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How To WRITE CLEARLY

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T 768.90.100

HARVARD COLLEGE

LIBRARY

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THE ESSEX INSTITUTE

TEXT-BOOK COLLECTION

GIFT OF

GEORGE ARTHUR PLIMPTON

OF NEW YORK

JANUARY 25, 1924

3 2044 102 770 856
2
HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY
 DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS.

HOW TO PARSE . An Attempt to Apply the Principles

of Scholarship to English Grammar. With Appendixes on
Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price,
$ 1.00.

HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An

Introduction to English Grammar. American edition, revised
and enlarged by Prof. JOHN G. R. McELROY, of the Univer.
sity of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents.
HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY . Rules and Exercises in 1
English Composition. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents.
ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE .
Jointly by Dr. ABBOTT and Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A., of Cam
bridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $ 1.50.

ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

Boston .
D

HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.

RULES AND EXERCISES

ON

ENGLISH COMPOSITION .

BY THE

REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,

HRAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL .

QU
I
LEGIT

THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION .

BOSTON :

ROBERTS BROTHERS.

1890.
EdueT 765.90.100

HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY

GIFT OF
& EORGE ARTHUR PLIMPTON
JANUARY 25 , 1924

UNIVERSITY PRESS : John Wilson & SON ,

CAMBRIDGE.
 PREFACE .

ALMOST every English boy can be taught to write clearly,

so far at least as clearness depends upon the arrangement
of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more
difficult to teach, and far more difficult to learn ; but clear
writing can be reduced to rules. To teach the art of
writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and
Exercises.
Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement,
but also from other causes - from the misuse of single
words, and from confused thought. These causes are
not removable by definite rules, and therefore, though
not neglected, are not prominently considered in this
book. My object rather is to point out some few con
tinually recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest
definite remedies in each case. Speeches in Parliament,
newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, reso
lutions at public meetings, furnish abundant instances of
obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some
dozen simple rules.
The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable
acquisition - almost as valuable as the art of writing
clearly. But forcible expression is not, like clear ex
pression, a mere question of mechanism and of the
manipulation of words ; it is a much higher power, and
implies much more.
 6 Preface.
Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A
man may think and reason as obscurely as Dogberry
himself, but he may (though it is not probable that he
will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing
clearly - so far as arrangement of words is concerned
-is a mere matter of adverbs, conjunctions, preposi
tions, and auxiliary verbs, placed and repeated according
to definite rules. Even obscure or illogical thought can
be clearly expressed ; indeed, the transparent medium of
clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the
illogical nature of the meaning beneath it.
On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly,
he must (to use a well-known illustration) describe
Jerusalem as sown with salt,” not as 66 captured,” and
the Jews not as being “ subdued ” but as almost ex
terminated ” by Titus. But what does this imply ? It
implies knowledge, and very often a great deal of know
ledge, and it implies also a vivid imagination. The writer
1
must have eyes to see the vivid side of everything, as
well as words to describe what he sees. Hence forcible
writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a
matter of rules than is clear writing ; and hence, though
forcible writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear
writing occupies most of the space devoted to the rules.
Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in
especial need of help to enable them to write a long
English sentence clearly. The periods of Thucydides
and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom without
some knowledge of the links that connect an English
sentence.
There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well
as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into
* Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is there
fore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to point out the
slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and too little to arrange
ment.
 Preface. 7

genuine English ; but the flat, vague, long-winded Greek

English and Latin-English imposture that is often tole
rated in our examinations and is allowed to pass current
for genuine English , diminishes instead of increasing the
power that our pupils should possess over their native
i language. By getting marks at school and college for
construing good Greek and Latin into bad English, our
pupils systematically unlearn what they may have been
allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.
I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor
Bain's treatise on “English Composition and Rhetoric , ”
and also to his English Grammar. I have not always
been able to agree with Professor Bain as to matters of
taste ; but I find it difficult to express my admiration for
the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his
book on Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule
on the use of “ that ” and “ which ” (see Rule 8) deserves
to be better known. The ambiguity produced by the con
fusion between these two forms of the Relative is not a
mere fiction of pedants ; it is practically serious. Take,
for instance, the following sentence, which appeared
lately in one of our ablest weekly periodicals : “ There
are a good many Radical members in the House who
cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian.”
Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning
is “and they, i.e. all the Radical members in the House, ”
or
there are a good many Radical members of the
House that cannot & c ." ? Professor Bain, apparently
admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many
sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh.
Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the
rule, I have endeavoured to point out and explain the
exceptions.
* Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule , I had shown that the differ
ence between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare. See
“ Shakespearian Grammar,” paragraph 259.
8 Preface.
The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are
intended not so much for use by themselves as for re
ference while the pupil is working at the exercises.
Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules by
accumulations of examples, The few examples that are
given, are given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules.
The exercises are intended to be written out and revised ,
as exercises usually are ; but they may also be used for
viva voce instruction . The books being shut, the pupils,
with their written exercises before them, may be ques
tioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they
have made. Experienced teachers will not require any
explanation of the arrangement or rather non -arrangement
of the exercises. They have been purposely mixed together
unclassified to prevent the pupil from relying upon anything
but his own common sense and industry, to show him
what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended.
Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to
each sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present
any difficulty to a painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen ,
provided he has first been fairly trained in English
grammar.
The “ Continuous Extracts ” present rather more diffi
culty, and are intended for boys somewhat older than
those for whom the Exercises are intended . The attempt
to modernize, and clarify, so to speak , the style of Burnet,
Clarendon, and Bishop Butler, may appear ambitious,
and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has,
of course, not been to improve upon the style of these
authors, but to show how their meaning might be ex
pressed more clearly in modern English. The charm of the
style is necessarily lost, but if the loss is recognized both
by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my opinion, to
* Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The extracts
from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of verbosity and exag
geration .
 Preface. 9

counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Pro

fessor Bain speaks to the same effect: 1 “ For an English
exercise, the matter should in some way or other be
supplied, and the pupil disciplined in giving it expression .
I know of no better method than to prescribe passages
containing good matter, but in some respects imperfectly
worded, to be amended according to the laws and the
proprieties of style. Our older writers might be ex
tensively, though not exclusively, drawn upon for this
purpose.”
To some of the friends whose help has been already
acknowledged in "English Lessons for English People,
I am indebted for further help in revising these pages.
I desire to express especial obligations to the Rev. J.
H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge,
and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and
valuable suggestions ; also to several of my colleagues at
the City of London School, among whom I must mention
in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge.

Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition,

I wish to say one word as to the manner in which this
book has been used by my highest class, as a collection
of Rules for reference in their construing lessons. In
construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found
Rules 5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40a, of great use. The rules
about Metaphor and Climax have also been useful in
correcting faults of taste in their Latin and Greek com
positions. I have hopes that, used in this way, this little
book may be of service to the highest as well as to the
middle classes of our schools.
1 “ English Composition and Rhetoric, ” p. vii.
 CONTENTS .
PAGE
INDEX OF RULES . . II- 13
RULES 14-40
SHORT EXERCISES . 41-63
CONTINUOUS EXERCISES — CLARENDON . 64–70
BURNET . 70-73
.

BUTLER 74–75
SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON 76—78
 INDEX OF RULES

I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE ,

WORDS.

1. USE words in their proper sense .

2. Avoid exaggerations.
3. Avoid useless circumlocution and “ fine writing.”
4. Be careful in the use of “ not . and," " any, ” “ but, "
" only, 66 not or, » 66 that .”
4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, 966e.g. “ certain .”
5. Be careful in the use of “ he,” it,” “ . they, these,'» &c.
6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to
avoid ambiguity.
6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the
speakerare not intended to be given.
66. Omission of that ” in a speech in the Third Person .
7. When you use a Participle implying “ when ,” “ while, "
99
“ though , or “ that,” show clearly by the context what is
implied.
8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use " who or “ which , "
," " for he " or " for it."
if the meaning is “ and he ” or “ and it,"
In9.other cases use “ that,” if euphony allows. Exceptions.
Do not use “ and which ” for ” which .”
10. Equivalents for the Relative : (a) Participle or Adjective ;
(6) Infinitive ; (C) “ Whereby," " whereto,” & c. ; (d ) “ If a man
( e) “ And he," óc and this,” &c. ; “ what ; ” ( 8) omission of
Relative.
lo a'. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the
non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.
II . Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.
II a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used .
12. Use particular persons instead ofa class.
13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.
14. Do not confuse metaphor.
14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
14.b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic
subject.
ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions ; i.e., for
the most part, at the be or the end of the sentence.
15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the
end . Exceptions.
I2 Index of Rules.

15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis .

16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be trans
ferred from the beginning of the sentence.
17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for
emphasis.
18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is
the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding
an epithet, or an intensifying word .
19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with
which they are grammatically connected.
20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are
intended to qualify:
21 . Only " ; the strict rule is that “ only ” should be placed
before the word it affects.
22. When “ not only ” precedes “ but also ,” see that each is
followed by the same part of speech.
23. “ At least, always ,” and other adverbial adjuncts, some
times produce ambiguity.
24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.
25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer,
without the intervention of any other Noun.
26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept
as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55 .
27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or if -clauses
must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
28. Dependent clauses preceded by " that ” should be kept
distinct from those that are independent.
29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are depen
dent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that
are not.
30. The principle of Suspense.
30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to intro
duce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and
unemphatic clause beginning with (a ) “ not,” (6) " which ."
31. Suspense must not be excessive.
32. In a sentence with “ if, ” “ when ,” “ though , ” &c. , put the
" if-clause,” antecedent, or protasis, first.
33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective,
that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. either,” “ not only , " on
the one hand ,” &c. , add clearness.
35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause
obscurity or ambiguity.
36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction ,
especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.
37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal
Adjectives.
37 a. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions " than,” as,” & c.
 Index of Rules. 13

38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word , or a

summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it
is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence
prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end,
the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called
“ climax .”
40. When the thought is expected to ascend , but descends,
feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent
is called “ bathos. "
40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unex .
pectedly.
41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
42. Epigram.
43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject
of thought Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
44. The connection between different sentences must be kept
up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other
connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.
45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs
sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the
transition of thought.
II. BREVITY.
46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than par
ticular terms.
47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word .
48. Participles may often be used as brief ( though sometimes
ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and
Verbs.
49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns
may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of
being expressed at length.
51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. “ very, "
so.” Exaggerated epithets, e.g. “ incalculable,” “ unprecedented .”
51 a . The imperative may be used for “ if &c."
52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences
into one .
53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating ( 1 ) the
common Subject of several Verbs ; ( 2) the common Object of
several Verbs or Prepositions.
54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the
first consideration.
 CLEARNESS AND FORCE.

Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules.

WORDS.
1. Use words in their proper sense.
Write , not “ His apparent guilt justified his friends in dis
owning him , ” but ‘ his evident guilt." Conscious and
aware, unnatural and “ supernatural," transpire ” and
' occur, circumstance and “ event , reverse » and con
verse ,!, '« eliminate ” and “ elicit,” are often confused together.
This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses.
“ It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have
power to do this , I may lawfully do it.” Here the second
power ” is used for “ authority."
This rule also forbids the slovenly use of “ nice ,” “ awfully, "
“ delicious,” “ glorious ,” &c. See (2 ).
2. Avoid exaggerations.
“ The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished
inexhaustible supplies of corn , that would have almost sufficed for
twice the population .”
Here " inexhaustible " is inconsistent with what follows. The
words "6 unprecedented ,” “ incalculable,” very, ” and “ stu .
pendous ” are often used in the same loose way.
3. Avoid useless circumlocution and " fine writing.”
“ Her Majesty here partook of lunch ." Write " lunched . "
“ Partook of” implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as
lengthy.
So, do not use “ apex for "top ; “ species ” for “ kind, "
« individual ” for 66 man ", ' " assist ” for “ help ,” &c.
4. Be careful how vou use the following words : “ not
and,” “ any,” “ only,” “ not ... or," that.” 1
5. For, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary doubt,
while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a conjunction or pre
position .
 Words. 15
And . See below , “ Or. "
Any. " I am not bound to receive any messenger that you
send . " Does this mean every, or a single ? Use * every ” or
a single.'
Not.— ( 1) “ I do not intend to help you, because you are my
enemy & c." ought to mean (2 ), “ I intend not to help you, and my
reason for not helping you is, because you are my enemy.” But
it is often wrongly used to mean ( 3), “ I intend to help you, not
because you aremyenemy (but because you are poor, blind, & c.)."
In the latter case, not ought to be separated from intend. By
distinctly marking the limits to which the influence of not ex
tends, the ambiguity may be removed.
Only is often used ambiguously for alone. The rest help
me to revenge myself ; you only advise me to wait.” This
ought to mean, you only advise, instead of helping ; ” but in
similar sentences " you only ” is often used for “ you alone .”
But see 21.

Or. - When “ or ” is preceded by a negative, as “ I do not

want butter or honey, "" or ” ought not, strictly speaking, to be
used like “ and,” nor like “ nor. The strict use of “ not ...
or ” would be as follows :
“ You say you don't want both butter and honey - you want
butter or honey ; I , on the contrary, do not want butter or honey
- I want them both .'
Practically, however, this meaning is so rare , that “ I don't
want butter or honey” is regularly used for “ I want neither
butter nor honey.” But where there is the slightest danger of
ambiguity, it is desirable to use nor .
The sameambiguity attends “ not and.” “ I do not see
Thomas and John ” is commonly used for “ I see neither Thomas
nor John ; ” but it might mean , “ I do not see them both - I see
only one of them .”
That.— The different uses of “ that ” produce much ambiguity,
c.g. “ I am so much surprised by this statement that I am de
sirous of resigning, that I scarcely know what reply to make.
Hereit
whether isimpossibleto
the first “ that tell, till one has read past -resigning,
” depends upon SO or 66 statement."
Write : “ The statement that I am desirous of resigning surprises
me so much that I scarcely know & c.”
4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. “ certain ."
“ Certain " is often used for " some,” as in “ Independently of hisearnings,
he has a certain property," where the meaning might be “ unfailing."
Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as " left"
in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even where there is
16 Clearness and Force.
no obscurity, the juxtaposition ofthe sameword twiceused in two senses is
inelegant, e.g. (Bain ), He turned to the left and left the room . ”
I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood : “ Our object
is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at thepoint where
we think eloquencein its most praiseworthy form to lie .” “ To lie " has been
supposed to mean to deceive .

5. Be careful how you use “ he," " it,” “ they,"

" these,” &c. (For " which see 8. ) The ambiguity arising
from the use of he applying to different persons is well known.
“ He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an
hour he thought he had better return ." See (6) for remedy.
Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases
as in this way, of this sort, &c.
“ God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given
us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose
objects are, these disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment,
compassion.”
Repeat the noun : “ Among these passions and affections are
fear & c . ”
Two distinct uses of it may be noted. It, when referring to
somethingthatprecedes,
when maybe, “called
to something that follows " retrospective
.prospective. In ;Avoid
" but
indiscriminate charity: it is a crime," " it ” is retrospective. In
" It is a crime to give indiscriminately,” “ it ” is prospective.
The prospective it,” ifproductive of ambiguity, can often be
omitted by using the infinitive as a subject : “ To give indis .
criminately is a crime."
6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person,
where necessary to avoid ambiguity. Speeches in the
third person afford a particular, though very common case, of
the general ambiguity mentioned in ( 5 ). Instead of “ He told
his friend that he did not feel better & c., ” write “ He said
to his friend, ' If I (or you ) don't feel better &c . '”
6 2. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact
words, or where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy
and uninteresting, the ThirdPerson is preferable. Thus, where
Essex is asking Sir Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed
Attorney -General, the dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's
writings) in the First Person, except where it becomes tedious and un
interesting so as to require condensation, and then it drops into the Third
Person :
“ Sir Robert had nothing to say but that he thought his own abilities equal
to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's long services
deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen.”

1 It should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or ( 2) to

some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See (25).
 Words. 17
6 b. Omission of " that” in a speech reported in the Third
Person . - Even when a speech is reported in the third person, “ that " need
not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead of “ He
said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed ," we may write,
" He took it ill, ' he said, ' that & c ."" This gives a little more life,and some
times more clearness also.

7. When you use a Participle, as “ walking,” implying

" when ," " while," "though," " that," make it clear by
the context what is implied.
“ Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their
own sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all,
unaccompanied by courtly graces and good breeding. '
Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is “ since they
are, or, if they are, unaccompanied. '
That or when.— “ Men walking ( that walk, or when they
")
walk) on ice sometimes fall."
It is better to use men walking ” to mean men when
66
they walk.' If the relative is meant, use men that walk , ”
instead of the participle.
( 1 ) “ While he was ( ) road he fell.”
(2 ) “ Because he was } 1 ( ) ice,
When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies
a cause : “ Seeing this, he retired.” Otherwise it generally has its
proper participial meaning, e.g. “ He retired, keeping his face
towards us. If there is any ambiguity, write “ on seeing ,” — “ at
the same time, or while, keeping.
( 1 ) “ Though he was ( ( 1 ) he nevertheless stood
(2 ) “ Since he was Struck with terror, his ground .”
(3) “If he is ( 2 ) he rapidly retreated .'
( 3) he will soon retreat.
8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use " who "
and “ which ” where the meaning is “ and he, it, & c.,'
" for he, it, & c .” In other cases use “ that,” if euphony
allows.
“ I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from
the guard that travelled with the train .”
“ Fetch me (all ) the books that lie on the table, and also the
pamphlets, which (and these ) you will find on the floor.”
An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity.
Thus : “ There was a public-house next door, which was a great
nuisance,” means and this (i.e. the fact of its being next door)
was a great nuisance ; " whereas that would have meant “ Next
door was a public-house that (i.e. the public-house) was a great
B
18 Clearness and Force.
nuisance. ” “ Who," " which ,” &c. introduce a new fact
about the antecedent , whereas “ that ” introduces some
thing without which the antecedent is incomplete or un
defined . Thus, in the first example above, “ inspector ” is
complete in itself, and “ who " introduces a new fact about him ;
guard ” is incomplete, and requires “ that travelled with thé
train” to complete the meaning.
It is not, and cannot_be, maintained that this rule, though
observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern
authors. ( Probably a general impression that “ that ” cannot be
used to refer to persons has assisted “ who " in supplanting " that "
as a relative. ) But the convenience of the rule is so great that
beginners in composition may with advantage adhere to the rule.
The following are some of the cases where who and which are
mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of that.
Exceptions :
(a ) When the antecedent is defined, e.g: by a possessive case, modern
English uses who instead of that. It is rare, though it would be use
ful, to say “ His English friends that had not seen him ” for “ the
English friends, or those of his English friends, that had not seen him ."
( 6) That sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its antecedents,
and emphasized by isolation : “ There are many persons that, though
unscrupulous, are commonly good -tempered, and that, if not strongly
incited by self interest,are ready for the most part to think of the interest
of their neighbours.” Shakespeare frequently uses who after that when
the relative isrepeated. See " Shakespearian Grammar, " par . 260 .
(c) If the antecedent is qualified by that , the relative must not be that.
Besides other considerations, the repetition is disagreeable. Addison
ridicules such language as “ That remark that I made yesterday is not
that that I said that I regretted that I had made.”
( d ) preposition
That cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the
to theend . “ This is the rule that I adhere to." This is
perfectly good English , though sometimes unnecessarily avoided . But,
with someprepositions, the construction is harsh and objectionable, e.g.
“This is the mark that I jumped beyond," “ Such were the prejudices
that he rose above." The reason is that some of these disyllabic
prepositions are used as adverbs , and, when separated from their nouns,
give one the impression that they are used as adverbs.
(e) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern Engl sh
prefers who. l
“ There are many, others, severa , those, who can
testify & c."
After
(8) as that used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike to use that
a relative. See ( c).
9. Do not use redundant " and " before “ which ."" 2
“ I gave him a very interesting book for a present, and which
cost me five shillings.'
Inshort sentencesthe absurdity is evident, but in long sentences
it is less evident, and very common .
“ A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the
bye-laws which permits application of public money to support
i So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt “ that
here and in several of the following exceptional cases .
2 Of course " and which ” may be used where “ which ” precedes.
 Words. 19

sectarian schools over which ratepayers have no control, this

being a violation of the principle of civil and religious liberty,
and which the memorialists believe would provoke a determined
and conscientious resistance.”
Here which ought grammatically to refer to “ portion " or
" schools. ” But it seems intended to refer to “ violation .”
Omit “ and,” or repeat “ a violation ” before “ which,” or turn
the sentence otherwise.
10. Equivalents for Relative.
(a) Participle.— “ Men thirsting (for men that thirst ') for
revenge are not indifferent to plunder. ” Theobjection to the
participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity.
The above sentence may mean, men, when they thirst,” or
“ though they thirst,” as well as “ men that thirst.” Often
however there is no ambiguity : “ I have documents proving
this conclusively."
( 6) Infinitive . — Instead of “ He was the first that entered
you can write “ to enter ; ” for “ He is not a man who will
act dishonestly,” “ to act.” This equivalent cannot often
be used.

(c) Whereby, wherein, &c. , can sometimes be used for “ by

which ," " in which ,” so as to avoid a harsh repetition of
" which .” “ The means wher eby this may be effected . ” But
this use is somewhat antiquated.
( d ) If.— “ The man that does not care for music is to be pitied ”
can be written (though not so forcibly ), “ If a man does
not care for music, he is to be pitied.” It is in long sentences
that this equivalent will be found most useful.
( e) And this.— “ He did his best, which was all that could be
expected ,” can be written, “ and this was all that, & c.”
w What.-- " Let me repeat that which1 you ought to know, that
that which is worth doing is worth doing well.” “ Let me
repeat, what you ought to know, that what is worth doing is
worth doing well.”
( 8) Omission of Relative. It is sometimes thought ungram
matical to omit the relative, as in “ The man (that ) you
speak of ” On the contrary, that when an object (not
when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent
and the subject of the relative sentence are brought into
juxtaposition by the omission.
10 a '. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form ,
where there is any ambiguity. This is particularly useful
I “ That which , ” where that is an object, e.g. “ then (set forth ) that which
is worse , ” St. John ii. 10, is rare in modern English
B 2
20 Clearness and Force.

after a negative : “ He said that he would not even hear me,

which I confess I had expected .” Here the meaning may be,
“ I had expected that he would ,” or “ that he would not, hear
me." Write, 66 a refusal, or, a favour, that I confess í had
expected.” See ( 38) .
11. Jse particular for general terms.This is a most
important rule. Instead of " I have neither the necessaries
of life nor the means of procuring them ,” write (if you can with
truth ), “ I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one.”
Caution. — There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividlyexpressed
but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. Crust of bread may
be an exaggeration ; on the other hand, if the speaker is destitute not
only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then crust of bread is an
imperfect expression of the meaning.
In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often
to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must
be used.

11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used

instead. The disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this,
that, unless they are immediately preceded by prepositions, they
are sometimes liable to be confounded with participles. The
following is an instance of an excessive use of Verbal Nouns :
“ Thepretended confession of the secretary was only collusion
to lay the jealousies of the king's favouring popery, which still
hung upon him, notwithstanding his writing on the Revelation,
and affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, asserting
in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."
Write “notwithstanding that he wrote and affected & c.”
12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.
What is the splendour of the greatest monarch compared with
the beauty of a flower ? ” “ What is the splendour of Solomon
compared with the beauty of a daisy ? ”
Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for
Adjective : “ This fortress is weakness itself.”
An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic,
e.g., the following paraphrase for “ in every British colony:"
" under Indian palm -groves, amid Australian gum -trees, in the
shadow of African mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines.”
13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.
“ The ship ploughs the sea ” is clearer than “ the ship cleaves
the sea , ” and shorter than “ the ship cleaves the sea as a plough
cleaves the land. ”
 Words. 21

Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should

not be used. See ( 14 a ) and ( 146).
14. Do not confuse Metaphor.
“ In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them , deluging their
country with invaders.”
The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche : “ Mr. Speaker,
I smell arat, I see hin brewing in the air .; but, mark me, I shall
yet nip him in the bud.”
Somegood
many words, once
writers saymetaphorical,
under thesehave ceased to be so
circumstances regarded.
instead Hence
of " in these
circumstances.
An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry : disregard
is inelegant. Write, not, “ unparalleled complications,” but “ unprecedented
complications ;” and “ he threw light on obscurities," instead of "he un
ravelled obscurities."
14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately
after Metaphor.
“ He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of
Cork .”
“ He was a very thunderbolt of war ,
And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar."

14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a

prosaic subject. Thus, we may say a poet soars,” or even,
though rarely, “ a nation soars to greatness,” but you could not say
“ Consols soared to 941.” Even coinmonplace subjects may be
illustrated by metaphor: for it is a metaphor, and quite un .
objectionable, to say “ Consols mounted, or jumped to 941.” But
commonplace subjects must be illustrated by metaphor that is
commonplace.

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.

15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic posi

tions ; i.e. for the most part,at the beginning or at the
end of the sentence. This rule occasionally supersedes the
common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as
a rule, should be between the subject and verb : “ He quickly
left the room ;” but if quickly is to be emphatic, it must come
at the beginning or end, as in “ I told him to leave the room
slowly, but he left quickly."
Adjectives, in clauses beginning with " if ” and “ though ,”
often come at the beginning for emphasis : “ Insolent though he
was, he was silenced at last. "
22 Clearness and Force.

15 a . Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept

from the end of the sentence. It is a common fault to
break this rule by placing a short and unemphatic predicate
at the end of a long sentence.
“ To know some Latin,even if it be nothing but a few Latin
roots, is useful.” Write, “ It is useful, & c.”
So “ the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors he is."
Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end,
the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, e.g.
above, “ is very useful ,” “ he has invariably been .”
A short " chippy " ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is
abrupt and unrhythmical , e.g. “ The soldier, transfixed with the spear,
writhed
writhed.”.in We want a of
the agonies longer
death ending," fell writhing
.” A chippy to isthe
" ending 'ground,"
common or,
in bad
construing from Virgil.
Exceptions. -Prepositions and pronouns attached to em
phatic words need not be moved from the end ; e.g. “ He does
no harm that I hear of.” “ Bear witness how I loved him .”
N.B. In all styles , especially in letter -writing, a final
emphasis must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive
and monotonous.

15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.

“ No one can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really
guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse ,” is not so
emphatic as Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c. ? "
Contrast “ No one ever names Wentworth without think
ing of & c.” with “ But Wentworth , —who ever names him
without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their
expression into more than the majesty of an antique Jupiter? ”

16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often

be removed from the beginning of the sentence. The
beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly
not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of
a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted early in the
sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule,
at or near the beginning : “ Thomas built this house ."
Hence, since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, if
we want to emphasize “ Thomas ” unusually, we must remove
“ Thomas ” from the beginning : “ This house was built by
Thomas, or “ It was Thomas that built this house.”
Thus, the emphasis on “ conqueror ” is not quite so strong in
“ A mere conqueror onght not to obtain from us the reverence that
is due to the great benefactors of mankind,” as in “ We ought
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 23

not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors

of mankind, upon a mere conqueror.” Considerable, but less
emphasis and greater smoothness ( 19) will be obtained by writing
the sentence thus : “ We ought not to bestow upon a mere con
queror & c. "
Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it
rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even though
unusual emphasis be required :
“ The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. He first pointed
out the possibility of advancing; he warned them of the approaching scarcity
of provisions ; he showed how they might replenish their exhausted stock & c.

17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb

for emphasis . This is most common in antithesis. “ Jesus
I know , and Paul I know ; but who are ye ? " " Some he
imprisoned, others he put to death .”
Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not un
common :
“ Military courage, the boast of the sottish German, of the
frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant
Spaniard, he neither possesses nor values.”
This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, e.g. " The son the
father slew ," and must be sparingly used in prose.
Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by some,
and inappropriate by others, according to different interpretations of the
sentence . Take as an example, " Early in the morning the nobles and
gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in the great hall of the
castle ; and here they began to talk of what a dreadful storm it had been the
night before. But Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said , for he
was thinking of something worse." The last sentence has been amended by
Professor Bain into “ What they said , Macbeth could scarcely understand.
But there appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can
think about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, " what
they said " ought not, and “ Macbeth ” ought, to be emphasized : and there
fore Macbeth ” ought to be retained at the beginning of the sentence.
The same author alters, “ The praise of judgment Virgil has justly con
tested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled, ” into “ Virgil has
justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled
his invention ” —an alteration which does not seem to emphasize sufficiently
the antithesis between what had been contested,' on the one hand, and what
remained as yet " unrivalled ' on the other.
More judiciously Professor Bain alters, “ He that tells a lie is not sensible
how great a task he undertakes ; for he must be forced to invent twenty
more to maintain one,” into “ for, to maintain one, he must invent twenty
more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic place, at the end.

18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear

which is the most emphatic. Thus, in “ The state was
made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of
their contention to each of these opposite parties,” it is un.
pleasantly doubtful whether the writer means ( 1 ) state or (2)
parties to be emphatic.
 24 Clearness and Force.

If (1), “ As for the state, these two parties, under the pre
tence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention.”
If (2), write, “ Though served in profession, the state was in reality,
converted into a prize for their contention by these two parties.
In ( 1 ) parties is subordinated, in ( 2) state.
Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to
emphasize. Thus, instead of “ To effect this they used all
devices, ” we can write “ ] effect this they used every conceiv
able device. " So, if we want to emphasize fidelity in “ The
business will task your skill and fidelity ,” we can write “ Not
only your skill but also your fidelity. " This, however, some
times leads to exaggerations. See ( 2 ).
Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in “ You do not know
this, but you shall know it.” Where antithesis cannot be used,
the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I
will make you know it, or by some addition, as “ You shall
hereafter know it. "

19. Words should be as near as possible to the words

with which they are grammatically connected. See
Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30.

20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they

are intended to affect. When unemphatic, adverbs come
between the subject and the verb , or, if the tense is compound,
between the parts of the compound tense : “ He quickly left the
room ;
" " He has quickly left the room ;" but, when emphatic,
after the verb : “ He left, or has left, the room quickly.” i
When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present
participle, there arises ambiguity. “ I told him to go slowly,
but he left the room quickly, dropping the purse on the floor."
Does quickly here modify left or dropping ? The remedy? is, to
give the adverb its unemphatic place, " Hequickly left the room ,
dropping & c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus : “ He
quickly dropped the purse and left the room ,” or “ He dropped
the purse and quickly left the room .”

21. “Only” requires careful use. The strict rule

is, that only " should be placed before the word
affected by it .
!

1 Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes the
transposition of an Auxiliary Verb , “ Gladly do I consent.
2 Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity ; but it is better to
express oneselfBain.
Professor clearly,as far as possible, independentlyof punctuation .
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 25
The following is ambiguous :
“ The heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals . "
The best rule is to avoid placing.only ” between two emphatic
words, and to avoid using “ only ” where “ alone " can be used
instead.
In strictness perhaps the three following sentences :
( 1 ) He only beat three,
(2) He beat only three ,
( 3) He beat three only,
ought to be explained , severally, thus :
( 1 ) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
(2) He beat no more than three.
( 3) He beat three , and that was all he did . (Here only modifies the
whole of the sentence and depreciates the action. )
But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. “ He only lived ”
ought to mean he did not die or make any great sacrifice ; ” but “ He only
lived but till he was a man ” (Macbeth , v. 8. 40 ) means “ He lived only till
he was a man . " Compare also, “ Who only hath immortality . ”
Only at the beginning of a statement = but. “ I don't like to importune
you , only I know you'll forgive me.” Before an imperative it diminishes the
favour asked : “ Only listen to me.” This use of only is mostly confined to
letters.
Very often , only at the beginning of a sentence is used for alone : « Only
ten came, “Only Cæsar approved."
.
Alone is less ambiguous. The
ambiguity of only is illustrated by such a sentence as, 6 Don't hesitate to
bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any time. Only five
( fifteen ) came yesterday ,” which might mean, “ I don't mind a few ; only
1
don't bring so many as fifteen ; or else “Don't hesitate to bring a few
more ; no more than five came yesterday." In conversation , ambiguity is
prevented by emphasis a letter,
; but“ inYester thus
onlyfive
day only used might cause un
came, ” if you mean ' no
fortunate mistakes. Write
more than five .'

22. When “ not only ” precedes “ but also ," see that
each is followed by the same part of speech.
“ He not only gave me advice but also help.” is wrong.
Write “ He gave me, not only advice, but also help.” On the
other hand, “He not only gave me a grammar, butalso lent me
a dictionary,” is right. Take an instance. “ He spoke not only
forcibly but also tastefully (adverbs), and this too, not only before
a small audience, but also in ( prepositions) a large public
meeting, and his speeches were not only successful, but also
(adjective) worthy of success.
23. “At least,” “ always," and other adverbial ad
juncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.
“ I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all events, as good
as my cousin's.” Does thismean ( 1) “ my Latin exercise , though
not perhaps my other exercises ; or ( 2 ), “ Though not very
good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's " ? Write for ( 1),
“ My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find & c." and for (2 ),
“ I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's,
"
at all events.
 26 Clearness and Force.

The remedy is to avoid placing “ at all events between two

emphatic words.
As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take
“ From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the
City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange,
and that the funds were fast falling.” This ought to mean that
the “ hearing,” and not (as is intended ) that the “ breaking out
of the panic,” took place in the City.
In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where the
latter is more emphatic than any nearer word. This is very common when
the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at the beginning of
the sentence : “On this very spot our guide declared that Claverhouse had
fallen .

24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that

they define. In the very common sentence “ The death is
announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works & c., ”
the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we
write “ The death of Mr. John Smith is announced,” we shall be
obliged to begin a new sentence, He was an author whose
works & c.” But the difficulty can be removed by writing “ We
regret to announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr.
John Smith, an author, & c . ”
25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they
refer without the intervention of another noun. Avoid,
" John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith ,whogave me this book ,"
unless Thomas Smith is the antecedent of who . Avoid also “. John
supplied Thomas with money : he (John) was very well off.”
When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the
other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun
referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis inter
venes . Thus : “ At this moment the colonel came up , and took the place of
the wounded general . He gave orders to halt." Here hewould naturally refer
to colonel, though general intervenes A conjunction will often show that a
pronoun refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, and not to another
intervening noun. “ The sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier,
and fired. He then retreated to give the alarm . "
It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called
( Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an instance
was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A distinction
might be drawn by punctuating thus :
“ David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath . ” “David , the father of
Solomon who built the Temple.". But the propriety of omitting a comma in
each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to be at the
mercy of commas.

26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should

be kept as close together as possible. ( But see 55.) The
introduction of parentheses violati this rule often produced
serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following : “ The result of these
observations appears to be in opposition to the view now generally
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 27
received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of
the muscle itself undergoes disintegration .” Here it is difficult
to tell whether the theory of “ disintegration is ( 1 ) “ the
result ,” or, as the absence of a comma after “ be ” would
indicate, ( 2 ) “ in opposition to the result of these observations. "
If ( 1 ) is intended , add “ and to prove ” after “ country ;" if
(2 ), insert “ which is ” after " country.”
There is an excessive complication in the following : - “ It
cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject
of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher,
be given, be denied that & c. "
Where a speaker feels that his hearer:s have forgotten the
connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat
what he has said ; e.g. after the long parenthesis in the last sen
tence he should recommence, “ it cannot, I say, be denied .” In
writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used.
A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with clearness,
especially if antithesis be used , so as to show the connection between the
differentparts of the sentence, e.g. “ A modern newspaper statement, though
probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony ; but
the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written
some centuries ago ." Here, to place " though probably true" at the begin
ning of the sentence would not add clearness, and would impair the em
phasis of the contrast between “ a modern newspaper statement ” and “ the
letter of a court gossip.'
27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses
must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
There is ambiguity in “ The lesson intended to be taught by
these manoeuvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid
down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a
mere review .” Begin , in any case, with the antecedent, “ If the
plan,” &c. Next write, according to the meaning : ( 1) “ If the
plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c. , then the lesson
will be lost ; ” or ( 2 ) “ ... then the lesson . will be lost,
and the affair degenerates into a mere review ."
28. Dependent clauses preceded by " that ” should
be kept distinct from those that are independent.
Take as an example :
( 1) “ He replied that he wished to help them , and intended to
make preparations accordingly.”
This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for short
ness) to mean :
( 2 ) “ He replied . and he intended .”
In ( 1 ) , “ intended ,” having no subject, must be supposed to be
connected with the nearest prec verb , in the same mood
and tense, that has a subject, i.e. “ wished.” It follows that ( 1 )
is a condensation of :
28 Clearness and Force.

(3) “ He replied that he wished . . . , and that he intended .”

(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically
ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject
unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word
or a full stop between the two statements. Thus :
(4) “ He replied that he wished to help them, and indeed he
intended ,” &c. , or “ He replied, &c. He intended, & c.”
Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3 ) or (4) in
preference to ( I ) or ( 2 ).
29. When there are several infinitives, those that
are dependent on the same word must be kept dis
tinct from those that are not.
“ He said that he wished to take his friend with him to visit
the capital and to study medicine .” Here it is doubtful whether
the meaning is—
“ He said that he wished to take his friend with him ,
( 1 ) and also to visit the capital and study medicine," or
(2 ) “ that his friend might visit the capital and might also
study medicine,” or
( 3) “ on a visit to the capital, and that he also wished to study
medicine. "
From the three different versions it will be perceived that this
ambiguity must be met (a ) by using “ that ” for “ to ,” which
allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb [e.g. "might " in (2) ], and
(6) by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions,
see (37).
“ In order to ," and " for the purpose of ,” can be used to dis
tinguish ( wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive
that expresses a purpose, and an infinitive that does not, e.g.
“ He told his servant to call upon his friend, to ( in order to ) give
him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he
started."
30. The principle of suspense. Write your sentence in
such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader
may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep
your reader in suspense. Suspense is caused ( 1 ) by placing the
“ if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional sentence ; (2) by
placing participles before the words they qualify ; (3) by using
suspensive conjunctions , e.g. not only, either, partly, on the one
hand, in the firstplace, &c.
The following is an example of an unsuspended sentence. The
sense draggles, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.
“ Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience
in parliaments, | where hehad served very long, and was always
a man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, I and of a
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 29

good reputation generally, ! though known to be inclined to

the Puritan party ; yet not of those furious resolutions (Mod.
Eng: so furiously resolved ) against the Church as the other
leading men were, ! and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford, —
who had nothing of that spirit.
The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the
eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes :
“ Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the
Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary
experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a
good reputation generally ; for, though openly favouring the
Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and,
like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against
the Church by the other leading men.

30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to

introduce unexpectedly, atthe end of a long sentence,
some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a)
... not ” or (b ) “ ... which ."
(a) “ This reform has already been highly beneficial to all
classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded,
encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality,
and not, as some say, wastefulness.”
Write “ not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self
dependence, and frugality.”
(6) “ After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which
was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we
arrived safely at York , which is a fine old town .”
Exception.- When the short final clause is intended to be
unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with some
thing of the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus :
The old miser said that he should have been delighted to
give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had
left his pirse at home— a habit of his."
Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words
for which we are waiting, i.e. on the end of the sentence. It
has been pointed out above that a monotony of final em
phasis isobjectionable, especially in letter writing and
conversation.

31. Suspense must not be excessive. Excess of suspense is a com

mon fault in boys translating from Latin. “ Themistocles, having secured
the safety of Greece, the Persian feet being now destroyed, when he had
unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge
across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking
that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of the king, wrote as
30 Clearness and Force.
follows to him . " The more English idiom is : “ When Themistocles had
secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of the Persian fleet, he
made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Greeks to break down the
bridge across the Hellespont. Soon afterwards, hearing &c ” .
A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the intro
duction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of Paradise Lost
between “ ofman's first disobedience ” and “ Sing, heavenly Muse .” Com
pare also the beginning of Paradise Lost, Book II .:

High on a throne of royal state, which far

Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold
Satan exalted sat.

with the opening of Keats' Hyperion :

“ Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn ,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star
Sat grey -haired Saturn , quiet as a stone.”

32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if

clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
Everyonewill see the flatness of “ Revenge thy father'smost
annatural murder, if thou didst ever love him ," as compared
with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from
Hamlet in
“ Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love
Hamlet. O, God !
Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is
long and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedentor “ if
clause.” “ I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends,
and to show you the objects of interest in our city , and the
beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here."
Where the “ if-clause comes last, it ought to be very emphatic :
“ if you were only here."
The introduction of a clause with “ if ” or though " in the
middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when
a great part of the sentence depends on “ that : ” “ His enemies
answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they
would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that
cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason
they would put off the trial to a more convenient season .
See (27).

33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or

Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
i See ( 30 ).
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 31

“ Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to

those that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, “ He,
deserted by his friends, was forced & c.,” he is unduly emphasized ;
and if we write, “ Hewas forced to have recourse to his enemies,
having been deserted by his friends,” the effect is very flat.
Of course we might sometimes write “ He was deserted and
forced & c .” but this cannot be done where the “ desertion ” is
to be not stated but implied.
Often , when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced
late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity : “With this
small force the general determined to attack the foe, flushed with
recent victory and rendered negligent by success. ”
An excessive use of the suspensive participle is French and objectionable :
e.g. “ Careless by nature, and too much engaged with business to think of
the morrow , spoiled by a long -established liberty and a fabulous pros
perity, having for many generations forgotten the scourge of war, we allow
ourselves to drift on without taking heed of the signs of the times.” The
remedy is to convert the participle into a verb depending on a conjunction :
“ Because we are by nature careless, & c.; or to convert the participle into
a verb co-ordinate with the principal verb, e.g. “ We are by nature careless,
&c. , and therefore we allow ourselves, & c .

34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e. g. “ either,” “ not

only ,” “ on the one hand,” add clearness. Take the
following sentence :- “ You must take this extremely perilous
course, in which success is uncertain , and failure disgraceful, as
well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is en
dangered . ” Here, the meaning is liable to be misunderstood,
till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write “ Either
you must,” & c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an
alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases are partly,
for our part; in the first place ; it is true ; doubtless ; of course ;
though ; on the one hand.

35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would

cause ambiguity or obscurity . — The omission is particularly
likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject :
“ He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is
suffering from his flattery, and (he ? or it ?) will not permit any
one else to give it advice. "
The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of
several Verbs. “ All the pleasing illusions which made power
gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different
shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated
into politics the sentiments that beautify and softenprivate society,
are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and
reason .
32 Clearness and Force.

36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening

Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also
intervene.
' He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped
all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and
( to) John Smith in particular. Here, omit to, and the meaning
may be “ that helped all his companions, and John Smith in
particular.” The intervention of the verb and object, “ helped "
and “ companions,” causes this ambiguity.
37. When there are several Verbs at some distance
from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the
Conjunction.
“ When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years
have made in the ranks of our national authors--and, above all,
(when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession
of new competitors — we cannot help being dismayed at the
prospect that lies before the writers of the present day.
Here omit “ when ,” and we at once substitute a parenthetical
statement for what is really a subordinate clause.
In reporting a speech or opinion, “ that must be continually
repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says
with what others say .
“ We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the
Christians ; ( that) they only punished men who were charged ,
rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and(that)
foulest abominations in secret assemblies ; and committing the
the refusal
to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime,
but only evidence of the crime.” But see (6 6).
37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than,"
“ as,” &c,
“ I think he likes me better than you ; ” i.e. either “ than you
like me,” or “ he likes you. '
“ Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did
the Spaniard Olivares.” Omit “ did ," and you cause ambiguity.
38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to
keep the thread of meaning unbroken , repeat the
subject, or someother emphatic word, or a summary of
what has been said.
“ Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and
populous cities — these are not the elements that constitute a great
nation . ”
1 The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also
conducive to clearness .
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 33

This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation,

not unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with
writers , and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers.
“ The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer
some fair measure of reform , sufficient at least to satisfy the more
moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever
I say, if we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a con
dition that we may precipitate a revolution .”.
Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or
repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. “ In the
following sentence we have the Subject iepeated not only in
the final summary, but also as the antecedent :
“ But if there were, in any part of the world, a national
church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation com
mitted to its care ; a church established and maintained by the
sword; a church producing twice as many riots as conversions ; a
church which , though possessing great wealth and power, and
though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of
many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines,
and barely able to maintain its ground ; a church so odious that
fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of pro
perty, were generally regarded as fair play ; a church whose
ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty
obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets,—
such a church, on our principles, could not, we must own,
be defended .”

39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of

the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the
middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is
called “ climax.”
In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has
three terms :
“ To gossip (a ) is a fault (b) ; to libel(a'), a crime(b ') ; to
slander(a " ), a sin (b ”). ”
In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how
they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence :
“ Man, working, has contrived (a ) the Atlantic Cable, but I
declare that it astonishes ( b ) me far more to think that for his mere
amusement ( c) , that to entertain a mere idle hour ( c'), he has
created (a ') ' Othello ' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I
am awe-struck ( b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature
which enables him , instead of turning away ( d) from calamity
and grief(e), or instead of merely defying(d') them, actually to
make them the material of his amusement (d" ), and to draw from
the wildest agonies of the human spirit(e') a pleasure which is
с
34 Clearness and Force.

not only not cruel(f), but is in the highest degree pure and
ennobling (f').”
The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the even
flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to mankind, had
written
“Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides ;
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides ;
Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule "
the ascent would have been too rapid . The transition from earth to heaven ,
and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the intervening climax
“ Instruct the planets in what orbs to run ;
Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun ;
Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
To the first good, first perfect, and first fair. "

40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet .

descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the
result. The descent is called “ bathos ."
" What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations,
the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate
prisoners ?”
“ She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues,
graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend,
a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she
played beautifully on the pianoforte.”
INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is
sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the line
“Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule ,”
Pope adds
“ Then drop into thyself, and be a fool."

40 a . A new construction should not be introduced

without cause. — A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of
construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and some
times breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause per
plexity. Thus, write “ virtuous and accomplished,” or “ of many
virtues and accomplishments,” not “ of many virtues and accom
plished ; ” “ riding or walking ” or on foot or horseback,” not
on foot or riding: In the same way, do not put adjectives
and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close
juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following :
“ He had good reason to believe that the delay was not an
accident (accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing ( to
suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong
both by art and naturally (nature), would be forced by the
treachery of the governor and the indolent (indolence of the)
general to capitulate within a week .”
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 35

"They accused him of being bribed (receiving bribes from )

by the king and unwilling (neglecting) to take the city."

41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.- The

meaning of liberal in the following sentence is ascertained by the
antithesis :
“ All the pleasing illusions which made power (a)gentle (b ) and
obedience (a') liberal(b ) ... are now to be destroyed .”
There is a kind of proportion. As gentleness is to power, so
liberality (in the sense here used) is to obedience. Now gentleness
is the check on the excess of power ; therefore liberal here
applies to that which checks the excess of obedience,
" i.e. checks
servility. Hence liberal here means " free.
The contrast also adds force. “ They aimed at the rule (a ), not
at the destruction ( a'), of their country. They were men of
great civil(b ) and great military (b') talents , and , if the terror (c ),
the ornament (c' ) of their age.
Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome :
“ Who can persuade where treason (a) is above reason (a'), and
might(b) ruleth right(b '), and it is had for lawful (c) whatsoever
is lustful(c'), and commotioners(d) are better than commis
sioners( d'), and common woe (e) is named common wealth (e') ? "

42. Epigram . - It has been seen that the neglect of climax

results in tameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent
produces amusement : and when the descent is intentional and
very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus :
(1 ) “ You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous,” is a
climax.
(2) “ You are not vicious, you are vice,” is not climax, nor is it
bathos : it is epigram .1
Epigram may be defined as a “ short sentence expressing truth
under an amusing appearance of incongruity.” It is often
antithetical.
“ The Russian grandees came to ſ and diamonds,” climax.
court dropping pearls and vermin ,” epigram .
“ These two nations were divided / and the bitter remembrance
by mutual fear of recent losses,” climax .
and mountains,” epigram .
There is a sort of implied antithesis in :
“ He is full of information- (but flat also ) like yesterday's
Times. ”
“ Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large
vocabulary .”
* Professor Bain says : " In the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict
or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really
conveyed .”
36 Clearness and Force .
The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis ; e.g.
“An educated man should know something of everything, and everything
of something ."

43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal
subject of thought.
“ This great and good man died on the 17th of September,
1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions,
and a numerous family, of whom three were sons ; one of them,
George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his
principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's
property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for
the county, which had for several generations returned this family
to serve in Parliament.” Here we have ( 1 ) the " great and good
man ,” (2) “ George," ( 3) " the county,” disputing which is to be
considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences
should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long
sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one
level. It is called heterogeneous.

44. The connection between different sentences

must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by
means of some other connecting words at the beginning
of each sentence.-Leave out the conjunctions and other con
necting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences
lose much of their meaning :
“ Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace.
His biographer (accordingly) insists on our confessing, that, if
the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have
been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. (But) this
is not all. Pitt (, it seems,) was not merely a great poet in esse and
a great general in posse, but a finished example of moral excel
lence. ( The truth is, that) there scarcely ever lived a person
who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was
(undoubtedly) a great man. (But) his was not a complete and well.
proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of
Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a
whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection
with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, on the other hand ,)
is, ” & c.
The following are some of the most common connecting
adverbs, or connecting phrases : ( 1) expressing consequence,
similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject - accordingly,
therefore, then , naturally, so that, thus, in this way, again, once
more, to resume, to continue, to sum up, in fact, upon this ; ( 2) ex
pressing opposition - nevertheless, in spite ofthis,yet, still, however,
but, on the contrary,on the other hand; (3 ) expressing suspension
 Order of Words in a Sentence. 37

undoubtedly but ; indeed . yet ; on the one hand . .. on

the other ; partly . partly ; some . . others.
Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings to
gether a number of sentences with “ and ” or “ so,” or with
no conjunction at all :
“ Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he
made war upon Spain ; and some of his seamen went ashore,
and met the Host carried about ; and not only paid no respect
to it, but laughed at those who did .” Write “ When Blake & c.”
45. The connection between two long sentences
sometimes requires a short intervening sentence,
showing the transition of thought.
“ Without force or opposition, it ( chivalry) subdued the fierce
ness of pride and power ; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the
soft collar 1 of social esteem , compelled stern authority to submit
to elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be sub
dued by manners. But now (all is to be changed:) all the pleasing
illusionswhich made power gentle and obedience liberal,which har
monized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimi
lation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and
soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering
empire of light and reason .” If the words italicized were omitted,
the transition would be too abrupt : the conjunction but alone
would be insufficient.

BREVITY.

46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.

See (13).
“ The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his
sleep ,” is not so brief as Uneasy lies the head that wears a
crown ," where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the
effect of a heavy crown pressing on the head .
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible,
than particular terms. Thus : “ He devours literature, no
matter of what kind , ” is shorter than, “ Novels or sermons,
poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all."
* This metaphor is not recommended for imitation
38 Brevity.
47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.
“ These impressions can never be forgotten , i.e. are indelible . "
“ The style of this book is of such a nature that it cannot be
understood, i.e. unintelligible.'
The words “ of such a nature that " are often unnecessarily
inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison .

48. Participles can often be used as brief (though

sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases con
taining Conjunctions and Verbs.
“ Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced.” See (7) for
more instances. So “ phrases containing conjunctions ” means
phrases that contain conjunctions. “ This done, (for, when
this was done) he retired. "
Sometimes the participle ' being ” is omitted. “ France at
our doors, he sees no danger nigh ,” for “ France being ” or
“ though France is.”
49. Participles and participial adjectives may be
used like Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases con
taining the Relative.
" The never-ceasing wind , " " the clamouring ocean, " the
drenching rain,” are instances. The licence of inventing parti
cipial adjectives byadding -ing to a noun, is almost restricted to
poetry. You could not write “ the crannying wind ” in prose.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied
instead of being expressed at length. Thus, instead of
“ The spirit of Christianity was humanizing, and therefore & c.,"
or “ Christianity, since it was (or being) of a humanizing spirit,
discouraged &c. ," we can write more briefly and effectively,
“ Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged , and finally put
down, by the humanizing spirit of Christianity.” So instead of
“ The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and therefore
& c.,” we can write, “ The danger of the voyage was depreciated
and the beauty of the island exaggerated by the thoughtless nature
of youth . ”
Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. “ It
was in vain that he offered the Swiss terms : war was deliberately
preferred by the hardy mountaineers," i.e. “ by the Swiss, because
applauded
they were mountaineers and hardy.' “ The deed was
by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as
 Brevity. 39

murder, and set a price upon the head of (him whom they called)
the assassin .” “ The conqueror of Austerlitz might be expected to
hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena ," i.e.“ Na
poleon when elated by the victory of Austerlitz,” and “ Napoleon
when depressed by his imprisonment at St. Helena.”
Caution. - Different names must not be used for the same person unless
each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we
are writing about Charles 11., it would be in very bad taste to avoid
repeating " he" by using such periphrases as the following : The third
of the Stewarts hated business , 'the Merry Monarch died in the fifty
fourth year of his age," &c.

51. Conjunctions may be omitted . The omission gives

a certain forcible abruptness, e.g. “ You say this : I (on the other
hand) deny it.”
When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunc
tions may be advantageously omitted.
Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction but usually prepares theway
for the second of the two contrasted terms: “ He is good but dull.” Where
and is used instead of but, the incongruity savours of epigram : “ He always
talks truthfully and prosily ." “ He is always amusing and false ."
51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for “ if."
Strip (for, if you strip) Virtue of the awful authority she
derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her
of half her majesty."
52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two
sentences into one.
“ We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters
of introduction, a musician, and, what is more, a good friend to
all young students of music. ” This is as clear as, and briefer
than, “ He was a musician, & c.”

53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating

(1 ) the common subject of several verbs, ( 2) the
common object of several verbs or prepositions.
( 1 ) “ He resided here for many years, and, after he had won
the esteem of all the citizens, (he) died , ” &c. So, (2 ) “ He
came to, and was induced to reside in, this city, ” is shorter than
“ He came to this city, and was induced to reside in it.”
Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there
is no obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light,
unemphatic words, such as to, in, &c. , as in the first example.
54. Tautology.—The fault of repeating the same word
several times unnecessarily is called tautology, e.g .:
“ This is a painful circumstance ; it is a circumstance that I
40 Brevity .

much regret, and he also will much regret the circumstance . "
But the fault is not to be avoided by using different words to
mean the same thing, as, “ This is a painful event ; it is a
circumstance that I much regret, and he also will greatly
lament the occurrence . The true remedy is to arrange the
words in such a manner that there may be no unnecessary
repetition , thus : “ This is a painful circumstance, a circum
stance that causes me, and will cause him, deep regret.
The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words
is a worse fault than the repetition of the same word . See, for
examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of
the book . Thus “ A burning thirst for conquests is a charac
teristic of this nation. It is an ardent passion that & c.”. Other
instances are— “ The universal opinion of all men ; ” “ His
judgment is so infallible that it is never deceived ,” & c.

55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to

brevity.
“ We are all (and who would not be ?) offended at the treat
ment we have received,” is shorter and more forcible than the
sentence would have been if the parenthesis had been appended
in a separate sentence : “ Who, indeed, would not be offended ? "
Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may
not obscure the meaning of a long sentence.

56. Caution : let clearness be the first consideration ,

It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at
being brief, or forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace
says, “ While I take pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity ,” and
it may easily be seen that several of the rules for brevity inter
fere with the rules for clearness.
Forcible style springs from ( 1 ) vividness and (2) exactness of
thought, and from a corresponding ( 1 ) vividness and (2) exact
ness in the use of words.
(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to see it
and describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man
who was killed, see the man before you, and ask, was he executed ,
cut down, run through the body, butchered, shot, or hanged ? If
you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city stormed ,
surprised, surrendered , starved out, or demolished before surrender ?
Was an army repelled, defeated, routed, crushed, or annihilated ?
( 2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge
of their meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and
cannot be discussed here. 1
* See English Lessons for English People, pp . 1-53.
 EXERCISES

For an explanation of the manner in which these Exer,

cises are intended to be used, see the Preface,
A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter,
e.g. (43), (40 a), refers to the Rules.
Letters by themselves in brackets, e.g. ( 6), refer to the
explanations or hints appended to each sentence .
N.B .- ( 10 a ) refers to the first section of Rule ( 10) i
( 10 a ') to the Rule following Rule ( 10 ).
1. “ Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him than
(a) (36) ( 37 a ) his friend, and the two companions became
estranged ( 15 a) gradually.'
( a ) Write
“ had( 1)more
" than for his
attraction friend,"
s than or ( 2) " than had his friend, ”
his friend.
2. “ (a ) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful
scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement ( 8) which he had once
pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good
purpose, (a) ( 30 ) being ( 15) restless by nature."
( a ) This sentence naturally stops at “ purpose.” Also " being restless ”
seems (wrongly) to give the reason why “ leisure ” could not be
employed. Begin “ Restless by nature ...
3. “ The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not
(a) (40 a) without justification , elated at the failure of the bold
attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the
recent election, (6) ( 10 a') which is certainly to be regretted . "
( a ) “ unjustifiably.". (6) Write, for “ which , " either (1) "an attempt that
&c .,” or (2) “ a failure that &c. "
4. “ Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated
with Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government
that particularly needs to be thought efficient in (a) ( 5) this
42 Exercises.

respect, (6) (29) to counterbalance a general distrust of its ex .

cessive desire (c) (47 a) to please everybody in Foreign Affairs.”
( a ) Write “ the Navy .” (6) Instead of “ to write “ in order to ," so
as to distinguish the different infinitives. (c) “ obsequiousness."
5. “ (a) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly
enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly
to Italy than (37 a) France, ( 30) in this line of action ."
(a) Begin with “Inthan
France this France
line of was.
action ." Why ? ( 6) Write “ than was
" or “ '

6. “ There was something so startling in (a) ( 5) this assertion,

(a) (4) that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be
( 6) (47 a) treated as though they had never been made, and (4) that
one who had not yet (47 a ) attained the age of manhood had
superseded the grey -headed philosophers (8 ) whohad for centuries
patiently sought after the truth , (4) that (a) (5 ) it naturally
provoked derision.”
( a ) “ This,". " that," and " it, ” cause a little perplexity. Write “The
startling assertion that the discoveries. (6) " ignored . "
( c) “ a mert youth ," " a mere stripling ."
7. “ One of the recommendations (on which very (a ) (26) (47, a)
much depended ) of the Commission was that a council in
each province should establish smaller councils, each to have the
oversight of a small district, and ( b) ( 37) report to a central
council on the state of Education in (c) ( 5 ) it.”
( a ) Write “ cardinal recommendations. ” Derive " cardinal.” . (6) Write,
either (1 ) “ and should report," or (2) "and to report." (c) Write
“ in its province," or district . ”
8. “ At this (a) ( 1 ) period an (6) ( 1 ) event ( c) (1 ) transpired
that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell from his
horse and died two hours after the fall ( d ) (30 ), which was
occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole -hill, while he was on
his return from reviewing his soldiers."
(a) What is a " period ” ? (6) Express the particular kind of event( “ acci
dent"): (c) What is the meaning of “ transpired " ? (d ) Transpose
thus : “ While the king was on his return .... his horse ... ; the
king fell and & c.” The cause should precede the effect.

9. “ He determined (c) on selling all his estates, and, as soon

as this was done (40 a ), to (c) quit the country, (a) (33) believing
that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40 ) (40 a) in (6) the
hope of satisfying his creditors.”
(a ) Begin with “Believing that & c." ( 6) " hoping thereby to satisfy & c ."
(c ) " to sell ” or on quitting."
 Exercises. 43

IO . “ He read patiently on , Leading Articles, Foreign Corre

spondence, Money Article and all ; (a ) (43 ) during which his
father fell asleep, and he (6) went in search of his sister. ”
Point out the absurdity of “ during which ” applied to the last part of the
sentence . (a) “ Meanwhile .' (6 ) Insert then ."

11. “ The general was quite (a) ( 1) conscious (40 a ) how trea
cherous were the intentions of those who were (6) (49) entertaining
him, and (40 a) of the dangers from which he had escaped ( 15)
lately."
(a ) Distinguish between “ conscious" and " aware . " (6 ) " entertainers. "

12. “ If certain (a) ( 11 ) books had been published a hundred

years ago, there can be no doubt that certain recent (b) (11) his
torians would have made great use of them. But it would (c)
( 15 b) not, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own
times to publish an edition of the works of one of these (6) ( 11 )
historians, in which large extractsfrom these books should be in
corporated with the original text."
( a ) “ Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (6) " Mr. Hume.” (c ) Add at the
end of the sentence, “ Surely not."

13 . He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he

did not like the new representative quite so well as (a) (37 a)
his colleagues."
(a ) “as did his colleagues " or " as he liked his colleagues."

14. “Though he was (a) ( 15) obstinate and (15) unprincipled,

yet he could not face an angered father ( 15 a) in spite of his
effrontery ."
( a ) Begin with “ Obstinate . "

15. “ He was known to his country neighbours (a ) (15) during

more than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 a )
whose principles were high, (40 a) with polishedaddress, happy in
his family, and (6 ) (40 a) actively discharging local duties ; and
(40 a) among political men, as an honest, industrious, and sensible
member of Parliament, (40 a) without (c) eagerness to display his
talents, (40 a) who (108) was stanch to his party, and attentive
to the interests of those whose (d ) (47 a) representative he was.”
( a ) “ During more &c .," is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the
former half of the sentence : hence it should stand first. (6) “ in
the discharge of." (c ) not eager . " ( d ) Condense into one
word .
44 Exercises.

16. " The poor think' themselves no more disgraced by taking

bribes at elections than (a) ( 37 a) the rich by offering them . ”
( a ) Write (1) “ Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or ( 2) “ Than
they think the rich disgraced . ”

17. “ We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual

wars, (a) (41) and his tyranny, (a) (41 ) had filled his dominions
with (6 ) (1 ) misfortune and (c) (11) calamity, and greatly (d ) ( 11 )
diminished the population of the Persian Empire. This great
Sultan had (e) ( 50) a Vizier. We are not (f) (55 ) ( 15 ) informed
whetherhewasa humoristor an enthusiast, (g) but he pretended ( n)
that he had learned from (i) ( 11 ) some one how to understand the
language of birds, so that he ( j) ( 5 ) knew what was said by any
bird that opened its mouth. ( k) (44) One evening he was with the
Sul'an, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls
which ( 10 g) were sitting upon a tree (2) (8) which grew near an
old wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should
like to know what the two owls were saying to one another, and
asked the ( m) Vizier to listen to their discourse and give him an
account of it. The Vizier, ( n ) ( 31 ) pretending to be very atten
tive to the owls, approached the tree. He (o) returned to the
Sultan and said that (6) he had heard part of their conversation ,
but did not wish to tell him what it was. ( ) ( 5 ) He, not ( ?) (31 )
being satisfied with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the
owls had said ( 20) exactly. ( r) (44 ) ( 5 ) ( 6) He told (5 ) him that
theowls were arranging a treaty ofmarriage between their children,
and that one of them , after agreeing to settle five hundred villages
upon the female owl, had prayed ( 6) that God would grant a
long life to Sultan Mahınoud, because as long as he reigned over
them they would never wantruined villages. The story says
(s) that (t) ( 5 ) he was touched with the fable, ( 30) and (s) that
he (a) (39) from that time forward consulted (15) the good of his
people, and that he rebuilt the towns and villages (v) which
had been destroyed.”
( a ) “abroad . at home." (6) "ruin. " (c) “ desolation .” (d ) “ half un
peopled .” (e) “ The Vizier of & c.” “ We arenot informed”
is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted, " whether he was,
& c., we are not informed.” ($) “ but he " will be omitted when
“the Vizier " is made the subject of “ pretended .” (h ) " Pre
tended ” once meant " claim ed ,” “ professed.” Write " professed ."
(1) “ a certain dervish .' ( j ) Introduce a new subject thatyoumay
substitute “ Vizier " for“ he,''thus : “ so thatnota bird could open its
mouth, but the Vizier knew & c .” (k) “ As he was, one evening, &c."
( 2). Note that the tree is represented as growing out of ruins. This
is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done.
(m) Omit this. (n) “ Suspense ” is out of place in a simple
narrative like this ; the sentence therefore ends withwould
" owls."not (0)
Upon his return." (P) “ The Sultan (2 ) “ be
satisfied.” (r) “ You must know then , & c." (s) Omit. (t) “ 30
touched ... that.” ( u ) end with “ people.” (v) Addison here uses
 Exercises. 45
" which," probably because of the preceding "that.” We have
to choose between sound and clearness. " Which ” implies that
all the villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the
country had been only (see above) “ half unpeopled ."

18. “ Though this great king never permitted any pastime to in

terfere with the duties of state, whichhe considered to be superior
to ( 54) all other claims and of paramount importance, and (a ) ( 37 )
kept himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit
or amusement to run to any excess, yet he took ( 54) great pleasure
in the chase, ofwhich he was (6) (2 ) excessively ( 54) fond, and for
the purposes of which he created several large parks of consider
able ( 54) magnitude.”
(a) Either repeat “though," or else strike out the first “though” and
begin a new sentence after “ excess.” (6) Point out the contra
diction between “ excessively " and what precedes.

19. “ To inundate (a) ( 11 ) their land, to man their ships, to

leave their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its
cities, its villas, and its (6) ( 11 ) pastures buried under the waves
(c) ( 11 ) ; to bear to a distant climate their (d ) ( 11 ) faith and
their old (e) ( 11) liberties ; to establish, with auspices that ( 10 a)
might perhaps be happier, the new (F ) ( 1 ) constitution of their
commonwealth, in a (8 ) (11) foreign and strange (h ) ( 11 ) land, in
the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which
they had the spirit to form .”
( a ) Introduce “ dykes." (6) Introduce something peculiar to the
Dutch , e.g. " canals,” “ tulip gardens." (c ) of the German
Ocean ." ( d ) The Dutch were Calvinists. (e) The country was in
old times “ Batavia,” so that “ Batavian ” would be a fit epithet
to denotewhat the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers.
U ) “ Stadthaus,” the German for “ town -hall. ” (8 ) “ other stars.'
(h) “ strange vegetation.”

20. “ During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, during

(a) which the wealth of the nation had shot ( 14 a ) up and extended
its branches on every side, and the funds had (14 a ) soared to a
higher point than had been ever attained before, (6) ( 15 ) specula
tion had become general.”
(a) Omit. (6 ) Begin a new sentence : “This, or Prosperity,had increased
the taste for speculation .”

21. “ At that time (a ) ( 16) a mere narrow -minded pedant (for he

deserves no better name ) had been set up by the literary world as
a great author, and as the supreme(6) critic, alone qualified
deliver decisions which could never be (6) reversed upon ( 15 a) the
literary productions of the day.”
46 Exercises.
( al End with . one who was - for he deserves no better name
-a mere narrow -minded pedant.” (6) “ Which could never be
reversed " can be expressed in one word ; or else “ the supreme. ..
reversed” may be condensed into a personification : a very
Minos of contemporary criticism ."
22. “ With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 a)
intending also to clear himself from the suspicion that attached
to him , he determined to ascertain how ( 40 a) far this testimony
was corroborated, and (a ) (40 a) the motives of the prosecutor,
(6) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas."
(a) “ what were.". (6) Begin a new sentence, “ The latter &c.," or
“ The suit had been begun &c."

23. “ The Jewish nation , relying on the teaching of their pro

phets, lookedforward to a timewhen its descendants should be as
numerous as the heavenly ( 11 ) bodies, and when the products (a ) ( 11 )
of the earth should be so increased as to create an abundant (54)
plen'y, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own
(a ) ( u ) trees, and when the instruments ( 11 ) of war should be
converted to the ( 11 ) uses of ce ."
( a) Mention some " products, "” " trees ” of Palestine.

24. “ He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his
sudden unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the
commercial treaty, (a) (8) which ( 10 a') gave great displeasure to
the poorer classes ."
(a) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or ( 10 a ').

25. “ I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when

I was in London at the timeof the first Exhibition, ( 19) walking
down Regent Street and looking in at the shops."
Point out and remove the ambiguity.

26. “ He remained in the House while his speech was taken

into consideration ; which (52) was a common practice with him,
because the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed he used to
say ( a) (6 b) that they were sometimes as good as a comedy. His
Majesty had certainly never seen a more (17 ) sudden turn in any
comedy of intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's,
than that which this memorable debate produced .”
(a) “and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c ."

27. “ The Commons would not approve the war (20) expressly ;
neither did they as yet condemn it (20) expressly ; and (a ) ( 18 ) the
 Exercises. 47

king might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities

( 19 ) from them , on condition of (b) redressing grievances connected
with the (c) administration of affairs at home, among which the
Declaration of Indulgence was a very important (d) ( 15 a) one."
( a) Write " they were even ready to grant the king &c. " ( 6). Use the
verb with a subject. (c) Condense all this into one adjective, mean
ing “ that which takes place at home.” ( d ) End with a noun ,
importance, " or " foremost place . "

28. “ Next to thinking clearly, (a) (5) it is useful to speak

clearly , and whatever your position in life may hereafter be it
cannot be such ( 54) as not to be improved by this, (6) so that
it is worth while making almost any effort to acquire ( c) it, if
it is not a natural gift: (d) it being an undoubted (d) fact that
the effort to acquire it must be successful, to some extent at
least, if (d) it bemoderately persevered in . ”
( a ) “ Next in utility .. comes speaking clearly - a power that must
be of assistance to you &c.” (6 ) " If, therefore, you cannot speak
clearly by nature, you & c." (c) “ this power.” ( d) Omit “ fact ; "
“for undoubtedly , with moderate perseverance & c.".

29. " It (a) (38) appears to me ( 15 ) a greater victory than Agin

court, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than
even the English constitution or (6) liturgy, to have beaten back,
or even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree,
those basenesses that (c) ( 10 a ) beset human nature, which are
now held so invincible that the influences of them " are assumed
as the fundamental axioms of economic science.
(a) Begin with“ To have beaten & c.," and end with " liturgy ." (6) Re
peat for clearness and emphasis, “ the English .” ( c) “The be
setting basenesses of & c."

30. “ The (a) (2) unprecedented impudence of our youthful re

presentative reminds us forcibly of the unblushing and ( 54) (40 )
remarkable effrontery (c) (which ( 26) he almost succeeds in equal
ling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (6) ( 1 ) neophyte
(6) ( 1) alluded to, in the last speech with which he favoured those
whom (47 a) he represents, (19) as his pattern and example.”
( a) Show that " unprecedented ” is inconsistent with what follows. 16)
What is the meaning of " neophyte,'"" alluded to " ? ( c) Begin a
new sentence, “ Our young adventurer & c .," and end with and
he almost succeeds inequalling his master. ”

31. “ The (a) ( 1 ) veracity of this story is questionable, and there

is the more reason for doubting the ( a) ( 1) truth of the narrator,
because in his remarks on the ( 1 ) observation of the Sabbath he
48 Exercises.

distinctly ( a) ( 1 ) alludes to a custom that can be shown never to

have existed. "
(a) Distinguish between " veracity ” and “ truth ," " observation ” and
“ observance." Show the inconsistency between “ allude ” and
“ distinctly . "

32. “ It (a) (5 ) is a most just distribution, (10 a) which the late

Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon so (6) largely in his works, between
pleasures in which we are passive , and pleasures in which we are
active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will
assent to (c) this position, that however (d ) grateful the sensations
may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not these, but
the latter class of our pleasures , (8 ) which constitutes satisfaction ,
(e) ( 38 ) which supply that regular stream of moderate and miscel
laneous enjoyments in ( 10 c) which happiness, as distinguished
from voluptuousness, consists.”

(a) “ Not often now used in this sense. ) (e) Repeat "the antecedent, ?
mean those (pleasures) &c.”
33. “ The prince seemed to have before him a limitless (54)
prospect of unbounded prosperity, carefully ( 33) trained for the (a )
tasks of the throne, and stimulated by the (a) pattern of his father,
(6) who (43) breathed his ( 3) lastsuddenly at the age of sixty .
two, just after the conclusion of the war.
(a ) Find more appropriate words. (6) Begin a new sentence .

34 . “ On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (a) (25) who

had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He (6)
( 5 ) was overjoyed to see him, and (c) he sent for one of his most
intelligent workmen and told (d) him to consider himself at (e) his
service, ( 30) as he himself could not take ) him as he (8 ) wished
about the city ."
( a ) If you mean that the “ son had “ asked him ," write “An old
friend's son who ;” if you mean that the “ friend ” had “asked
him ," write “ He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his
journey northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visitedone him on
his way .” (b) Use, instead of he, some namemeaning, who
entertains others." (c) Use participle . ( d ) “ Theman .' " the
stra ngere 'sit .”clea
to mak “ his
, (r$)that t.” ns(8)“ Writ
“ heguesmea
e " could have wished "
the host.

35. “ Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved

both by King William and by Queen Mary (43 ) , who nominated
Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln , to succeed him . ”
36. “ (a ) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence
that was (6) perfectly stupendous and (c) most unprecedented , and
 Exercises. 49

which quite kept up his Lordship’s unrivalled reputation for

unparalleled hospitality, and, thanks to the unequalled energy of
Mr. Smith, who is rapidly becoming one of the most effective
toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit
quite unexampled on occasions of this nature ; and indeed we were
forcibly reminded in this respect of the inimitable entertainment
of three years ago ( 2). ”
( a ) Omit most of the epithets , or soften them down . Point out the con
tradictions in the sentence as it stands. (6) Write “ a remarkable
magnificence that quite & c., ” thus dispensing with the following
“ and .” (c) Show that “most ” is superfluous.

37. “ If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic

authors of the Elizabethan era, his wonderful superiority to
them in the ( 15 ) knowledge of human nature is what ( 15 a)
principally strikes us.”
38. “ The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how
to provide himself with the commonest comforts or even neces
saries of life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33)
accustomed to luxury.”
39. “ This make -shift policy recommended itself to the succeed .
ingministers (a) ( 50), both because they were timid and because they
were prejudiced, and they were delighted to excuse (6) ( 13) them
selves by quoting the example of one who (c) ( 34) had controlled
the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, ( 37 ) commended
himself to the country at large by his unfailing good -humour,
and (d) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman .”
(a ) “to the timidity and prejudices of &c. ". (6 ). shelter themselves
behind.” (c) “ while he had at once .' (d ) " had yet done. "

40 . “ William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights

of English poetry, and a native of Stratford -on -Avon ( 14 a).
41. “ ( 156) I think, gentlemen , you must confess that any one
of you would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted
as I was then, placed starving and ragged among wasteful
luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty
by those whom I had been taught from infancy to love, (a )
praised when I stole, mocked or punished when I failed to
( 15 a) do (6) so."
( a ) Insert another infinitive beside “ love." “ Love ” 9 produces "obe
dience ." ( 6) Repeat the verb instead of “ do so .

42. “ So far from being the first (54) aggressor, he not (22) only
refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable oppor
D
 50 Exercises.

tunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him,

but also his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (a) at all (23)
events suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and
had given no information of it.”
( a ) If " at all events” qualifies “ Smith , ” the sentence must be altered .
66

Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events
Smith suspected : If the words qualify “ suspected,"
place them after “ suspected.”

43. “ It is quite true that he paid 55. per day to English navvies,
and even 6s., ( 19) in preference to 25. 6d. to French navvies.”
44. “Having climbed to the apex of the Righi to enjoy the
spectacle of the sun -rise , I found myself so incommoded by a
number of illiterate individuals who had emerged from the hotel
for a (a ) ( 1 ) similar purpose, that I determined to quit them at the
earliest practicable period ; and therefore, without stopping to
partakeof breakfast, I wended my way back with allpossible
colerity .” ( 3)
(a) “ the same. "
45. “ You admit that miracles are not natural. Now whatever
is unnatural is wrong, and since, by your own admission, mira
cles are unnatural, it follows that miracles are wrong.” ( 1)
46. “ Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized
alliance the (a ) (41 ) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the
(a) Indian the defence of our disputed rights ?
( a ) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.
47. “ A (a) very (11 ) small proportion indeed of those who
have attempted to solve this problem (6) ( 19) have succeeded in
obtaining even a plausible solution.”
(a ) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed : “not
one in a hundred . ” (6 ) Begin , “ Of all those that & c ."
48. “ To be suddenly (a) (47 a) brought into contact with a
system (8) which forces one to submit to wholesale imposture,
and to being ( 40 a) barbarously ill- treated, naturally repels ( a)
( 15 a) one.
( a ) Write, either ( 1) “ Collision causes a natural repulsion , " ot
(2) “ When brought into contact . one is naturally repelled ,"
or (if “ ill-treatment" is emphatic ), (3) “ One is naturally repelled
by collision with &c. "
49. “ We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. L's di.
rection to the Editor of the in contradiction of statements ,
equally untrue, which appeared in that periodical, and ( a ) (9)
which the editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.
 Exercises. 51

I am sure that all must regret that statements so (6) (51 )

utterly erroneous should have (c) (23) first appeared in a publica
tion of such high character ."
( a ) What the writer intended toexpress was that the editor had under
taken to insert, not the " statenients,” but the “ contradiction . "
(6) Omit either “ SO or “ utterly . ” (C) “ appeared first,” or, “ for
the first time. ”
50. “ This is a book which ( 10 a) is short and amusing,which
( 102) can be easily (a) understood, which ( 10 a ) is admirably adapted
for the purpose for which it (6) was ( 54) written ; and ( 10 e) which
ought to be more popular than the last work which ( 10 a) was
published by the same author. ”
( a ) Express “ which can be understood ” in one adjective. (6) “ Its
purpose."
51 . “ When thousands are left ( 19) without ( 40 ) pity and with
out (40) attention ( 19) on a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of
an enraged foe and(40) the trampling ofhorses, while the blood
from their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth,
and (40) they are exposed to the piercing air, it ( 15 a) must be
indeed a painful scene.”
The whole sentence must be remedied by (40 ).
52. “ (a) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed
( 19) besides by his early training— (31) which had been conducted
with great care, the object of his parents being to pave ( 14) his
way as far as possible over the stormy ( 14) sea of temptation and
to lead him into the harbour of virtue — to a sincere (6) ( 1 ) remorse
( 19 ) for the (6) ( 1 ) crimes that he had committed in the sight of
heaven, and also for his recent (6) ( 1 ) sin in breaking the laws of
his country.”
(a) First state the reasons for his being disposed .". “The youth was
naturally thoughtful ; moreover, his early training had been con
ducted with great careby his parents, whose &c. . ... He was
therefor disposed & c. (6) What is the differen betwee “ re
morse ” eand “ repentance,," between “ sin ” and “ cecrime " ? n

53. “ (a) One day ( 54) early in the morning, the general was
approached by a messenger, ( 30) in the midst of the entanglements
and perplexities which had unexpectedly surprised him, when the
perilous hour of ( 54) danger was at hand, and (37), in spite of
their promises, even the tribes that were well disposed (54) and
friendly, were threatening to desert him , and ( 54) leave him to
face the enemy (6) ( 23 ) alone."
Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words, g. (a)
“ Early one morning.' (6) Though there is no real ambiguity
(unless a wrong emphasis is placed on enemy " ), yet, in strict
ness, “ alone " ought to qualify “ enemy. Write therefore, " alone
in the face of the enemy
D 2
52 Exercises.

54. A man (a) ( 10 d ) who neglected the ordinary duties of

life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for
the benefit of mankind, (6) (44) and refused to provide for the
wants of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to
become paupers because he would not help them , (c) would, in my
opinion, (34) be a bad man , and not altogether (d ) ( 40 a) without
hypocrisy .
( a ) “ If a man» .' (6) “ if he refused,” or “ while he refused. (c) “ such
a man or " he. " ( d ) “ to some extent a hypocrite."

55. “ I cannot believe in the guilt of (a) one (6) (10 e ) who,
whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and
has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those
who are said to have carefully examined the facts, in spite (23) of
many obstacles, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to
leave his situation, (c) ( 29) to consult his own interests and to (29)
establish a business of his own."
( a ) “ his guilt ; ” (6) (1) " for, whatever &c. it can be shown by
&c. that, in spite of & c., he resisted." . Or (2) insert " in
spite . obstacles ” between “ have ” and “ carefully." (c) (1)
for the purpose of consulting .... and establishing." Or (2)
write “ andto consult his own interests by establishing & c."

56. “We must seek for the origin of our freedom , (a) (37) pros
perity, and( a) ( 37) glory, in that and only (6) thatl portion of our
annals, (30) though it (c) is sterile and obscure. The great Eng.
lish people was ( d) then formed ; the national (e) disposition began
(d) then to exhibit those peculiarities which ithas ever since (e)
possessed ; and our fathers (d) then became emphatically islanders,
( f) in their politics, (a) feelings, and (a) manners, and (30 a) not
merely in their geographical position .”
( a ) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective. (6) Express theemphatic “ only
that” bybeginning, the sentence thus : “ It is in that portion of
our annals & c." (c) Omit. ( d ) “ It was then that &c." (e) Use
words implying something more marked than “ disposition," and
more forcible than “ possessed ; ” in the latter case, “ retained."
V) Repeat “ islanders. ”

57. “ (a) He was the universal (54) favourite of ( 54) all (8) who
knew him , and cemented many friendships at this period, (a) (33)
(moving in the highest circle of society, and, as he (6) ( 50) had
a (4 a) certain property, being independent of the profits of litera
ture), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander
which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the
foundations of his reputation .”
( a ) Begin " Moving in & c." (6) " rendered independent of.. by
& c. Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors.
1 That which treats of the thirteenth century.
 Exercises. 53
58. “The outward and material form of that city which, during
the brief period which ( 10 a) is comprised our present book,
reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory,
was of this (a) ( 15 ) nature. The progress of the (6) (5) first has
beenalready traced.”
(a ) Begin the sentence with “Such was. ( 6) By “ the first " is meant
military glory ."

39. “ The detachmentnot only failed to take the fort, ( 30 ) spite

of their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to
capture the small force that was encamped outside the town, and
was, after some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable
loss.”
Point out
“thetheassailants.
ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either “ which ," or

60. “ (a) (6 ) Believing that these reforms can only ( c) (21 ) be

effected as public opinion is prepared for them ,and that (5 )thiswill
be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill of the
Association, (a ) (31) which has been for a (3) considerable period
in draft, and will be introduced in the next Session of Parliament,
provides for placing (d) ( 3 ) the control in regard to the points above
mentioned in the (3) hands of the ratepayers of each locality ; the
power to be exercised through representative Licensing Boards
to be periodically elected by them .
( a ) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence : The Bill
of the Association has been Parliament." (b) What noun is
qualified by “ believing ?" Write “ In the belief.' (c ) “ effected
& c.” ( d ) “ it, or, the Bill provides thatwith
only so far as they are in accordance public opinion, which
the ratepayers shall
receive control and shall exercise this control. "

61. “ I think they are very ( 1 ) nice persons, for they kept me
amused for a long "(a ) (11) timetogether yesterday by their ( 1 )
nice stories all about what they (6) have experienced in Japan, where
they had been for (a) ever so long, and (c) (43) where they said
that the natives ripped up their (d ) ( 5 ) stomachs.”
( a ) Mention some time. (6) “ experiences " or adventures." (c) “ among
other things, they told us & c. ” ( d ) “ their own. '
62. " To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are re
garded with a dislike and a suspicion (a ) which daily ( 10 a )
increases, ( 30 ) however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss
of that which one has once possessed , ( 15 a) is useless."
( a) A compound adjective can be used, including “ daily. "
63. “Upon entering the rustic place of entertainmentto partake
of some refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a
34 Exercises.

number of boisterous individuals who were singing some species

of harvest song, and simultaneously imbibing that cup which , if
it cheers, also inebriates ; and when, banished from their society by
the fumes of the fragrant weed, I wended my way to the apart
ment which adjoined the one in which I had hoped to rest my
weary limbs, I found an interesting assortment of the fairer sex,
who were holding a separate confabulation apart from the revels
of their rougher spouses.
Write “ village inn ," “ next room ,” & c., for these absurd circumlo
cutions . See ( 3).

64. “When Burgoyne was born , in 1782, Napoleon and Wel.

lington were both boys (11).”
Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this, and,
in order to imply the boyhood, call Wellington Arthur Wel
lesley ."

65. “ An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe,

near me— (38) to whom I nevercan on any occasion refer without
feelings of respect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the
most grateful homage ; ( 38) whose abilities upon this occasion,
as upon some former ones, are not entrusted merely to the
perishable eloquence of the (a) day, but will live to be the
admiration of that (a ) hour when all of us are mute and most of
us forgotten : (6) (38) has told you that prudence is (52) the first of
virtues, and (52) can never be used in the cause of vice.”
(a ) Though “ of the day ” is a recognized expression for “ ephemeral ”
or “ transitory ," yet to use “ day” for a short time, and “ hour
for a longer, is objectionable. Write moment for day. Else write
future for hour. (6) " —this gentleman has told & c."

66. “ To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath ,
neat and clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides,
( a) ( 19) disporting themselves under the open canopy of heaven , is
( 15 ) pleasant.”
( a ) There is no reasonable ground formistaking the sense here, as the
context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was questioned
whether he meant disporting to qualify. “ artisan and his wife'
or children,” write “ and, by their sides, their children dis
porting & c.

67. “ Even if (a) it were attended with extenuating circum

stances, such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (6) and
it is the more called for because it would seem that (c) it was the
intention of the author of the crime, in perpetrating (e) it, to in
flict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim .” See (5).
( a ) Omit “ it were . ( 6 ) " which ." (c) “ to have been ." ( d ) Express
“ author of the crime" in one word . (® ) Use the noun .
 Exercises, 55
68. “ The ( a) ( 1 ) observance of the heavenly bodies must have
been attended with great difficulties, (6) ( 30 ) before the telescope
was (a) ( 1 ) discovered , and it is not to bewondered at if the investi
gations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to
produce complete (a) ( 1 ) persuasion , (30) ( 15, a ) under these
disadvantages."
( a ) What is the difference between “ observance " and " observation,"
discover” and “ invent, " persuasion ” and conviction " ?
( 6 ) Begin “ Before & c."

69. “ He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not contentwith
his previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he
succeeded in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously
for help, and (a) (35 ) was at last hauled safely to shore.
( a ) Point out and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he " or by
writing.“ who,” according to the meaning.
70 . Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben ,
became (a) ( í ) conscious of the difference between the fortifications
of San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (6) which ( 10 e) was (c) ( 12)
very weak compared with Metz or Paris.”
( a ) What is the exact
repeating meaning
the name, withofa conscious!
conjunction .(6)(c)Avoid the relative,
“ weakness itself."by

71. “ Upon Richard's leaving the (c) stage, the Commonwealth

was again set up ; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (a)
broken was brought together ; but the army and they fell into new
disputes : so they were again ( a) broken by the army : and upon
that the nation was like to fall into (6) ( 11) great convulsions."
( a ) Modern Eng., " broken up." (6) " violently convulsed." ( c) It is
a question whether this metaphor is in good taste. The mean
ing is that Richard “ retired from public life.". It might be
asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth , the Parliament are
regarded asso manypuppetson a stage." But this is extremely
doubtful. Make Parliament the principal subject : When
Richard retired ... . and when the Commonwealth &c.
the Parliament was . .. but, falling into a dispute with & c., it
was ... See ( 18) and (43)
72. “ What a revolution in the military profession ! He began
with (a) ( 11 ) unnecessary formality, and (6) ( 11) inefficient
weapons, and ended with (c) (6) ( 11 ) greatly improved fire-arms.”
( a ) " pig -tail and pipe-clay." ( 6), “ Six -pounders and flint-locks " are
now inefficient compared with “ twenty-four-pounders and breech
loaders." ( C) Something is wanted antithetical to ( a ), perhaps
“loose drill ” or “ open order. "
73. “Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same
way. The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear
 56 Exercises .

of death. The contemplation of death, as the ' wages of sin ,'.

and passage to another world, is holy and religious. The fear of
it, as a tribute due unto nature, is weak. In religious medita
tions on death there is sometimes mixture of vanity and of
superstition .”
Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44).

74. " I have often heard him reiterate (54) repeatedly that he
would never again , if a safe (54 ) and secure path was open to him ,
prefer the perilous (54) road of danger, however alluring (54) and
attractive the latter might be."
75. “ I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me
whether I did not observeanything curious in the conduct of the
pigeons, I (a) (4 a) remarked that if any one of the birds was so
bold as to take an atom from a heap of grain in the midst of
them , (31) (which (6) a detachment guarded, and which, being
continually increased and never eaten, seemed useless ), all the
rest turned against him and pecked him to death for the (c) (50)
action . ”

(a ) Point out the ambiguity: (( This should come earlier in the sentence,
and not as a parenthesis. “I noticed a heap of graintoinallthe midst
of them, guarded by Being, continually ... appear
ance , useless : yet. (c ) “ theft.

76. “ If this low view of the royal office becomes generally

adopted, then sovereigns who (8) have always hitherto com
manded the respect of Englishmen will by degrees fall into
disrespect .”
Point out the ambiguity . Show how it might be removed ( a ) by punctua
tion, (6 ) by altering “ who.”

77. “ I struck the man in self -defence. I explained this to the

magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called
to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He
had the right to do this. It is a right that is rarely exercised in
such circumstances. I remonstrated . ”
See ( 44 ). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs.

78. “ He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15)

perseverance and common sense, which ( 52) ( 10 a ) qualities are
perhaps mostly underrated, ( 30) though he was deficient in tact
and not remarkable for general ability.
79. Vindictiveness, which ( a) (50) is a fault, ( 6) and which
may be defined as anger (10 a ) which is caused notby sin nor by
crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully distinguished
 Exercises. 57
from resentment, which (a) ( 50) is a virtue, (6) and which is anger
(49) which is natural and (c) right caused by an act (d) which is
unjust, because it is unjust, (30 a) not because it is inconvenient.”
( a ) “The fault of vindictiveness ; " " the virtue of resentment. ” (6)
Omit. (c) Right” cannot be used as an adjective,but “ righteous”
can . (d ) “ an act of injustice .”
80. “ (a ) He told his friend that ( a) his brother was surprised that
(a) he had given so small a contribution , for (a) he was (b) ( 12 ) a
very rich man, in spite of (a ) his recent losses and the bad state
of trade, ( 19) ( 30) compared with himself.”
( a ) Use (6 ). (6) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth ?
81. “ (a) (156) It must be indeed wrong to (a ) crucify a Roman
citizen if to( 6) (32) slay one is almost parricide, to :(6) scourge
him is a monstrous crime, and to (6) bind him is an outrage.
(a) “ What must it be ... ?"
(6) See (40 ),

82. “ The universal (54) opinion of all the citizens was that the
citadel had been ( 15 ) betrayed, ( 30) having been captured in broad
daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those un
provided with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate,
( 15 a) and much wearied by a long march .”
“ betrayed " must come at the end of a sentence .
case may
In anytenc The sen
e be conv erted into two sentences : “ The citadel had
been captured : Naturally therefore or, “ The opinion
for it had been captured Else, if one sentence be
used , write “ As the citadel had been captured & c . "

83. “ This author surpassed all those who were living (a ) at the
same time with him in the forcible (6) manner in which he could
address (c) an appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease
with which he could draw towards (a) himself the hearts of his
readers. ”
( a ) Express in one word. ( 6) " force with . ” (c) Omit.
84. “ This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce ,and
a star in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people
from the quicksands of Protection and false political economyto
the safe harbour of Free Trade ; and (a) ( 14 a) saved the country
several millions."
( a ) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors. Else the
literal statement must be changed into a metaphor.

85. “ The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (a)
(43) (51) because even the boldest of them (though their counsels
were lawless ( 15) and desperate) had too much value for his
58 Exercises,

(6) ( 11 ) personal safety to think of resorting to the (c) ( 12)

unlawful modes of extortion that had been familiar to the pre
ceding age .
(a) Begin a new sentence with “ Lawless and desperate though their
counsels had been & c. " ( 6) " neck . (c ) Insert some of these
unlawful modes, “ benevolences, ship -money, and the other & c.”

86. “We will not (a) (15 ) pretend to guesswhat our grandchildren
may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited in ( 15 a)
his poetry .” No writer ever had the whole eloquence of scorn,
misanthropy, and (a ) ( 15 ) despair ( 15 a) so completely at his
command ." That fountain (6) (12) of bitterness was never dry .”
( a ) “We will not pretend to guess" and " despair " are intended by the
author to be emphatic. (6) “ Marah .”

87. “ The captain asked to be allowed fifty men , a supply of

food, and one hundred and fifty breech -loaders. (44 ) The
general replied coldly that he could not let his subordinate have
( a) (4) anything that he wanted . (44) The captain was forced
to set out ( 34) with an insufficient force, spite of the super
abundance of soldiers doing nothing in the camp (34), and with
every obstacle put in his way by a general who from the first
had resolved not even to give him ordinary assistance, (6) ( 10 a ')
which the captain had for some time anticipated.”
( a ) Point out and
meaning, removethe
“.... ambiguity
assistance that " or. (6) Write,
.... according
a resolut tothe
ion that. "

88. “ I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8)

which is not practical ; theories (a) which amuse philosophers
and pedants have no attractions for me, (30) for this reason .
(a ) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use of
that ” for the second “ which” ?

89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the
( 11 a ) turning (a) him out of office,and the ( 11 a ) passing a sen
tence (6) condemning him to die for it ( 31) (which was presently
pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to his
liberty ), all men believed that theking knew of the letter, (c) (43)
and that (6 b) the pretended confession of the secretary was only
collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (d ) ( 11 a ) favouring
popery, (e) (43) which still hung upon him, (30) notwithstanding
his (e) writing on the Revelation, and his (e) affecting to enter
on all occasions into controversy, (e) asserting in particular that
the Pope was Antichrist .”
( a) “ expulsion from.” (8) “ a pretended sentence to death - a pretence
that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation .". (c)
Begin a new sentence : " The secretary's pretended confession ,'
it was said , 'was & c." " ( d ) “ the suspicion that the king
 Exercises. 59
favoured Popery. " ( e) The juxtaposition of the two verbal
nouns, writing ” and “ affecting,” with the participle “ assert
ing, ” is harsh. Write, “ For, notwithstanding that he affected
controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his treatise
on the Book of Revelation, the king was still suspected."
90 . “ The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (a) ( 1 )
universal to be easily shaken , and a similar prejudice has often
(6) rendered the progress of new inventions ( 15 a ) very slow , ( 19)
arising from thenumbers of the believers, and not ( 36 ) the reason .
ableness of the belief.”
( a ) Write " general." . Show the absurdity of appending “ too to
“ universal.”. ( 6) What single word can be substituted for ren
dered slow ” ?
91. “ The rest ofthegenerals were willing to surrender uncon
ditionally, (30) depressed by this unforeseen calamity ; (4) only the
young colonel, who retained his presence of mind, represented to
them that they were increasing the difficulties of a position in
itself very difficult ( 19) ( 15, a) by their conduct.”
92. “ To (a) ( 31 ) an author who is, in his expression of any sen
timent, wavering between the (6) demands ofperspicuity and energy
(of which the (c) (40 a ) former of course requires the first care,
lest (40 a ) he should fail of both ) , and ( 37 ) doubting whether
the (d) phrase which (8 ) has (e) the most force and brevity will be
(f) readily taken ( 3) in, it may (h ) (3 ) be recommended to use both
(d) expressions ; first, ( ) to expound the sense sufficiently to be
clearly understood, and then (i) to contract it into the most com
pendious and striking form .”
( a ) Write “ When an author &c.” (6) Can be omitted. ( c) Assimilate
the constructions : “ Of which theformer must, of course, be aimed
at
66 first, lest both be missed .” (d ) Use “ expression ” or else
phrase " in both places. (e) Assimilate the construction to what
follows; write “ ihat is most forcible and brief .” ) Insert
“ also.” (8) “ understood.” ( h ) “ let him use ... ; first let
him expound. ” (i) Omit.
93. 5. When I say a great man, ' I not (22) only mean a man
intellectually great but also morally, ( 38) who (8 ) has no prefer
ence for diplomacy (a ) (23) at all events which ( 10 a) is mean ,
petty, and underhanded to secure ends which (8 ) can be secured
by an honest policy equally ( 20) well, (38) who ( 8) does not
resemble Polonius, (b) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful
tricks, and (6 ) who considers truth a carp which ( 10 g) is to be
caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer
great (c), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous
man by that ( 15 a) ram ..
( a ) “ at all events no preference.” (6 ) Why is who right here ? It
you like, you can write, “ does not, like Polonius, prefer .
and consider.” ( c) End with “ we cannot give the name to a petty
intriguer."
60 Exercises .

94. “ I regret that I have some (a) (3) intelligencewhich ( 10 a) is

of a most ( 3)painful nature , and which I must tell you at once,
though (6) I should like to defer it on (c) (40 a) account of your
ill-health , and because (c) (40 a) you have already had many
troubles, and (40 a ) owing to the natural dislike which (8) a
friend must always feel to say that ( 10 f ) which is unpleasant.
Many old friends in this district have turned against you : I
scarcely like to write the words : only ( 21) I remain faithful to
you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing that ( 10 f)
which is best for your interests .
( a ) “ news.” (6 ) In a letter these words should remain as they are ; but
if a period is desired, they must ( 30 ) come last, afterand un the
pleasant.” (c) Write “ because of your ill-health
troubles . ... and because of

95. “ The general at once sent back word that the enemy had
suddenly appeared on the other side of theriver, and ( (35) or (37)]
then (a) retreated. (6) It was thought that (6) it would have shown
more (c) ( 1 ) fortitude on his (3 ) part if he had attacked the
fortifications, (d) which were not tenable for more than a week
at all events. Such was the ( 54) universal opinion, at (23) least,
of (54) all the soldiers . ”
( a ) Point out the ambiguity . (6 ) “ It was thought hewould have shown
& c." ( c) Distinguish between “ fortitude ” and “ bravery .” ( d )
What would be the meaning if “ that were substituted for
" which ” ? It will be perhaps better to substitute for “ which ,"
since they."

96. “ A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can

legislate, cannot govern, and has attained an influence which
renders it imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (a) it
should be dispersed."
( a ) Who or what “has attained " ? Write "and this notion has become
so powerful that, unless it is dispersed .

97. “ Those who are habitually silent (a) (3) by disposition and
morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those
who are habitually (a) (3) fond of talking, and ( 40 a) of (a)
(3) a pleasant disposition .'
( a ) Each of these periphrases niust be condensed into a single ad
jective.
98. “ This author, (a) ( 31 ) though he is not (6) altogether (c) guilt
less of (6) occasional (c) faults of exaggeration, which are to be
found as plentifully in his latest works as in those which he (d)
published when he was beginning his career as an author, yet,
notwithstanding these (e) defects, surpassed all those who were living
 Exercises. 61

at the (f) same time with him in the clear ( 8) manner in which
he could, as it were, see into the feelings of the people at large,
and in the power — a power that indeed could not be (f) resisted
with which he drew ( f) toward himself the sympathy of those
who ( f ) perused his works.” See (54).
( a ) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence . (6 ) One of these
words is unnecessary. (c) One of these is unnecessary. (d) Con
(e) Omit these words as unnecessary .
dense : “ his earliest ."
( ) Express all this in one word. ( 8 ) “ clearness with .”
99. “ Among the North (a) (23) American Indians I had indeed
heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities ; but it seemed in
tolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land : and I
rushed from theroom atonce, leaving the wretch where he stood,
with his tale half told, ( 30 ) horror -stricken at his crime."
( a ) Make it evident whether the speaker once lived among the North
American Indians, or not, and show who is “horror-stricken. "

100. “His ( 1) bravery under this painful operation and the

(1) fortitude he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent
action , ( 30) though he was wounded at the time and had been
unable to use his right arm , and was the only officer left in
his regiment, out of twenty who were alive the day before, ( 19)
inspired every one with admiration .”
Begin , “ Out of twenty officers & c. ... , . Though wounded &c. ..
he had headed .” “ The bravery he had then shown and
IOI . “ Moral as well as (41 ) other considerations must have
weight when we are selecting an officer ( a ) that ( 10 b) will be
placed in a position that will task his intelligence (6) ( 18) and
his fidelity.”
( a ) The repetition of " that" is objectionable. Use " to fill." ( 6) " and "
canbe replaced by some other conjunction to suit what precedes.
102. “ It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals
in the House who ( 8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for
being a Christian."
Point outthathe difference of meaning, according as we read " who " or
“ t.

103. “ It cannot be doubted ( 156) that the minds of a vast num

ber of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy
and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32 ) there
were taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations,
imaginations as one (a) would, and the ( 15 a) like.".
( a) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed than
in the original) is “ castles in the air, " " pleasant fancies."
 62 Exercises .

104. “ God never wrought amiracle to refute atheism , because

His ordinary works refute it. (a) A little philosophy inclines man's
mind to atheism : depth in philosophy brings men's minds back
to religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes
scattered, it may sometimes rest in them ; (44 ) when it beholds
the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs
acknowledge a Providence. ( 44 ) That school which is most
accused of atheism mo clearly demonstrates the truth of
religion.”
( a ) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34).

105. “ The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were

once for all dead ; (a) ( 5 ) it might be for a time a pious duty,
but it could not continue always expedient or (c) (15) ( 18)
profitable to (6 ) ( 13) mourn (c) (15 a ) for their loss. Yet this is
the (6) ( 13) feeling of the age of Trajan .”
( a ) Omit. ( 6). "To sit weeping by their grave ; ". attitude. "
Notice that “ expedient or profitable ” are emphatic, as is shown
by “ yet ” in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore, by
their position, that these words are more emphatic than " to
mourn &c. ”

106. “ (a ) If we ask ( 15 b) what was the nature of the force

by which this change was effected, (a) we find it to have been (6 )
the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations
—(38) of theology."
( a ) Omit these words. ( 6) Begin a new sentence : “ It was a force & c . "
107. “ I remember Longinus highly recommends a description
of a storm by Homer, because (a) ( 5) (c) he has not amused himself
with little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior
genius, whom he mentions, (6) ( 15 a) have done, ( 30) but (c)
because he has gathered together those (d) ( I) events which are
the most apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen
in the raging of a tempest.”
( a ) “ The poet." (6) Omit " have done” and write " like some authors. "
(c ) Suspend the sentenceby writing " the poet instead of
has.” ( d ) What is the word for that which happens around
one, or in connection with some central object ?” .

108. “ To have passed (a) (3) in a self-satisfied manner through

twenty years of office, letting things take their own course ; to
have (6) sailed with consummate sagacity, never against thetide
of popular (c) judgment ; to have left on record as the sole title to
distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (d) sporting
with the heavy,the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny
with the jaunty grace of a juggler( 11 ) (e) playingwith his golden
ball ; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (f) deceived,
 Exercises. 63

with the result of having done nothing ( g), (h ) either for the poor,
(h ) or for religion (for (i) which indeed he did worse than
nothing), (h ) or for art and science, (h ) or for the honour or con
cord or even the financial prosperity of the nation , ( 38) is surely
a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great ( 15 ) states
man can be (k) ( 15 a) founded .”
(a ) “ complacently." (6) " Sail ” implies will and effort : use a word
peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically
with “ sagacity. " (c) Use a word implying less thought and
deliberation. (d) With is too often repeated ; write • bear
ing ” so as to introduce the illustration abruptly . (e ) " tossing . ”
Use a word implying a particular kind of “ deceit ,” not
lying," but the next thing to " lying. ” (8 ) Insert the word
with a precedingand intensifying adverb, absolutely nothing."
( h ) Instead of “ either, ”. “ or," repeat nothing." (i) The paren
thesis breaks the rhythm . Write “ nothing, or worse than
nothing. " ( k ) “ to found.”

109. “ A glance at the clock will make you ( 1) conscious that

it is nearlythree in the morning, and I therefore ask you,
gentlemen , instead of wasting more time, to put this question
to yourselves, ' Are we, or are we not, here, for the purpose
of ( 1) eliminating the truth ? ' ”

110. “ The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far

from unravelling ( 14) the obscurities of this knotty question, is
eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (a ) ( 8 a) who have
not made a special study of it. It may be (b) ( 23) almost asserted
of every statement (8 ) which he has made that the very ( 1 )
converse is the fact."
(a ) The meaning appears to be, not " all his supporters,” but “ those of
his supporters who : ” the convenience of writing “ his supporters
that” is so great that I should be disposed to use “ that.”
“ Every,” not “ asserted,” requires the juxtaposition of “ almost.

111. “ The provisions of the treaty which (8) require the

consent of the Parliament of Canada await its assembling .”
Point out the meaning conveyed by which, and by that.

112. “ Mrs. Smith demonstrated ( 26), in opposition to the

general dictum of the press, that (a) there had been a reaction
against woman's suffrage,that there had really been a gain of
one vote in the House of Commons.”
( a ) Substitute “ instead of," and erase the second “ that. "

113. " The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic ( 14 )

cloud of evil over the country.”
 CONTINUOUS EXERCISES.

CLEARNESS.

The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet,

Butler, and Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to
remove obscurity and ambiguity. The modernized version will
necessarily be inferior to the original in unity of style, and
in some other respects. The charm of the author's indivi
duality, and the pleasant ring of the old -fashioned English, are
lost. It is highly necessary that the student should recognize
this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to show how
the meaningin each case might have been more clearly expressed .
Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in
themselves obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of
which beginners should beware. For example, in the extract
from Burnet, he is often altered , not because, in the particular
context, the pronoun presents any obscurity, but because Burnet's
habit of repeating he is faulty.
These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may
either have his book open and be questioned on the reasons for
each alteration, or, after studying the two versions, he may have
the original version dictated to him, and then he may reproduce
the parallel version , or something like it, on paper.
LORD CLARENDON.
The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sen
tences (43 ), use of phrases for words (47 a ), ambiguous use of
pronouns ( 5 ), excessive separation of words grammatically con
nected together ( 19).
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.
(44 ) It will not be imper And now, in order to ex
tinent nor unnatural to this plain, as far as possible, how so
( 50) present discourse, to set prodigious an alteration could
down in this place the present take place in so short a time,
temper and constitution of both and how thel royal power
The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a confusion.
Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded as a metaphor,
it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion.
 Clearness. 65
Houses of Parliament, and (34) could fall so low as to be un
of the court itself, ( 30) that ( 5 ) able to support itself, its dig
it may be the less wondered at, nity, or its faithful servants, it
that so prodigious an alteration will be of use to set down here,
should be made in so short a where it comes most naturally,
time, and (37 ) the crown fallen some account of the present
so low , that itcould neither sup temper and composition, not
port itself nor its own majesty, only of both Houses of Parlia
nor those who would (47 a) ment, but also of the court
appearfaithful to it. itself.

( Here follows a description of the House of Lords. )

In the House of Commons In the House of Commons
were many persons of wisdom there were many men of wis
and gravity, who ( 7 ) being pos- dom and judgment whose high
sessed of great and plentiful position and great wealth dis
fortunes, though they were un- posed them, in spite of their in
devoted enough to the court, difference to the court, to feel
( 19) had all imaginable duty for a
most loyal respect for the
the king, and affection to the king, and a great affection for
government established (47 a) the ancient constitutional go
by law or ancient custom ; (43) vernment of the country. In
and without doubt, the major deed, it cannot be doubted that
part of that ( 54) body consisted the majority had no intention to
of men who had no mind to break the peace of the kingdom
break the peace of the king- or to make any considerable
dom, or to make any consider- alteration in Church or State .
able alteration in the govern- Consequently , from the very
ment of Church or State : (43) outset, it was necessary to re
and therefore ( 18) all inven- sort to every conceivable device
tions were set on foot from the for the purpose of perverting
( 15 ) beginning to work upon this honest majority into re
(5 ) them , and (11) corrupt ( 5 ) bellion.
them , ( 43 ) (45 ) by suggestions With some, the appeal was
of the dangers (8 ) which addressed to their patriotism .
threatened all that was preci- They were warned “ of the
ous to the subject ( 19) in their dangers that threatened [all
liberty and their property, by thatwas precious in ] the liberty
overthrowing (47a) or overmas- and property of the subject,
tering the law, and (47 a ) sub- if the laws were to be made
jecting it to an arbitrary (47 a) subservient to despotism, and
power, and by countenancing if Popery was to be encouraged
Popery to the subversion of the to the subversion of the Pro
Protestant religion,” and then, testant religion .”
1 We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, “ the then
sovereign ",” “ the then temper ," & c.
E
 66 Continuous Exercises.

by infusing terrible apprehen The fears of others were

sions into some, and so work appealed to. " There was
ing upon their fears, (66) " of danger," so it was said, “ that
( 11 a) being called in question they might be called to account
for somewhat they had done,' for something they had done,
by which ( 5 ) they would stand and they would then stand in
in need of (5 ) their protection ; need of the help of those who
and (43 ) (45) raising the hopes were now giving them this
of others, that, by concur timely warning. In others,
ring (47 a) with (5 ) them ( 5 ) hopes were excited , and offices,
they should be sure to obtain honours, and preferments were
offices and honours9) and any held out as the reward of ad.
kind of preferment. Though hesion.
there were too many corrupted Too many were led away by
and misled by these several one or other of these tempta
temptations, and ( 19) others tions, and indeed some needed
( 40 a ) who needed no other no other temptation than their
temptations than from the innate fierceness and barbarity
fierceness and barbarity oftheir and the malice they had con
(47 a) own natures, and the tracted against the Church and
malice they had contracted the eourt . But the leaders of
against the Church and against the conspiracy were not many.
the court ; (43) yet the num The flock was large and sub
ber was not great of those in missive, but the shepherds
whom the government of the were very few .
rest (47 a) was vested , nor were
there many who had the abso
lute authority ( 13) to lead,
though there were a multitude
( 13 ) that was disposed to
follow .
(44 ) (30) Mr. Pym was looked Of these, Mr. Pym was
upon as the man of greatest ex ught superior to all the
perience in parliaments, where rest in parliamentary expe
he had (50) served very long , rience. To this advantage
and was always ( 50) a man of he added habits of business
business, ( 7 ) being an officer in acquired from his continuous
the Exchequer, (43 ) and of a service in the Exchequer. He
good reputation generally ,( 30 ) had also a good reputation
though known to be inclined generally ; for, though known
to the Puritan party ; yet not to be inclined to the Puritan
of those furious resolutions party, yet he was not so fanati
against the Church as the other cally set against the Church as
leading men were, and (44 ) the other leaders. In this re
wholly devoted to the Earl of spect he resembled the Earl of
? The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy is pur
posely kept in the background.
 Clearness. 67

Bedford , who had nothing of Bedford , to whom he was

that spirit. thoroughly devoted.
(Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John. )
It was generally believed These three persons, with
that these three persons, with the three peers mentioned
the other three lords ment ione d before, were united in the
before , were of the most in closest confidence , and formed
timate and entire trust with the mainspring of the party .
each other, and made the Such at least was the general
engine which (47 a) moved all belief. But it was clear that
the rest ; ( 30) yet it was visible, they also admitted to their
that ( 15) Nathaniel Fiennes, the unreserved confidence two
second son of the Lord Say, and others , (45 ) whom I will now
Sir Harry Vane, eldest son to describe , - Nathaniel Fiennes ,
the Secretary, and Treasurer of second son of Lord Say, and
the House, were received by Sir Harry Vane , eldest son of
them with full confidence and the Secretary, and Treasurer
without reserve. of the House.
The former, being a man of Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of
good parts of learning, and good parts, was educated at
after some years spent in New New College, Oxford, where 1
College in Oxford, (43 ) of his family claimed and enjoyed
which his father had been some privileges in virtue of
formerly fellow , (43) that family their kindred to the founder,
pretending ? and enjoying many and where his father had
privileges there, as of kin to the formerly been a fellow . He
founder, (43) ( 19) had spent afterwards spent some time in
his time abroad in Geneva and Geneva and in the cantons
amongst the cantons of Switzer of Switzerland, where he in
land, ( 30) where he improved creased that natural antipathy
his disinclination to the Church, to the Church which he had
with which milk he had been imbibed almost with his
nursed . From his travels he mother's milk.3 By a singular
returned through Scotland ( 52) coincidence, he came home
(which 3 few travellers took in through Scotland (not a very
their way home) at the time common route for returning
when ( 5 ) that rebellion was in travellers) just when the Scotch
bud : ( 30 ) (43) ( 44 ) and was very rebellion was in bud. For
little known, except amongst some time he was scarcely
(5 ) that people, which conversed known beyond the narrow and
(47 a) wholly amongst them exclusive circle of his sect,
selves, until he was now ( 15 ) until at last he appeared in
1 The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it conveys the
reason why Fiennes was educated at New College ; and in the third case,
because the increased “ antipathy ” is regarded as the natural consequence
of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva.
? Claiming . 3 An insinuation of sedition seems intended .
E 2
68 Continuous Exercises.

founa in Parliament, ( 30) (43) Parliament. Then, indeed, it

(44) when it was quickly dis was quickly discovered that
covered that, as he was the dar he was likely to fulfil even
ling of his father, so ( 5 ) he the fond hopes of his father
was like to make good what and the high promise of
soever he had for many years many years.
promised.
( 5 ) The other, Sir H. Vane, Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H.
was a man of great natural Vane, was a man of great
parts ? (45 ) and of very pro natural ability. ? Quick in under
found dissimulation , of a quick standing and impenetrable in
conception , and of very ready, dissembling,he could also speak
sharp , and weighty expres with promptness, point, and
sion. He had an (50) unusual weight. His singular appear .
aspect, which, though it might ance, though it might naturally
naturally proceed from his proceed from his parents, who
father and mother, neither of werenot noted fortheir beauty,
which were beautiful persons, yet impressed men with the
yet ( 19 ) made men think there belief that he had in him some
was somewhat in him of ex thing extraordinary, an impres
traordinary : and ( 52 ) his whole sion that was confirmed by the
life made good that imagina whole of his life. His behaviour
tion . Within a very short time at Oxford, where he studied at
after he returned from his Magdalen College, was not
studies in Magdalen College characterized, in spite of the
in Oxford , where, (43 ) though supervision of a very worthy
he was under the care of a very tutor, by a severe morality.
worthy tutor, he lived not with Soon after leaving Oxford he
great exactness, ( 43) he spent spent some little time in France,
some little time in France, and and more in Geneva. After
more in Geneva ; and, (43 ) returning to England, he con
after his return into England, ceived an intense hatred not
( 38 ) contracted a full prejudice only against the government of
and bitterness against the the Church, which was disliked
Church, both against the form by many, but also against the
of the government and the Li Liturgy, which was held in great
turgy, (43) which was generally and general reverence.
in great reverence, ( 15 a) even Incurring or seeming to in
with many of those who were cur, by his giddiness, the
not friendsto (5 ) the other. In displeasure of his father, who
his giddiness, which then much at that time, beside strictly con
displeased , or seemed to dis forming to the Church himself,
please, ( 30) (43) his father, who was very bitter against Non
still appeared highly conform conformists, the young Vane
able, and exceedingly sharp left his home for New England.
against those who were not, This colony had been planted
1 This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows.
 Clearness. 69

(5) he transported himself into a few years before by men of

New England, (43) a colony all sorts of religions, and
within few years before planted their differences disposed them
by a mixture of all religions, to dislike the government of the
which disposed the professors Church. Now , it happened
to dislike the government of that their privilege (accorded
the Church ; who ( 30) (43) by the king's charter) of
( 44) were qualified by the king's choosing their own govern i
charter to choose their own ment and governors was sub
government and governors, ject to this obligation, “ that
under the obligation, “ that every man should take the
every man should take the oaths of allegiance and supre
oaths of allegiance and su macy.” These oaths had been
premacy ; ” ( 30 ) (43) (5 ) which taken , not only by all the origi
all the first planters did, when nal planters, on receiving their
they received their charter, charter, before leaving Eng
before they transported them land, but also for many years
selves from hence, nor was afterwards, without exciting the
there in many years after the slightest scruple. Indeed,
least scruple amongst them of scruples against lawful oaths
complying with those obliga were unknown ? in the infancy
tions : so far men were, in of the English schism. But
the infancy (15) of their schism , with the arrival of Vane all
from refusing to take lawful this was changed. No sooner
oaths. (45 ) He was no sooner had he landed than his ability,
landed there, but his parts and perhaps to some extent his
made him quickly taken notice position, as eldest son of a
of, (26) and very probably his Privy-councillor, recommended
quality, being the eldest son of him to notice : and at the next
a Privy -councillor, might give election he was chosen Go
him some advantage ; inso vernor .
much ( 51 ) that, when the next In his new post, his restless
season came for the election and unquiet imagination found
of their magistrates, he was opportunity for creating and
chosen theirgovernor : (30) (45 ) diffusing a thousand conscien
(43) in which place he had so ill tious scruples that had not been
fortune ( 26) ( his working and brought over, or ever even
unquiet fancy raising and in heard of, by the colonists.
fusing a thousand scruples of His government proved a
conscience, which ( 5 ) they had failure : and mutually dis
not brought over with them, satisfied, (45 ) governed and
nor heard ofbefore) ( 19) that he governor parted . Vane re
• If " which " is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is, (a) and
their differences ; ” if it is used for “ that,” the meaning will be, (6 ) " all reli
gions that were of a nature to dispose & c.” I believe (a ) is the meaning ;
but I have found difference of opinion on the question.
2 The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the difference
between the infancy and the development of schism.
70 Continuous Exercises.
unsatisfied with them and they turned to England, but not
with him , he retransported till he had accomplished his
himself into England ; ( 30) (43 ) mischievous task , not till he
( 44) having sowed such seed had sown the seeds of those
of dissension there, as grew up miserable dissensions which
too prosperously, and miser. afterwards grew only too pros
ably divided the poor colony perously, till they split the
into several factions, and divi wretched colony into distinct,
sions and persecutions of each hostile, and mutually perse
( 15 a) other, (30) (43 ) which cuting factions. His handi
still continue to the great ( 54) work still remains, and it is
prejudice of that plantation : owing to ( 15 ) him that some
insomuch as some of (5 ) them , of the colonists, on the pretext
upon the ground of their first of liberty of conscience, the
expedition, liberty of con original cause of their emigra
science, have withdrawn them tion, have withdrawn them
selves from ( 5) their jurisdic selves from the old colonial
tion, and obtained other char jurisdiction and have obtained
ters from the king, by which , fresh charters from the king.
(30) (43 ) in other forms of These men haveestablished new
government, they have enlarged forms of government, unduly
their plantations, within new enlarged their boundaries, and
limits adjacent to ( 5 ) ( 15 a) set up rival settlements on the
the other. borders of the original colony.

BURNET.
The principal faults in Burnet's style are (a) the use of hetero
geneous sentences (see 43) ; (b) the want of suspense (see 30 ) ;
(c) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5) ; (d ) the omission of
connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of and
(see 44) ; and (e) an abruptness in passing from one topic to
another (see 45 ). The correction of these faults necessarily
lengthens the altered version.
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.
And his maintaining the He also gratified the Eng
honour of the nation in all lish feeling of self -respect by
foreign countries gratified the maintaining the honour of the
( 1 ) vanity which is very natural nation in all foreign countries.
(50) to Englishmen ; ( 30) (43) So jealous was he on this
of which he was so ( 15 ) ( 17 a) point that, though he was not
careful that, though he was not a crowned head, he yetsecured
a crowned head, yethis (40 a) for his ambassadors all the re
ambassadors had all the respects spect that had been paid to
paid them which our ( 15 ) kings' the ambassadors of kings.
ambassadors ever had : he said The king, he said, received re
(66) the dignity of the crown spect simply as the nation's
 Clearness. 71
was upon the account of the representative head, and, since
nation, of which the king was the nation was the same, the
(50) onlytherepresentative head ; same respect should be paid
so, the nation being the same, to the 1 nation's ministers .
he would have the same re
gards paid to (41 ) his ministers.
Another instance of ( 5 ) this The following instance of
pleased him much. Blake jealousy for the national honour
with the fleet happened ( 50) to be pleased him much. When
at Malaga before he made war Blake was at Malaga with his
upon Spain : (44 ) and some of fleet, before his warwith Spain ,
his seamen went ashore, and it happened that some of his
met the Hostcarried about; (44 ) sailors going ashore and meet
and not only paid no respect ing theprocession of the Host,
to it, but laughed at those who not only paid no respect to it,
did ; (43) (30) ( 51 ) so one of but even laughed at those who
the priests put the people upon did. Incited by one of the
resenting this indignity ; and priests to resent the indignity,
they fell upon ( 5 ) them and the people fell on the scoffers
beat them severely: When and beat them severely. On
they returned to their ship ( 5) their return to the ship the
they complained of (5 ) this seamen complained of this ill
usage ; and upon that Blake usage, whereupon Blake sent
sent a trumpet to the viceroy a messenger to the viceroy to
to demand the priest who was demand the priest who was
the chief ( 1 ) instrument in that the instigator of the outrage.
ill - usage. The viceroy an The viceroy answered that he
swered he had no authority could not touch him , as he had
over the (15 ) priests, and so no authority over the priests.
could not disposeof him . Blake To this Blake replied, that he
upon that sent him word did not intend to inquire to
that he would not inquire who whom the authority belonged,
had the ( 1 ) power to send but, if the priest were not sent
the priest to him, but if he within three hours, he would
were not sent within three burn the town . The towns
hours, he would burn their people being in no condition
town ; (43) and ( 5 ) they, being to resist, the
priest was at once
in no condition to resist him, sent. On his arrival, he de
sent the priest to him , (43) fended himself, alleging the
( 44) who justified himself upon insolence of the sailors. But
the petulant behaviour of the the English (50) Admiral re
seamen. plied that a complaint should
(44 ) Blake answered that, have been forwarded to him,
if ( 5 ) he had sent a complaint and then he would have
to ( 5 ) him of (5 ) it, (5) he would punished them severely, for
The meaning is "his, and therefore the nation's, ministers." There is
a kind of antithesis between the nation ” and “ the nation's ministers."
2 No instance has yet been mentioned .
72 Continuous Exercises.
have punished them severely, none of his sailors should be
since (5 ) he would not suffer allowed to affront the estab
his men to affront the estab lished religion of any place
lished religion of any place where they touched . “ But,
at which (5) he touched ; but he added , “ I take it ill that
( 5 ) (6) he took it ill, that he you should set on your coun
set on the Spaniards to do (5 ) trymen to do my work ; for I
it : for he would have all the will have all the world know
world to know that an English that an Englishman is only to
man wasonly to be punished by be punished by an English
an Englishman ; (43) (44) and man .” Then, satisfied with
so he treated the priest civilly, having had the (50) offender
and sent him back (30), being at his mercy, Blake entertained
satisfied that he had him at his him civillyand sent him back.
mercy.
Cromwell was much de Cromwellwasmuch delighted
lighted with ( 5 ) this, (43) and with Blake's conduct. Read
read the letters in council with ing the letters in council with
great satisfaction ; and said he great satisfaction, he said, “ I
(6) hoped he should make the hope I shall make the name of
name of an Englishman as great an Englishman as much re
as ever that of a Roman ( 15 a) spected as ever was the name
had been (44) The States of of Roman. ”
Holland were in such dread of Among other countries the
(5 ) him that they took care to States of Holland were in such
give him no sort of umbrage ; dread of Cromwell that they
(43 ) (44 ) and when at any time took care to give him no sort of
the king or his brothers came umbrage . Accordingly, when
to see their sister the Princess ever the king or his brothers
Royal, (23) within a day or two came to see the Princess Royal
after, (5 ) they used to send a their sister, they were always
deputation to let them know warned in a day or two by a
that Cromwell had required of deputation that Cromwell had
the States that ( 5 ) they should required of the States to give
give them no harbour. them no harbourage.
* * * *

Cromwell's favourite alliance The free kingdom of Swe

was Sweden.1 (44) Carolus Gus. den was Cromwell's favourite
tavus and he lived in great con ally ; not only under Charles
junction of counsels. (44 ) Even Gustavus, with whom he was
Algernon Sydney, ( 10 a) who on most confidential terms, but
was not inclined to think or also under Christina. Both
speak well of kings, com these sovereigns had just no
mended him (5 ) to me ; and tions of public liberty ;at least,
• The thoughtthat is implied, and should be expressed, by the words, is
this : “ Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country .'
 Clearness. 73

said he (5) had just notions of Algernon Sydney, a man cer

public liberty ; (44 ) (43 ) and tainly not prejudiced in favour
added , that Queen Christina of royalty, assured me this was
seemed to have them likewise. true of Gustavus. He also held
But ( 44 ) she was much changed the same opinion of Queen
from that, when I waited on her Christina ; but, if so, she was
at Rome ; for she complained of much changed when I waited
us as a factious nation, that did on her at Rome ; for she then
not readily comply with the complained of the factious
commands (47a ) of our princes. and unruly spirit of our na
(44 ) All Italy trembled at the tion .
name of Cromwell, and seemed All Italy, no less than Hol
under a ( 1 ) panic as long as he land ,' trembled at the name of
lived ; (43) his fleet scoured the Cromwell, and dreaded him
Mediterranean ; and the Turks till he died . Nor durst the
durst not offend him ; but de Turks offend the great (50)
livered up Hyde, who kept up Protector whose fleet scoured
the character of an ambassador the Mediterranean ; and they
from the king there (23) (43 ), even gave up Hyde, who, for
and was brought over and keeping up in Turkey the
executed for (5 ) it. character of ambassador from
the king, was brought to
England and executed.
(44) ( 11 a) The putting the In another instance of se
brotherofthe king of Portugal's verity towards foreigners — the
ambassador to death for mur execution of the brother of
der, was ( 11 a) carrying jus the Portuguese ambassador for
tice very far ; (43) since, though murder - Cromwell carried jus
in the strictness of the law of tice very far. For, though in
nations, it is only the ambas strictness the law of nations
sador's own person that is exempts from foreign jurisdic
exempted from (4) any autho tion the ambassador alone, yet
rity (47 a) but his master's that in practice the exemption has
sends him , yet the practice has extended to the whole of the
gone in favour of all that the ambassador's suite.
ambassador owned (47 a) to be Successfulabroad, Cromwell
long to him . (41) (44) Cromwell was no less successful at home
showed his good ( 11 ) under. in selecting able and worthy
standing in nothing more than men for public duties, especi
in seeking ? out capable and ally for the courts of law. In
worthy men for all employ nothing did he show more
ments, but most particularly clearly his great natural insight,
I The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now return
ing to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreignnations.
3 Henot only sought, but sought successfully. That " find ” is not neces
sarily implied by “ seek out" seems proved by the use of the word in the
Authorized Version , 2 Tim. ii. 17 : " He sought me out very diligently, and
found me.”
74 Continuous Exercises.

for the courts of law, (43) ( 302) and nothing contributed more
( 10 a ) which gave a general to his popularity.
satisfaction .
BISHOP BUTLER .
The principal faults in this style are (a) a vague use of pro.
nouns (5 ), and sometimes (6) the use of a phrase, where a worå
would be enough (47 a).
ORIGINAL VERSION, PARALLEL VERSION.
Some persons, ( 15) upon Some persons avowedly
pretence of the sufficiency of reject all revelation as 2 essen .
the light of Nature, avowedly tially incredible and neces
reject all revelation as, in its sarily fictitious, on the ground
(47 a ) very notion , incredible, that the light of Nature is in
and what (47 a ) must be ficti itself sufficient. And assuredly,
tious. And indeed (32) it is had the light of Nature been
certain that no revelation would sufficient in such a sense as to
have been given , ( 32 ) had the render revelation needless or
light of Nature been sufficient useless, no revelation would
in such a sense as to render ever have been given. But let
( 5) one not 3 wanting, or useless. any man consider the spiritual
But no ( 156) man in serious darkness that once (41) pre
ness and simplicity can possibly vailed in the heathen world
think it (5 ) so, who considers before revelation, and that
the state of religion in the (41 ) still prevails in those
heathen world before revela regions that have not yet re
tion, and its ( 5 ) present state ceived the light of revealed
in those ( 11 ) Places ( 8 ) which truth ; above all, let him mark
have borrowed no light from not merely the natural inat
( 5) it ; particularly ( 19 ) the tention and ignorance of the
doubtfulness of some of the masses, but also the doubtful
( 12 ) greatest men concerning language held even by a Socrates
thingsof the utmost ( 11 ) impor 0 even so vital a subject
tance, as well as the ( 15 a) as 4 the immortality of the
natural inattention and igno soul ; and then can he in seri
rance of mankind in general. ousness and sincerity main
It is ( 34) impossible to say ( 12) tain that the light of Nature is
who would have been able to sufficient ?
have reasoned out that whole It is of course impossible to
system which we call natural deny that some second 4 Aris.
religion, (30) in its genuine totle might have reasoned out,
simplicity, clear of supersti in its genuine simplicity and
I " To pretend ” once meant to put forward ," maintain . "
2 It has been suggested,
is meant “ inconceivable ." however, that by “in its very notion incredible ,"
3 “ Wa ng " is used for modern “ wanted . "
4 This use of the particular for the general would be out of place in Butler's
style, but it adds clearness.
 Cleurness. 75
tion ; but there is certainly no without a touch of superstition ,
ground to affirm that the the whole of that system which
generality could. (44) If they we call natural religion. But
could, there is no sort of pro there is certainly no ground for
bability that they would. (44) affirming that this complicated
Admitting there were, they process would have been pos
would highly want a standing sible for ordinary men. Even
admonition to remind them of if they had had the power,
(5 ) it, and inculcate it upon there is no probability that
them . And further still, were they would have had the in
(5 ) they as much disposed (47 a) clination ; and, even if we
to attend to religion as the admit the probable inclination,
better sort of men ( 15 a ) are ; they would still need some
yet, even upon this supposition, standing admonition, whereby
there would be various occa natural religion might be sug,
sions for supernatural instruc gested and inculcated. Still
tion and assistance, and the further, even if we suppose
greatest advantages ( 50) might these ordinary men to be as
be afforded ( 15 a) by (5) them . attentive to religion as men of
So that, to say revelation is a a better sort, yet even then
thing superfluous, what there there would be various occa
(47 a) was no need of, and sions when supernatural in
what can be of (47 a) no struction and assistance might
service, is, I think, to talk be most beneficially bestowed .
wildly and at random . Nor Therefore, to call revelation
would it be more extrava superfluous, needless, and use
gant to affirm that ( 40 a) less, is, in my opinion, to talk
mankind is so entirely (40 a) wildly and at random . A man
at ease in the present state, and might as reasonably assert that
(40 a ) life so completely (40 a) we are so entirely at ease and
happy, that ( 5 ) it is a contra so completely happy in this
diction to suppose (40 a) our present life that our con

condition capable of being in dition cannot without contra

any respect (47 a) better . diction be supposed capable of
( Analogy of Religion , part ii. being in any way improved .
chap. I. )
BREVITY.

SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON .

The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and

lengthiness. The “ implied statement ( 50) can often be used
as a remedy, but, more often , the best remedy is omission.
ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION.

The Russian empire is (50) Russia, with hervast strength

a state of ( 54) such vast strength and boundless resources , is ob
 76 Continuous Exercises.
and boundless resources, that it viously destined to exercise on
is obviously destined to make the course of history a great
a great and lasting impression and lasting influence. The
on human affairs. Its ( 50) pro slowness of her progress only
gress has been slow , but ( 5) it1 renders her durability_more
is only on that account the probable. The Russian Empire
more likely to be durable. ( 5 ) has not, like the empires of
It has not suddenly risen to Alexander the Great and Na
greatness, like the empire of poleon, been raised to sudden
Alexander in ancient ( 19) ( 31 ), greatness by the genius of in
or that of Napoleon in modern , dividuals or the accidents of
times, from the force of indi fortune, but has been slowly
vidual genius, or the accidents enlarged and firmly consoli
of ( 54) casual fortune, but has dated by well-guided ambi
slowly advanced , and (40 a) tion and persevering energy,
been firmly consolidated ( 15 ) during a long succession of
during a succession of ages, ages.
from the combined influence
of ambition skilfully directed
and energy ( 15a) perseveringly
applied.
The extent and fertility of The extent and fertility of
the Russian territory are such her territory furnish unparal
( 54) as to furnish facilities of in leled facilities for the increase
crease and elements of strength of her population and power.
which no nation (47 a) in the European Russia, that is,
world enjoys. European Russia Russia to the west of the
– that is, Russia to the west Ural Mountains, contains one
ward of the Ural Mountains million two hundred thousand
contains a hundred and fifty square geographical miles, or
thousand four hundred square ten times the surface of Great
marine leagues, or about one Britain and Ireland .
million two hundred thousand
square geographical miles,
being ten times the sur
face of the British Islands,
which contain , including Ire
land, one hundred and twenty
two thousand. Great part, no This vast territory is inter
doubt, of this immense ( 54, see sected by no mountain ranges,
below) territory is covered with no arid 'deserts ; and though
forests, or (40 a) lies so far to much of it is rendered almost
the north as to be almost un unproductive of food either by
productive of food ; but no the denseness of forests, or by
ranges of mountains or arid the severity of the northern
* Apparently " it ” means, not progress,, ” but the “Russian empire."
* Not “ energy," but “ a long succession of ages,” needs to be emphasized.
 Brevity. 77
deserts intersect the vast (54, winter, yet almost all, except
see above) extent, and almost that part which touches the
the whole,exceptingthat which Arctic snows, is capable of
touches the Arctic snows, is yielding something for the use
of man.
capable of yielding something
for the use ofman . The (3 ) ( 54) The steppes of the south
boundless steppes of the south present an inexhaustible pas
present ( 54) inexhaustible fields turage to those nomad tribes
of pasturage, and give birth to whose numerous and incom
those nomad tribes, in whose parable horsemen form the
numerous and incomparable chief defence of the empire.
horsemen the chief defence of
the empire, as of all Oriental
states, (15 a) is to be found.
The rich arable lands in the The rich arable lands in the
heart of the ( 54) empire produce interior produce grain enough
an ( 2) incalculable quantity to support four times thepresent
of grain , capable not only of population of the empire, and
maintaining four times (5) its yet leave a vast surplus to be
present inhabitants, but afford transported by the Dnieper, the
ing a vast surplus for exporta Volga, and their tributaries,
tion by the Dnieper, the Volga, intothe Euxine or other seas .
and their tributary streams,
(30) which form so many ( 54)
natural outlets into the Euxine
or other seas ; (44) while the cold Lastly, the cold bleak plains
and shivering plains which stretching towards Archangel
stretch towards Archangel and and towards the shores of the
the shores of the White Sea White Sea, and covered with
are (48) covered with immense immense forests of oak and fir,
forests of fir and oak, furnish furnish materials for shipbuild
ing at once ( 54) inexhaustible ing and supplies of fuel that
materials for shipbuilding and will for many generations
supplies of fuel. ( 54 ) These supersede the necessity of
ample stores for many genera searching for coal
tions will supersede the neces
sity of searching in the ( 14 a)
bowels of the earth for the pur
poses of ( 54) warmth or manu
facture.
Formidable as the power of Much as we may dread
Russia is from the vast extent Russia for the vastness of her
of its territory, and the great territory and of her rapidly
1 There is nothing in the context that requires the words, “ as of all
Oriental states.
? If they were really " inexhaustible, " the “ necessity of searching in the
bowels of the earth ” would be “ superseded,” not for many ,” but for all
generations.
78 Continuous Exercises.

and rapidly increasing number increasing numbers, there is

of its ( 54) subjects, ( 5 ) it is still greater cause for fear in the
more ( 5 ) so from the military military spirit and the docility
spirit and docile disposition by of herpeople.
which they are (54) distin .
guished. The prevailing ( 54)
passion of the nation is the ( 54) A burning thirst for con
love of conquest, and this (54) quest is as prevalent a passion
ardent ( 54) desire, which ( 54) in Russia as democratic ambi.
burns as ( 54) fiercely in them tion in the free states of
as democratic ambition does Western Europe. This passion
in the free states of Western is the unseen spring 2 which,
Europe, is the unseen spring 2 while it retains the Russians
which both retains them sub in the strictest discipline, un
missive ( 54) under the standard ceasingly impels their united
of their chief and impels their forces against all adjoining
accumulated forces in ceaseless states.
violence over all the adjoining The national energy, which
states. The energies of the is as great as the national ter
people, great as3 the territory ritory, rarely wastes itself in
they inhabit, are rarely wasted disputes about domestic griev
in internal disputes. Domestic ances. For all internal evils,
grievances, how great soever, how great soever, the Rus
are ( 54) overlooked in the thirst sians hope to find a compensa
forforeignaggrandizement . ( 15) tion, and more than a compen
In the conquest of the world the sation, in the conquest of the
people hope to find a compen world .
sation , and more than a com
pensation , ( 15 a) for all the
evils of their interior adminis .
tration ,

The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the following
sentence .
retainThe
2 at metaphorisquestionable;for
all ; and besides, “ a passion ", ought
a“ spring,”
not to "qua
burn “ spring,” does and
" in one line, not
be a 66 spring" in the next.
3 The meaning appears not to be, " great as ” ,
(is) i.e. “ though the terri
tory is great."

THE END
ENGLISH LESSONS

FOR

ENGLISH PEOPLE.

BY

THE REV . EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,

HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL ;

AND

J. R. SEELEY, M.A.,
PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE .

“ It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to know it ;

and I look upon this knowledge as essential for an Englishman , and not merely
for a fine speaker.” – ADAPTED FROM CICERO.

BOSTON :

ROBERTS BROTHERS.
1888.
 QU IE
I EG
LEGITR

UNIVERSITY Press : John Wilson & Son,

CAMBRIDGE .
 TO THE

REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER , D.D.,

Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of

London School.

DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER,

We have other motives, beside the respect and grati
tude which must be felt for you by all those of your old
pupils who are capable of appreciating the work you did at
the City of London School, for asking you to let us dedicate
to you a little book which we have entitled “ English Lessons
for English People."
Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that
among the many educational advantages which we enjoyed
under : your care, there was none more important than the
study of the works of Shakspeare, to which we and our
school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes of the
Beaufoy Endowment.
We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by
pupils to their teachers. Many who have passed into a life
of engrossing activity without having been taught at school
to use rightly, or to appreciate the right use of, their native
 DEDICATION .

zongue, feeling themselves foreigners amid the language of

their country, may turn with some point against their
teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke : -

My tongue's use is to me no more

Than an unstringed viol or a harp,
Or like a cunning instrument cased up ,
Or, being open, put into his hands
That knows no touch to tune the harmony ;
Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue
Doubly portcullis’d with my teeth and lips,
And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance
Is made my gaoler to attend on me.
I am too old to fawn upon a nurse,
Too far in years to be a pupil now.

It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you

for encouraging us to study the “ cunning instrument ” of
· ur native tongue.
Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this
study, and our recollection that the study was at that time
optional, and did not affect more than a small number of the
pupils, lead us to anticipate that when once the English
anguage and literature become recognized, not as an
optional but as a regular part of our educational course ,
the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing
short of a national benefit.
The present seems to be a critical moment for English
instruction . The subject has excited much attention of late
years ; many schools have already taken it up ; others aro
 DEDICATION .

of the point of doing so ; it forms an important part of

most Government and other examinations. But there is a
complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English
for want of text-books and manuals ; and, as the study of
English becomes year by year more general, this complaint
makes itself more and more distinctly heard. To meet this
want we have written the following pages. If we had had
more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to aim at
producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the
subject ; but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a
practical text- book , and not a learned or exhaustive treatise,
is what is wanted at the present crisis.
We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our
little book, as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the
torch which you have handed to us ; we beg you also to
accept it as a token of our sincere gratitude for more than
ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us
Your affectionate pupils,

J. R. SEELEY .
EDWIN A. ABBOTT .
 Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications.

ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE .

By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and Prof. J. R. SEELEY ,
M.A. Part I. — Vocabulary . Part II.- Diction . Part
III . Metre. Part IV. - Hints on Selection and Ar
rangement. Appendix . 16mo. Price $1.50.
From the London Athenaum .
The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is intended for ordinary
ose by a large circle of readers ; and though designed principally for boys, may be
read with advantage by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which
{ professes to teach , “to use the right word in the right place, " is one which no
one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare one, and many of the hints
here given are truly admirable .

From the Southern Review .

The study of Language can never be exhausted . Every time it is looked at by
a man of real ability and culture, some now phase starts into view . The origin
of Language ; its relations to the mind ; its history ; its laws; its development;
its struggles ; its triumphs; its devices; its puzzles ; its ethics, — every thing
about it is full of interest.
Here is a delightful book , by two men of recognized authority , - the head
Master of London School, and the Professor of Modern History in the University
of Cambridge, the notable author of “ Ecce Homo. " The book is so compre
hensive in its scope that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary
of the English Language ; Diction as appropriate to this or that sort of compo
sition ; selection and arguments of topics ; Metre, and an Appendix on Logic.
All this in less than three hundred pages. Within this space so many subjects
cannot be treated exhaustively ; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to
which about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be said that
is worth saying, — possibly more. But on each topic some of the best things are
said in a very stimulating way. The student will desire to study more thoroughly
the subject into which such pleasant openings are here given ; and the best pro
pared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking illustrations gathered up
to his hand .
The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume very attrac
tive reading, without reference to its didactic value.

Sold by all booksellers. Mailed , postpaid, by the Pub

lishers,
ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON ,
 PREFACE.

This book is not intended to supply the place of an English

Grammar. It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of
English idiom in its readers, and does not address itself to
foreigners, but to those who, having already a familiar knowl.
edge of English, need help to write it with taste and exact
Dess. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in the reader ;
nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as
to render him incapable of profiting from lessons. Our object
is, if possible, not merely to interest, but to teach ; to write
lessons, not essays, - lessons that may perhaps prove inter
esting to some who have passed beyond the routine of school
life, but still lessons, in the strictest sense, adapted for school
classes .

Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with those

difficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to
be most common and most serious. For there are many
difficulties, even when grammatical accuracy has been at
tained, in the way of English persons attempting to write
and speak correctly. First, there is the cramping restriction
of an insufficient vocabulary ; not merely a loose and inexact
viii PREFACE .

apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and

a consequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a
total ignorance of many other words, and an inability to use
them at all; and these last are, as a rule, the very words
which are absolutely necessary for the comprehension and
expression of any thought that deals with something more
than the most ordinary concrete notions. There is also a
very common inability to appreciate the differences between
words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil has
studied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of Eng
lish words to his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the
possibility of misderiving and misunderstanding a word , owing
to ignorance of the changes of letters introduced in the process
of derivation ; and, on the other hand, there is the danger of
misunderstanding and pedantically misusing words correctly
derived, from an ignorance of the changes of meaning which
a word almost always experiences in passing from one lan
guage to another. The result of all this non -understanding

or slovenly half- understanding of words is a habit of slovenly

reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired is
very hard to shake off.
Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of
words, there are others attending the choice and arrangement
of words. There is the danger of falling into “ poetic prose,"
of thinking it necessary to write “steed" or " charger ” in
stead of “ horse,” “ire" instead of “anger,” and the like ;
and every teacher, who has had much experience in looking
 PREFACE . ir

over examination papers, will admit that this is a danger to

which beginners are very liable. Again , there is the tempta
tion to shrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word
twice in the same page , and often from using a plain word at
all. This unmanly dread of simplicity, and of what is called
tautology, ” gives rise to a patchwork made up of scraps
of poetic quotations, unmeaning periphrases, and would be
humorous circumlocutions, — a style of all styles perhaps the
most objectionable and offensive, which may be known and
avoided by the name of Fine Writing. Lastly, there is
the danger of obscurity, a fault which cannot be avoided
without extreme care, owing to the uninflected nature of our
language.
All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and
require as much attention, and are fit subjects for practical
teaching in our schools, quite as much as many points
which , at present, receive perhaps an excessive attention in
some of our text -books. To use the right word in the right
place is an accomplishment not less valuable than the knowl.
edge of the truth ( carefully recorded in most English
Grammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils )
that the plural of cherub is cherubim , and the feminine of
bull is cow .

To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is

the object of the first three Parts of this book. Difficulties
connected with Vocabulary are considered first. The stu
dent is introduced , almost at once , to Synonyms. He is
 PREFACE .

taught how to define a word , with and without the aid of its
synonyms. He is shown how to eliminate from a word
whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of
Definition and Elimination are carefully explained : a system
or scheme is laid down which he can exactly follow ; and
examples are subjoined, worked out to illustrate the method
which he is to pursue . A system is also given by which
the reader may enlarge his vocabulary, and furnish himself
easily and naturally with those general or abstract terms
which are often misunderstood and misused , and still more
often not understood and not used at all. Some information
is also given to help the read to connect words with their

roots, and at the same time to caution him against supposing

that, because he knows the roots of a word, he necessarily
knows the meaning of the word itself. Exercises are inter
spersed throughout this part which can be worked out with ,
or without, an English Etymological Dictionary,' as the
nature of the case may require. The exercises have not
been selected at random ; many of them have been subjected
to the practical test of experience, and have been used in
class teaching .
The Second Part deals with Diction . It attempts to illus
trate with some detail the distinction often ignored by those
who are beginning to write English, and sometimes by others
also — between the Diction of Prose, and that of Poetry. It
1 Etymological Dictionary is necessary pupils studying the
First Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie’s will answer the purpose .
 PREFACE . xi

endeavors to dissipate that excessive and vulgar dread of

tautology which, together with a fondness for misplaced
pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above.
It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence
clearly and impressively ; and it also examines the difference

between slang, conversation , and written prose. Both for

translating from foreign languages into English, and for
writing original English composition, these rules have been
used in teaching, and, we venture to think, with encouraging
results.

A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject

of Diction . We have found, in the course of teaching, that
a great deal of confusion in speaking and writing, and still
more in reading and attempting to understand the works of
our classical English authors, arises from the inability to
express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. The
application of the principle of Proportion to the explanation
of Metaphor has been found to dissipate much of this con
fusion . The youngest pupils readily learn how to " expand
a Metaphor into its Simile ;” and it is really astonishing
to see how many difficulties that perplex young heads, and
sometimes old ones too, vanish at once when the key of
“ expansion ” is applied . More important still , perhaps, is
the exactness of thought introduced by this method . The
pupil knows that, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does
not understand it. All teachers will admit that to force a

pupil to see that he does not understand any thing is a great

xü PREFACE .

stride of progress. It is difficult to exaggerate the value of

a process which makes it impossible for a pupil to delude
himself into the belief that he understands when he does not
understand .
Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this
Part (as also, in a great measure , of the Chapter just men
tioned belonging to the Second Part) is to enable the pupil
to read English Poetry with intelligence, interest, and appre
ciation . To teach any one how to read a verse so as to mark
the metre on the one hand, without on the other hand con
verting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is not so
easy a task as might be supposed . Many of the rules stated
in this part have been found of practical utility in teaching
pupils to hit the mean . Rules and illustrations have there
fore been given, and the different kinds of metre and varieties
of the same metre have been explained at considerable length.
This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much
into detail. We desire, however, to urge as an explanation ,
that in all probability the study of English metre will rapidly
assume more importance in English schools. At present,
very little is generally taught, and perhaps known, about
this subject. In a recent elaborate edition of the works of
Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art of
epigrammatic versification is inpugned because in one of his
lines he suffers the to receive the metrical accent. When one
of the commonest customs ( for it is in no sense a license)
of English poets - a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare,
 PREFACE . xili

Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson

— can be censured as a fault, and this in a leading edition of a
leading poet of our literature, it must be evident that much
still remains to be done in teaching English Metre . At pres
ent this part may seem too detailed . Probably, some few
years hence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become
more widely diffused, it will seem not detailed enough.
The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is con
cerned not more with English than with other languages. It
treats of the different Styles of Composition , the appropriate
subjects for each , and the arrangement of the subject-matter.
We hope that this may be of some interest to the general
reader, as well as of practical utility in the higher classes of
schools. It seems desirable that before pupils begin to write
essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they should
receive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement
in a poem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay.
An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reason
ing. This addition may interfere with the symmetry of the
book ; but if it is found of use, the utility will be ample
compensation. In reading literature, pupils are continually
meeting instances of false reasoning, which, if passed over
without comment, do harm , and, if commented upon, require
some little basis of knowledge in the pupil to enable him
to understand the explanation . Without entering into the
details of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give
pupils some few hints which have appeared to help them .
 xiv PREFACE .

The hints are so elementary, and so few , that they cannot

possibly delude the youngest reader into imagining that they
are any thing more than hints. They may induce him here
after to study the subject thoroughly in a complete treatise,
when he has leisure and opportunity ; but, in any case, a boy
will leave school all the better prepared for the work of life,
whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of
induction, and has been cautioned against the error, post hoc,
ergo propter hoc. No lesson, so far as our experience in
teaching goes, interests and stimulates pupils more than this ;
and our experience of debating societies, in the higher forms
of schools, forces upon us the conviction that such lessons
are not more interesting than necessary.
Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at
the end of the book, for the purpose of enabling the student
to test his knowledge of the contents, and also to serve as
home lessons to be prepared by pupils in classes.1
A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that
these lessons should be published as soon as possible, has
rather accelerated the publication. Some misprints and other
inaccuracies may possibly be found in the following pages,
in consequence of the short time which has been allowed us
for correcting them . Our thanks are due to several friends
who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have also

1 Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended to

be committed to memory and used as repetition -lessons. - See pp.
180, 181, 212, 237, 238, etc.
 PREFACE . XV

aided us with many valuable and practical suggestions

Among these we desire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose
labors on Norman French are well known ; Mr. T. G. Phil
potts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford, and one of the
Assistant Masters of Rugby School ; Mr. Edwin Abbott,
Head Master of the Philological School ; Mr. Howard
Candler, Mathematical Master of Uppingham School ; and
the Rev. R. H. Quick, one of the Assistant Masters of
Harrow School.

In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to

be regarded as an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the
use of foreigners. It is intended primarily for boys, but,
in the present unsatisfactory state of English education, we
entertain a hope that it may possibly be found not unfit for
some who have passed the age of boyhood ; and in this hope
we have ventured to give it the title of English Lessons for
English People.
HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF
SPEECH .

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By Rev. EDWIN

A. ABBOTT, D.D., Head Master of the City of London School.
American Edition, Revised and Enlarged by JOHN G. R. McELROY,
Professor of the English Language in the University of Pennsylva
nia. I vol. 16mo. Cloth. 75 cents.
This work is written for the purpose of simplifying the study
of grammar. Its aim is to teach general principles with thorough
ness, leaving unimportant details for the acquisition of maturer
years. It is free from puzzling technicalities, is founded on the
methods that experience has shown to be the best for imparting
information to youthful minds, and is greatly in advance of any
book that has appeared on the same subject. The author goes to
the very bottom of things and shows why nouns are nouns, ani
adjectives adjectives. After his elucidation of the subject, gram .
mar ceases to be a “ study,” and, so to speak, studies itself.
“This suggestive and , in many respects, original work is the product of Rev
Edwin A. ABBOTT, D. Ó., Head Master of the City of London School, anu
author of many valuable works on the principles of grammar. The leading theory
of the writer is, that young children may be taught, first, to classify English words
according to their function in the sentence, and then to infer the nature of each
word from its function ; or, in other words, the children can tell first what the
word does, and then what part of speech the word is. The exercises given are of
the very best kind , and are designed to exemplify the rules of parsing . It is a
book that American teachers of elementary grammar should examine. Its meth
ods willtendto relieve the study of grammar from being a dull and, to very young
pupils, often a mere formal drudgery." - New England Journal of Education .
“This book of Dr. ABBOTT's is favorably known, both in England and
America, as a concise and simple introduction to English grammar. Professor
John G. R. McElroy, teacher of English in the University of Pennsylvania, has
attempted in this edition to further adapt it for American use by careful revision
and judicious enlargement. His work appears to be well done. The principle
upon which the grammar is based is first to teach the facts of the English lan.
guage, and then to lead the child to construct therefrom his own grammar. Every
step taken is secured before any further advance is made, and the progress of
the pupil is easy, natural, and regular. The young scholar who makes this little
þook his own will have a far better appreciation of the spirit of the English
language than the pupil who has industriously got by heart the definitions and
rules of more formal and minute but less natural grammars.” – Philadelphia
Press.
 HOW TO PARSE .

AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOLARSHIP

TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With Appendixes in Analysis, Spell.
ing, and Punctuation. By EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A., Head Mas
ter of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth. Price $ 1.00 .
“ We recommend this little book to the careful attention of teachers and others
interested in instruction. In the hands of an able teacher, the book should help
to relieve parsing from the reproach of being the bane of the school-room . The
Etymological Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long -felt want. "
7. Y. Natio % .
" • How to Farse ' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to scholars
un agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in common use." — Boston
Daily Advertiser .
“The Rev. E. A. Abbott, whose books, ' English Lessons for English
People ,' and ' How to Write Clearly ,' have been accepted as standard text-books
on both sides of the ocean , has added another work to his list of sensible treatises
on the use of English . It is called “ How to Parse,' and is best described by the
farther title , ‘ An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to English
Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation . The little
book is so sensible and so simple that the greater number of its readers will per
haps forget to observe that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the
best sense of the term ." - N. Y. Evening Post.
“Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar possesses as
a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind. To prepare a work capable
of imparting a thorough knowledge of this important part of education in an
attractive and entertaining form , to many may appear extremely difficult, if not
impossible ; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a highly successful
manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the City of London School, in a
neat little volume enüilea . How to Parse. The author has succeeded admirably
in con bining with the exercises a vast amount of useful information , which
imparts to the panciples and rules of the main subject a degree of interest that
renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The value of the book is
greatlv increased by an excellent glossary of grammatical forms and a nicely
arranged index The work deserves the attention and consideration of teachers
and papils, and will doubtless prove a higbly popular addition to the list of
schuol-books. " - N. Y. Graphic.
 SANSKRIT AND ITS KINDRED
LITERATURES.
STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY.
By LAURA ELIZABETH POOR.
16mo. Cloth. 400 pages . Price, $ 2.00.

The book goes over ground which has been made new by the modern disa
coveries in philologyand mythology: It describes and compares the literatures of
the different Aryan families, and brings forward the comparative mythology, as it
manifests itself in each different country , filling a place which is almost empty in
that department, and giving in a brief space information which is scattered
through hundreds of different volumes. In fact, there is no one book which con
tains just what this does, - a sketch of comparative mythology, with history
enough to make it clear and connected. It creates and fills a place of its own .
Rev. Dr. F. H. Hedge, of Harvard University, Cambridge, says of it : -
“ The unpretending volume with the above title is just what was needed to
popularize the results of the researches of such scholars as Wilson, Spiegel,
Grimm , Monier Williams, Müller , Whitney, and others, and to place them within
easy reach of readers who may not have access to those writers. The author's
task seems to have been well executed ; she has produced an entertaining and
instructive work, full of interestingmatter, illustrated by choice extracts, and writ
ten in an easy and animated style. Such books, of course, are not consulted as
final authorities, but this is well worth reading by all who desire an initial ac
quaintance with the subjects discussed.”
One of the chief merits of the volume is the clearness with which the author
expresses her thoughts, and the skill with which she disentangles the subtleties of
metaphysical and religious doctrines, making them plain to the most casual
reader.” — Boston Courier.
“ The book, of course, is an elementary one, but it must be valuable to the
young student who desires to get a complete view of literature and of the recip
rocal relationsof its various divisions. It can hardly fail to interest the reader in
the new science of which it gives results, and lead him to more exhaustive studies
for himself. If such a work could be made a school text-book it would give
pupils a long start in their pursuit of a correct and systematic knowledge of lan
guage and literature .”' -- Buffalo Courier.
“Let no intelligent reader be deterred from its diligent perusal by the learned
name which introduces the interesting book now offered to the public to illustrate
studies in comparative mythology. The word Sanskrit has an abstruse sound to
unenlightened ears, but there is nothing abstruse in the subject as here presented,
and nothing difficult to be understood by persons of ordinary culture. The
writer's treatment of the subject is much to be commended . It is bright, fresh,
earnest, and strong : She arouses the reader's attention from the beginning,
charmshis imagination by choice extracts from the literary treasures of past ages,
pleases his taste by drawing parallelisms between the myths of the past and the
fables of the present, convinces him that one literature unites different nations
and different centuries, and that each nation is a link in the great chain of devel
opment of the human mind. We earnestly commend this work to all who would
understand the unity and continuity of literature. It is full of general information
and instruction , the style is earnest and easy, the enthusiasm sympathetic , and
the presentation specially thought-stirring and satisfactory . - Providencu
ournal.
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