GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
What is GIS?

A geographic information system, commonly referred to as a GIS, is an integrated set of

hardware and software tools used for the manipulation and management of digital spatial
(geographic) and related attribute data. (http://gis.nic.in)

A GIS is a computer system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying

geographically referenced information; that is, data identified according to location.
Practitioners also define a GIS as including the procedures, operating personnel, and spatial data
that go into the system. –USGS

A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing,
managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS
allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal
relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. – ESRI
GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel linking
topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is geographically
referenced. – NASA

How does GIS Works?

The power of a GIS comes from the ability to relate different information in a spatial context and
to reach a conclusion about this relationship. Most of the information we have about our world
contains a location reference, placing that information at some point on the globe. This is done
by using a location reference system, such as longitude and latitude, and perhaps elevation. A
GIS can reveal important new information that leads to better decision-making.

Many computer databases and different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS. A
GIS can also convert existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it
can recognize and use. For example, digital satellite images can be analyzed to produce a map of
digital information about land use and land cover. Likewise, census or hydrologic tabular data
can be converted to a maplike form and serve as layers of thematic information in a GIS.

Also, GIS makes it possible to link, or integrate, information that is difficult to associate through
any other means. Thus, a GIS can use combinations of mapped variables to build and analyze

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new variables. For example, using GIS technology, it is possible to combine agricultural records
with hydrography data to determine which streams will carry certain levels of fertilizer runoff.
Agricultural records can indicate how much pesticide has been applied to a parcel of land. By
locating these parcels and intersecting them with streams, the GIS can be used to predict the
amount of nutrient runoff in each stream. Then as streams converge, the total loads can be
calculated downstream where the stream enters a lake.

Components of GIS

A GIS can be divided into five components: People, Data, Hardware, Software, and
Procedures. All of these components need to be in balance for the system to be successful. No
one part can run without the other.

People

• The people are the component who actually makes the GIS work. They include a plethora of
positions including GIS managers, database administrators, application specialists, systems
analysts, and programmers. They are responsible for maintenance of the geographic
database and provide technical support. People also need to be educated to make decisions
on what type of system to use. People associated with a GIS can be categorized into:
viewers, general users, and GIS specialists.

o Viewers are the public at large whose only need is to browse a geographic database for
referential material. These constitute the largest class of users.
o General Users are people who use GIS to conducting business, performing professional
services, and making decisions. They include facility managers, resource managers,
planners, scientists, engineers, lawyers, business entrepreneurs, etc.
o GIS specialists are the people who make the GIS work. They include GIS managers,
database administrators, application specialists, systems analysts, and
programmers. They are responsible for the maintenance of the geographic database and
the provision of technical support to the other two classes of users. (Lo, 2002)

Procedures

• Procedures include how the data will be retrieved, input into the system, stored, managed,
transformed, analyzed, and finally presented in a final output. The procedures are the steps
taken to answer the question need to be resolved. The ability of a GIS to perform spatial
analysis and answer these questions is what differentiates this type of system from any other
information systems.

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The transformation processes includes such tasks as adjusting the coordinate system, setting
a projection, correcting any digitized errors in a data set, and converting data from vector to
raster or raster to vector. (Carver, 1998)

Hardware

• Hardware consists of the technical equipment needed to run a GIS including a computer
system with enough power to run the software, enough memory to store large amounts of
data, and input and output devices such as scanners, digitizers, GPS data loggers, media
disks, and printers. (Carver, 1998)

Software
• There are many different GIS software packages available today. All packages must be
capable of data input, storage, management, transformation, analysis, and output, but the
appearance, methods, resources, and ease of use of the various systems may be very
different. Today’s software packages are capable of allowing both graphical and descriptive
data to be stored in a single database, known as the object-relational model. Before this
innovation, the geo-relational model was used. In this model, graphical and descriptive data sets were
handled separately. The modern packages usually come with a set of tools that
can be customized to the users needs (Lo, 2002).

Data
• Perhaps the most time consuming and costly aspect of initiating a GIS is creating a
database. There are several things to consider before acquiring geographic data. It is crucial
to check the quality of the data before obtaining it. Errors in the data set can add many
unpleasant and costly hours to implementing a GIS and the results and conclusions of the GIS
analysis most likely will be wrong. Several guidelines to look at include:

o Lineage – This is a description of the source material from which the data were derived,
and the methods of derivation, including all transformations involved in producing the
final digital files. This should include all dates of the source material and updates and
changes made to it. (Guptill, 1995)
o Positional Accuracy – This is the closeness of an entity in an appropriate coordinate
system to that entity’s true position in the system. The positional accuracy includes
measures of the horizontal and vertical accuracy of the features in the data set. (Guptill,
1995)
o Attribute Accuracy – An attribute is a fact about some location, set of locations, or
features on the surface of the earth. This information often includes measurements of
some sort, such as temperature or elevation or a label of a place name. The source of

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error usually lies within the collection of these facts. It is vital to the analysis aspects of a
GIS that this information be accurate.
o Logical Consistency - Deals with the logical rules of structure and attribute rules for
spatial data and describes the compatibility of a datum with other data in a data
set. There are several different mathematical theories and models used to test logical
consistency such as metric and incidence tests, topological and order related
tests. These consistency checks should be run at different stages in the handling of
spatial data. (Guptill, 1995)
o Completeness – This is a check to see if relevant data is missing with regards to the
features and the attributes. This could deal with either omission errors or spatial rules
such as minimum width or area that may limit the information. (Guptill, 1995)
(Chrisman,1999)

Benefits of GIS

GIS benefits organizations of all sizes and in almost every industry. There is a growing
awareness of the economic and strategic value of GIS. The benefits of GIS generally fall into five
basic categories:

1. Cost Savings and Increased Efficiency. GIS is widely used to optimize maintenance schedules
and daily fleet movements. Typical implementations can result in a savings of 10 to 30
percent in operational expenses through reduction in fuel use and staff time, improved
customer service, and more efficient scheduling.
2. Better Decision Making. GIS is the go-to technology for making better decisions about
location. Common examples include real estate site selection, route/corridor selection,
evacuation planning, conservation, natural resource extraction, etc. Making correct decisions
about location is critical to the success of an organization.
3. Improved Communication. GIS-based maps and visualizations greatly assist in understanding
situations and in storytelling. They are a type of language that improves communication
between different teams, departments, disciplines, professional fields, organizations, and the
public.
4. Better Recordkeeping. Many organizations have a primary responsibility of maintaining
authoritative records about the status and change of geography. GIS provides a strong
framework for managing these types of records with full transaction support and reporting
tools.
5. Managing Geographically. GIS is becoming essential to understanding what is happening—
and what will happen—in geographic space. Once we understand, we can prescribe action.
This new approach to management—managing geographically—is is transforming the way
that organizations operate.

WHAT CAN YOU WITH GIS?

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“Your imagination is the only restriction…”

INTRODUCTION TO
ArcGIS
(source: Working with ArcView 10 by Amy Hillier, University of Pennsylvania)

ArcGIS is a collection of software products created by Environmental Systems Research

Institute (ESRI)--the Microsoft of GIS software--that includes desktop, server, mobile, hosted,
and online GIS products.

DESKTOP GIS PRODUCTS

The desktop GIS products allow users to integrate and edit data, create new map layers, and
author maps. ArcGIS desktop includes a series of scaleable products. They are all based on the
same architecture, but the more expensive products have more functionality. A matrix
describing what functionality is available for each product can be found at
http://www.esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/arcgis10-functionality-matrix.pdf.

With the jump from ArcGIS 3.2 to ArcGIS 8, Esri brought ArcGIS into its ArcGIS system so
that it uses the same structure as its more sophisticated GIS products. ArcGIS 3.x has similar
functionality to ArcGIS 8, 9 and 10, but the products work in very different ways. That means
that if you learned GIS using ArcGIS 3.x, you will probably need to do some work to be able to
use ArcGIS 10. ArcGIS 10 adds some functionality to ArcGIS 9, but those two versions work in a
very similar way, so if you learned how to use ArcGIS 8 or ArcGIS 9, you should have no trouble
switching to ArcGIS 10.

ArcView

ArcView is the desktop version of ArcGIS meant for a general (non-professional) audience. It
is the most popular desktop GIS software program, but it is not the only one. Even though it is
the “baby” desktop GIS product within the Esri family of products, it is still over-kill for most
basic GIS projects. Some people will call this “ArcGIS” rather than “ArcView.” They are one in the
same; ArcView is part of the ArcGIS collection, so it is a more specific way to describe the
software.
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ArcEditor

ArcEditor includes all the functionality of ArcGIS, adding the ability to edit features in a
multiuser geodatabase so that multiuser editing and versioning are possible. ArcEditor also adds
the ability to edit topologically integrated features in a geodatabase. The student version of
ArcGIS that Esri provides is usually ArcEditor rather than ArcView.

ArcInfo

ArcInfo is Esri’s professional GIS software. It includes all of the functionality in ArcGIS and
ArcEditor, adding some advanced geoprocessing and data conversion capabilities. If you make a
living as a GIS specialist, you’ll want access to ArcInfo.

ArcReader

ArcReader is a free product for viewing maps. You can explore and query map layers, but
you cannot change symbology or create new data like you can in ArcGIS. ArcReader is a good
way to share the maps you created in ArcGIS with people who don’t have access to the
software.

Starting ArcMap
1. You can launch ArcMap in more than one way. The most common way is to go to Start
Menu then Select or Click ArcMap 10.3. Or for easy access, Right click then > Pin to start.

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2. An ArcMap-Getting Started window will appear. For now, just click OK.

When ArcMap opens, it will ask if you want to open a blank map, use a template, or
browse for an existing map document. When you are first creating a map, you will
probably start with a blank map so click “OK.” If the default is to add an existing project,
click on “My Templates” and then “Blank Map.”

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To the left of the ArcMap display window is the table of contents, showing you which
geographic layers are available to display. To the right is the map display or data frame area.

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