, and theirs, take the place respectively of what words ?
When the noun qualified by the possessive pronouns my, thy,
her, our, your, or their, is omitted, these pronouns are changed to
mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs.
The pronouns mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are
called absolute possessive pronouns because they are used inde
pendently of a noun. Be careful not to use an apostrophe in
writing these absolute possessives.

794158 A
100 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Rewrite the following sentences, substituting an appropri

ate absolute possessive pronoun for the Italicized words : —

1. This bouquet is your bouquet.

2. That bouquet is my bouquet.
3. The apples in the basket are their apples.
4. All the largest apples are my apples.
5. What a happy life your life must be!
6. A sad fate is my fate.
7. Is the tent in the woods your tent?
8. His class is the most diligent class in the school.
9. The fastest horses are their horses.

My, thy, our, your, and their are always in the possessive case ;
but hers, ours, yours, and theirs are never in the possessive
case. They are used in the nominative or the objective case.
Suppose we ask the question, Whose book was lost?
These answers might be given : —
Mine was lost. Hers was lost. Ours was lost. Yours was lost.
Theirs was lost.
In each of these answers, the absolute possessive is in what case ?
Why?
Suppose we ask the question, Who lost his book ?
These answers might be given : —
I lost mine. She lost hers. We lost ours. You lost yours.
They lost theirs.
In each of these answers, the absolute possessive would be in
what case ? Why ?

Write a similar set of answers to each of the following

questions, and state whether the pronouns are in the nomina
tive or the objective case : —
 ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 101

1. Whose house was burned ?

2. Whose trees were struck by lightning ?
3. Whose boats are the best in the harbor ?
4. Whose fault was it that the watch was lost ?
5. Is the brown-and-white setter your dog?
6. Whose roses were blighted by the storm ?
7. Are the books in the library your books ?
8. Whose carriage was used ?
9. In whose garden did the gardener plant the vines ?

Point out the possessive pronouns and the absolute possess-

ives in the following sentences. Give the person, number,
gender, and case of each.

1. I have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my

desires. — john stuart mill.
2. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. — perry.
3. " A dainty pair," the prudent matron said,
"But thine they are not." — bryant.
4. The deadliest foe of all our race,
And hateful unto me and mine !
5. Yours has the suffering been,
The memory shall be ours.
6. But knowing well captivity,
Sweet bird ! I could not wish for thine. — byron.
7. No time is this for hands long over-worn
To task their strength. — whittier.
8. Come, good people, all and each,
Come and listen to our speech !
In your presence here I stand,
With a trumpet in my hand. — longfellow.
102 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON LXXII.
STUDY OF SELECTION.
THE BLUE JAYS.

I once had the chance of doing a kindness to a house

hold of blue jays, which they received with very friendly
condescension. I had had my eye for some time upon a
nest, and was puzzled by a constant fluttering of what
seemed full-grown wings in it whenever I drew nigh. At
last I climbed the tree, in spite of angry protests from the
old birds against my intrusion. The mystery had a very
simple solution. In building the nest, a long piece of pack
thread had been somewhat loosely woven in. Three of
the young birds had contrived to entangle themselves in
it, and had become full grown without being able to launch
themselves upon the air. One was unharmed ; another
had so tightly twisted the cord about its shank that one
foot was curled up and seemed paralyzed ; the third, in its
struggles to escape, had sawn through the flesh of the
thigh and so much harmed itself, that I thought it humane
to put an end to its misery. When I took out my knife to
cut their hempen bonds, the heads of the family seemed to
divine my friendly intent. Suddenly ceasing their cries
and threats, they perched quietly within reach of my hand,
and watched me in my work of manumission. This, owing
to the fluttering terror of the prisoners, was an affair of
some delicacy ; but ere long I was rewarded by seeing one
of them fly away to a neighboring tree, while the cripple,
making a parachute of his wings, came lightly to the
ground, and hopped off as well as he could with one leg,
 STUDY OP SELECTION. 103

obsequiously waited on by his elders. A week later I had

the satisfaction of meeting him in the pine walk, in good
spirits, and already so far recovered as to be able to bal
ance himself with the lame foot. I have no doubt that in
his old age he accounted for his lameness by some hand
some story of a wound received at the famous Battle of
the Pines, where one tribe, overcome by numbers, was
driven from its ancient camping ground. — lowell.
Study carefully Lowell's account of the imprisoned blue
Jays.
Tell the story in your own words. You may, ifyou wish,
use the following equivalent expressions : —
Intrusion = unwelcome Making a parachute of =
entry. spreading.
Launch themselves on Overcome = conquered,
the air = fly. Satisfaction = pleasure.
Humane = kind, merciful. Accounted for = excused.
Manumission = setting Camping ground = strong"-
free. hold.
Describe in a similar way an accident you have seen.
Before you begin to write, increase your knowledge of the
subject : —
i. By observation. 3. By reading and study.
2. By experiment. 4. By conversation.
The following subjects will probably remind you of a
familiar incident : —
A Mouse that we Caught in a Trap.
Some Ants that Moved a Straw.
Two Birds that Built a Nest in our Apple Tree.
A Canary Bird that Left its Home.
104 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON LXXIII.
PUNCTUATION. — THE COMMA.

A comma (,) is placed after each word in a series of words alike

in grammatical construction ; thus, —
The wisest, brightest, meanest, of mankind.
Infancy, childhood, youth, manhood, age, are different stages
in human life.
i. If the last word of the series is preceded by a conjunction, a comma is not
placed after it ; thus,—
Ease, indulgence, luxury, and sloth make man a poor, sordid,
selfish, and wretched being.
2. If the words in a series are severally connected by conjunctions, a comma is
not used ; thus, —
The air and earth and water teem with delighted existence.
The mind is that which knows and feels and thinks.

3. If only one word follows the series, a comma is not placed after the last word
of the series ; thus, —
He was a resolute, self-possessed, decided man.
David was a wise, good, pious king.
They taught, urged, threatened, lectured him.
4. If the series is composed of pairs of words, a comma is placed after each pair;
thus, —
Draw from life the utmost it will yield for honor and usefulness,
culture and enjoyment, health and affection.

Explain the use of the comma in the following sentences.

Write the sentences from dictation.
1. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's,
Thy God's, and truth's. — shakespeare.
 PUNCTUATION.— THE COMMA. lOS

2. To idle, silly, flattering words,

I pray you ne'er give heed.
3. Faith, hope, and charity are three cardinal virtues.
4. We should be kind, sympathetic, and helpful to all.
5. Strength, health, love, wisdom, peace, hope, are the
elementary atoms of happiness.
6. God gives us the soul ; but genius, talent, and
ability we must get through education.
7. Griefs, joys, fears, hopes, suspicions, and counsels
may all be imparted to a true friend.
8. How deeply and warmly and spotlessly Earth's
nakedness is clothed !
9. The wit, the sage, the orator, the hero, the whole
family of genius, furnished forth their treasures, and gave
them nobly to the nation's exigence.
10. The one serviceable, safe, certain, remunerative,
attainable quality in every study and every pursuit is the
quality of attention. — dickens.
11. Walled towns, stored arsenals, guns, and ammunition
are of no avail, unless the people be courageous.
12. In old Rome the public roads beginning at the
Forum proceeded north, south, east, west, to the center
of every province of the empire.
13. It is a story of labors, of trials, of patient forbear
ance, of long-suffering.
14. No one can find peace but in the growth of an
enlightened, firm, disinterested, holy mind.
15. The back of the chair was curiously carved in open
work, so as to represent flowers and fruit and foliage.
16. Cause and effect, means and ends, seed and fruit,
cannot be severed. — emerson.
106 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

17. How nobly those inverted commas, those italics,

those capitals, bring out the writer's wit, and relieve the
eye ! They are as good as jokes, though you mayn't quite
perceive the point. — thackeray.
1 8. The rich and the poor, the wise and the ignorant,
the strong and the weak, are all brothers.
. 19. Were all these changing beauties of form and
color to disappear, how unsightly and dull and dreary
would be this world of ours !
20. Poverty and sickness, oppression and misery, were
the lot of the French peasantry in the eighteenth century.
21. Shining and tall and fair and straight
As the pillar that stood by the Beautiful Gate.
LOWELL.

LESSON LXXIV.

PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT.

i. The man lost his pocketbook and all the

money he had with him.
2. The woman lost her pocketbook and all the
money she had with her.
3. The men lost their pocketbooks and all the
money they had with them.
In place of what noun is the pronoun his used ? The pronoun
he ? The pronoun him ?
In place of what noun is the pronoun her used ? The pronoun
she?
In place of what noun is the pronoun their used ? The pro
noun they ? The pronoun them ?
 PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT.

The noun for which a pronoun stands is called its antece

What is the antecedent of his ? Of he ? Of him ? W. .. .<,
the gender of man f What is the person? The number? The
pronouns he, his, and him, are in what person, number, and
gender?
In the second sentence, what are the person, number, and
gender of woman ? Of she and her ?
What are the person, number, and gender of men in the third
sentence ? Of they, their, and them ?

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number,

and gender.

Point out the antecedent of each personal pronoun in the

following sentences, and give the person, number, and gender
of both the antecedent and the pronoun : —

i. A light broke. in upon my brain, —

It was the carol of a bird ;
It ceased, and then it came again,
The sweetest song ear ever heard. — byron.
2. My country, 'tis of thee,
Sweet land of liberty,
Of thee I sing. — s. f. smith.
3. When a man has not a good reason for doing a
thing, he has one good reason for letting it alone. — scott.
4. God's ways seem dark, but soon or late
They touch the shining hills of day. — whither.
5. I have ships that went to sea
More than fifty years ago ;
None have yet come home to me,
But are sailing to and fro. .— coffin.
108 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

6. Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis

early morn :
Leave me here, and when you want me, sound upon
the bugle horn. — tennyson.
7. There is always room for a man of force, and he
makes room for many. — emerson.
8. With spiders I had friendship made,
And watched them in their sullen trade,
Had seen the mice by moonlight play,
And why should I feel less than they ? — byron.
9. Sweet streamlet ! What a bright life must have
been yours ! What flowers must have fringed your gliding
way, what rosy clouds you have reflected, what lilies you
have nourished, what stars have risen to tell you their
secret ere they have set! — conway.

LESSON LXXV.
TWO OR MORE ANTECEDENTS.

i. Ethel and Elaine had their pictures taken.

2. Ethel or Elaine had her picture taken.
What are the antecedents of their? In what number is each
antecedent? By what are the antecedents connected ? Does the
connective make us consider both girls together? Have the two,
thus, a singular, or a plural significance? Is the pronoun their
singular, or plural?
When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents con
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number.
How many antecedents has her in the second sentence? In
what number is each? By what are the antecedents connected?
 TWO OR MORE ANTECEDENTS. 109

Does this connective make us consider the girls together, or

Separately? Does the sentence mean that one, or both, had
their pictures taken? In what number is her?
When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected
by or or nor, it must agree with each in the singular number.
But when one of the antecedents is plural, the pronoun must
be plural also.
When a pronoun has for an antecedent a collective noun in the
singular which stands for many as one whole, the pronoun must
agree with it in the singular.

Mention the antecedents of the pronouns in the following

sentences, and tell in what number each is. Tell in what
number each pronoun is, and why.

i. James and, Edward lost their way coming from the

village.
2. James or Edward lost his way coming from the
village.
3. The maple and the chestnut shed their leaves in the
fall.
4. Either the elm or the maple throws its shadow across
my window.
5. Neither George nor Harry is willing to give up his
day to work.
6. Either James or Henry will come and bring his
games with him.
7. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his steed,
as they shambled out of the gate of Hans van Ripper,
and it was altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be
met with in broad daylight.
110 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON LXXVI.

CHARLES DICKENS'S RAVEN.

Charles Dickens was fond of keeping ravens in his

youth, and some of his experiences are related in the pref
ace to " Barnaby Rudge." His first pet slept in a stable,
generally on horseback. He terrified a Newfoundland
dog by his tricks, and often walked off unmolested with the
dog's dinner. He was increasing in intelligence when, in
an evil hour, his stable was newly painted. He observed
the workmen closely, saw that they were careful of their
pigments, and immediately decided to outwit them. While
they were at dinner one day, he began to eat the white lead
they had left behind. Alas ! this youthful folly resulted
in death.

Who was Charles Dickens ? Have you ever read " Barnaby
Rudge"? Which of Dickens's pets is described in the preface?
Where did the raven sleep ? How did he frighten the dog ? What
do you understand by "increasing in intelligence"? How did
the raven lose his life ? Is white lead poisonous ?

i . Tell in your own words the story of Charles Dickens's

pet raven.
2. Write a similar story, telling of the experiences of one
ofyour own pets.

Construct your sentences so that there can be no doubt as to

the antecedent of each pronoun.

Be careful to set qualifying phrases or clauses as near as pos

sible to the words they modify.
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Ill

LESSON LXXVII.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

i. Who gave me this book? Henry.

2. Which of the boys gave me this book ? Henry.
3. Here are two books. Which will you take ?
4. What is in the box ? Wood.
What is the answer to the first question? Which word in the
question represents Henry? It is therefore what part of speech?
Which word in the second question represents Henry?
What does the pronoun which in the third sentence represent ?
What does the pronoun what represent in the fourth question ?
The pronouns who, which, and what, when used to ask ques
tions, are called interrogative pronouns.
The interrogative pronouns (who, which, and what) are not
changed in form to indicate person, gender, and number.
Who is used in asking questions referring to persons (first
question).
Which is used in asking questions referring to persons (second
question) or things (third question).
What is used in asking questions referring to things (fourth
question).
The interrogative who shows by its form what case it is in ;
thus, —
Nom. Who saw the book?
Poss. Whose book is it ?
Obj. By whom was the book seen ?

Which and what are never in the possessive case, and they have
the same forms both in the nominative and in the objective.
112 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following sen

tences, tell the case of each, and give the reason: —
1. Which is the lovelier, — the lily, or the rose ?
2. Who knows the errors of his thoughts ?
3. Who shall nerve heroic boys
To hazard all in freedom's fight? — emerson.
4. And what is so rare as a day in June? — lowell.
5. Which is the wind that brings the rain ? — stedman.
6. What flower is this that greets the morn,
Its hues from heaven so freshly born? — holmes.
7. Who shall rise and cast away,
First, the burden of the day ?
Who assert his place, and teach
Lighter labor, nobler speech,
Standing firm, erect, and strong,
Proud as freedom, free as song? — bayard taylor.

LESSON LXXVIII.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

i. I met a man who helped me.

2. The dog which was shot had bitten the boy.
3. I gave the picture to a boy that I liked.
4. We return to the books that we enjoy.
5. The boy read what he had written.
What man did I meet? By what words is the noun man
modified?
What dog had bitten the boy ? By what words is the noun dog
modified?
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 113

Expressions like the following are called clauses : —

who helped me (ist sentence)
which was shot (2d sentence)
that I liked (3d sentence)
that we enjoy (4th sentence)
what he had written (5th sentence).

If we rewrite the first sentence thus, / met a man, and he

helped me, we see that the pronoun he stands for the noun man :
so also the word who in the first sentence stands for man, or for
and he.
In like manner we may rewrite the second sentence thus, The
dog had bitten the boy, and it was shot. Here the pronoun it
stands for dog, and it is clear that which stands for dog, or for
and it.
The words who, which, that, and what, are pronouns because
they represent nouns. They are called relative pronouns because
they relate to a preceding noun or pronoun.
Who is used to relate to persons, and which to relate to ani
mals and things, when an additional fact is stated and when they
have the sense of and he, and she, and it, and they, for he, etc.
That relates to persons or things, and is to be preferred : —
1. When the clause which it introduces simply limits or defines
the antecedent, as in the third and fourth sentences.
2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ;
as, The boys and the dogs that surrounded us made a great noise.
3. After the superlative degree ; as, It was the biggest trout
that we caught.
4. Generally, after all, any, each, every, no, same, or very ; as,
All that I had I gave him.
5. Where the propriety of who or which is doubtful.
What represents things only, and has no antecedent expressed.
It has a double relation in the sentence, — as the object of a verb or
114 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

preposition, and as the subject or object of the verb in the clause

it introduces.
A relative pronoun, because it connects the clause it introduces
to the principal clause, is properly a conjunctive pronoun.

Declension of Relatives.

Nom. who which

Poss. whose whose
Obj. whom which

That and what are not modified to indicate case.

Mention the relative pronouns in the following sentences,

state the antecedent of each, read the clause that it intro
duces, and tell what case the relative is in and why : —

i. The willow which bends to the tempest often es

capes better than the oak which resists it. — scott.

2. They never fail, who die

In a great cause ! — byron.

3. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her.

WORDSWORTH.

4. A gentle stream, whose murm'ring wave did play.

- SPENSER.

5. Give plenty of what is given to you. — phcebe cary.

6. He who would search for pearls must dive below.

DRYDEN.

7. The wand'ring streams that shine between the hills,

The grots that echo to the tinkling rills. — pope.
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 115

8. We should rejoice if those who rule our land

Be men who hold its many blessings dear.
COLERIDGE.

9. To every man give that which most he needs ;

Do that which he can never do for you. — schefek.
10. O holy Night ! from thee I learn to bear
What man has borne before. — Longfellow.
11. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend.
HENRY TAYLOR.

12. There is a tide in the affairs of men,

Which, taken at its flood, leads on to fortune.
SHAKESPEARE.

13. Thoreau, who has a strange faculty of finding what

the Indians have left behind them, first set me on the
search ; and I afterwards enriched myself with some very
perfect specimens, so rudely wrought that it seemed
almost as if chance had fashioned them. — hawthorne.
14. Who would not be tempted to frequent irritation
if he could enjoy that gift for which the poet so foolishly
prayed, the gift of seeing himself as others saw him, and
recognize his infinitesimal importance in the eyes of his
fellows? — A. P. RUSSELL.
15. I hear a voice you cannot hear,
Which says I must not stay ;
I see a hand you cannot see,
Which beckons me away. — tickell.
16. The flowers our mothers and sisters used to love
and cherish, those which grew beneath our eaves and by
our doorstep, are the ones we always love best. — holmes.
116 ADVANCED LANGUAGE LESSONS.

LESSON LXXIX.

PUNCTUATION. —THE RELATIVE CLAUSE.

A relative clause which simply explains its antecedent is sepa

rated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or commas ;
thus, —
His plan, which was original, was full of genius.
Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevo
lence.
If the relative clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent,
no comma is used ; thus, —
It was only a few discerning friends who perceived the
dawn of his future eminence.
No faculty lives within us which the soul can spare.

Justify the use or omission of the comma in the following

sentences. Write the sentences from dictation.
1. Books, which are the repositories of knowledge, are
an indispensable part of the furniture of a house.
2. Storms do not rend the sail that is furled.
3. He who reads in a proper spirit can scarcely read
too much.
4. We must be courteous to a man as to a picture, which
we are willing to give the advantage of a good light.
EMERSON.
5. I count him a great man who inhabits a higher sphere
of thought, into which other men rise with difficulty and
labor. EMERSON.
6. He that is good at making excuses is seldom good
for anything else. — franklin.