Moduel 85

Polynomial Functions
Hello learners! From your previous math class, it is safe to assume that you have gained sufficient
understanding of polynomials and functions. At this point, we will study these concepts once again in a
more depth manner.

Polynomial functions represent various important situation and concepts that you encounter
every day. These kinds of functions are encountered in different disciplines like biology, physics, and
economics to name a few. Thus, the study and analysis of polynomial functions is important because
a number of higher mathematical disciplines rest on much on the understanding of its properties.

This module is divided into five(5) lessons. They are Lesson 1 (Identifying and Determining
the Degree of the Polynomial Function from a Given Set of Relations) , Lesson 2 (Synthetic Division),
Lesson 3 (Theorems on Polynomial Functions), Lesson 4 (The Zeroes of Polynomial Functions), and
Lesson 5 (Graphs of Polynomial Functions).

Have a meaningful reading and learning experience!

Lesson
IDENTIFYING AND DETERMINING THE DEGREE
1 OF THE POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

Your journey in studying polynomial functions will start with a conceptual understanding
of this kind of function. When do we claim that a certain function is a polynomial? What will
be our bases? What is degree of a particular polynomial function? How does it help you to
understand these functions?

This module is designed for you to learn to identify a polynomial function and determine the its
degree. Moreover, you will learn how to evaluate the value of these functions. This will be a good start
to broaden your horizon about polynomial functions.

Let’s find out how well you know about this lesson. Before reading the module, answer the following
questions. Do what you are asked to do.

PRETEST

A. Tell whether the following is a polynomial function or not.

1. f(x) = 4x3 + 3x2 + 4x – 12

2. p(x) = x4 – 23x – 5

3 1
3. f(x) = x + 1 – 2
26
 1
4. f(x) = 10x 4 + 5x – 19

5. p(x) = x8 + 4x4 + 2x2 + 1

B. Determine the degree of the polynomial function.

1. p(x) = x4 + 2x3 + 2x + 1

2. f(x) = x5 – x5 + 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12

3. p(x) = x6 + 5x5 – 6x4 + 8x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1

4. f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 9

5. p(x) = x8 + 4x4 + 2x2 + 1

Check and compare your answers against the answer key of your facilitator.

How did you fare? Don’t worry if you get a low score

Identifying and Determining the Degree of the Polynomial Function

from a Given Set of Relations

A polynomial function P in n defined by P(x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + an – 2xn – 2 + …+ a1x + a0 where an, an – 1,
an – 2 are real numbers an ≠ 0, and n is a whole number. The first nonzero coefficient an, is called the leading
coefficient and the term anxn is called the leading term. The degree of the polynomial function is n.

To understand better what a polynomial function is, see my examples below.

Examples:

1. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x – 4 Polynomial of degree 3

(Cubic Function)

2. h(x) = –11x4 – 2x2 + x – 4 Polynomial of degree 4

(Quartic Function)

3. g(x) = x–3 – 8x2 + 7x + 5 Not a polynomial. There is a

negative exponent or n < 0.

3
4. P(x) = 8x5 + 4x3 – x + 1 Not a polynomial. There is a
variable x in the denominator.

27
 Remember that there are restrictions to be considered to determine if a relation is a polynomial
function or not. Looking back at the definition, the exponent should be a whole number.

By convention, polynomial functions are written with their terms arranged according to
descending powers of x. The value of x in P(x) determines the degree of the polynomial. Some
examples are shown below:

Polynomial Function Degree Example

Constant 0 P(x) = 10

Linear 1 P(x) = 3x – 1

Quadratic 2 P(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 9

Cubic 3 P(x) = x3 + 4x2 – x + 1000

Quartic 4 P(x) = 5x4 + 2

Evaluating A Polynomial Function

Evaluating polynomial functions is an important skill in the succeeding topics.

To evaluate a polynomial function means to find the value of the function at a given value of x.
Example: Find P(2) and P(–3) for each of the following.

Solution:

To find P(2) and P(–3), replace x by 2 and –3 in P(x) respectively and simplify.

a. P(x) = x3 – 2x2 + 17x – 5

P(2) = 23 – 2(2)2 + 17(2) – 5

P(2) = 8 – 8 + 34 – 5

P(2) = 29

b. P(–3) = (–3)3 – 2(–3)2 + 17(–3) – 5

P(2) = –27 –18 – 51 – 5

P(2) = –101

How was it? Did you find the discussion interesting and challenging? Now, it is your turn to do the
activity below. Kindly do what you are asked to do. Write your answers in your notebook.

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 Activity

A. Tell whether the following is a polynomial function or not.

1. p(x) = 2x–5 + 9x3 – 2x + 1

4 1
2. f(x) = 5  x4 – 2  x2 + 5x – 11

3. p(x) = √ 7x + 13

4. f(x) = 15x40 + 8x33 – 10x7

5. f(x) = 1 + x

B. Determine the degree of each polynomial function.

1. p(x) = 16x5 – 6

2. f(x) = –2x + x2 – 5 – 2x3

3. p(x) = 10x2 + 5x7 – 2

4. f(x) = 7x – 2x4 + 1

5. p(x) = x6 + 5x3 – 6

Please check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. I am sure you
fared well.

Let us summarize what you have learned in this lesson.

• A polynomial function P in n defined by P(x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + an – 2xn – 2 + …+ a1 x + a0 where ,

are real numbers an ≠ 0, and n is a whole number.

• The degree of a polynomial function is determined by the highest exponent among the terms
of the given polynomial function.

If you are ready for the final challenge of this lesson, take the pretest below.

POSTTEST

Identify the polynomial functions from the given set of expressions.

1. f(x) = 9x6 – 3x4 – 4x – 9

7
2. p(x) = x – 6
8 1
3. f(x) = 9  x5 + 2  x – 5
1
4. f(x) = 3x 4 + x + 5

5. p(x) = 13x–13 + 14x–4 + x–5

29
B. Determine the degree and the number of terms of the given polynomial functions by completing
the table below.

Degree of the
Polynomial Function Number of Terms
Function
1. f(x) = 4x6 – 3x5 + 2x4 – x2 + 2x – 5

2. g(x) = 3x4 – 5x2 + 3x – 1

7 1
3. h(x) = 9  x9 + 3  x7 + 2x3 + x – 1

C. Evaluate the given polynomial function for the given value of x. (4 pts.)
1
1. p( 2 ) = 3x4 – 2x3 + 3x – 1

2. P(0.75)= –x5 + 2x4 – 5(x + 4)

Please check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. If you answered all
correctly, then proceed. not revisit the discussion part and answer the items where you commit mistakes.

30
 Lesson
SYNTHETIC DIVISION
2
In your Grade 7 math, you were taught how to divide polynomials using either the
distributive property for monomial divisors and the long division method for binomial divisors.
This time, we will define a special kind of binomial divisor where we will have options for an
easier, more convenient and faster division process.

This is just another proof of how innovative and advanced our mathematicians were. One of their
main concerns was to develop useful problem solving strategies through their own share of hard-worked
observations.

Synthetic division is made for division statements wherein divisors are binomials as in the form
(x – c). In algebra, we always use forms to serve as models to make our rules clear. In the required form
of a binomial divisor (x – c), notice that the variable represented by x does have both numerical coefficient
and exponent as only 1. Although, limited to this condition, it gives us great room for convenience and
accuracy.

This lesson is designed for you to find the quotient of polynomials by synthetic division.

Let me test you on how well you know about this lesson. Before reading the module, answer the
following questions to. Do what you are asked to do:

PRETEST

Use synthetic division to divide the given polynomial P(x) by the given polynomial x – c. Write your
answer in the form P(x) = Q(x) (x – c) + R.

1. P(x) = 4x6 + 21x5 + 26x3 + 27x ÷ (x + 5)

2. P(x) = x5 + 3x4 + 4x + 5 ÷ (x – 1)

3. P(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 3 ÷ (x + 3)

4. P(x) = x5 + 5x3 + 3x + 7 ÷ (x – 2)

5. p(x) = x8 + 8 ÷ (x + 2)

Check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. Just move on.

31
 Using Synthetic Division to determine the Quotient and the
Remainder when P(x) is Divided by (x – c)

Another method of dividing polynomials which has a very short and simple procedure is called
synthetic division. Unlike the usual division which involves the four fundamental operations, this
method requires only addition and multiplication applied to the coefficients. This method is applied
when the divisor is of the form x – c.
Steps to follow when dividing by synthetic division:
1. Arrange the terms of the dividend in descending order of exponent.
2. Write the numerical coefficient in a row, with 0 representing any missing term.
3. Write the constant term c of the divisor x - c at the left hand side of the coefficient.
4. Bring down the leading coefficient of the dividend. Multiply it by c and add to the second
column.
5. Multiply the sum obtained in step 4 by c and adds to the 3rd column. Repeat this process until
you reach the last column.
6. The 3rd rows of numbers are numerical coefficient of the quotient. The degree is one less than
that of the dividend. The right member is the remainder.

You can have a better grasp of this lesson by considering the examples below.

Find the quotients and the remainder using the steps in synthetic division.

1. P(x) = x3 + 4x2+ 3x – 2 ÷ (x + 3)

Solution: D(x) = x + 3, x = –3

–3 1 4 3 –2
–3 –3 0
1 1 0 –2
2
The quotient and the remainder is x2 + x – x + 3 .

2. P(x) = 3x4 – 2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 2 ÷ (3x + 1)

1
Solution: 3x + 1 = 0, x = –  3

1 3 –2 5 –4 –2
–  3
–1 1 –2 2
3 –3 6 –6 0

The quotient is 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 6. You can further simply the equation by dividing all terms by 3 such
that it will become x3 – x2 + 2x – 2.

How was it? Did you find this lesson interesting and challenging? Now, its your turn to do the
activity below. Kindly do what you are asked to do . Write your answers in your notebook.

32
 Activity

Use synthetic division to divide the given polynomial P(x) by the given polynomial x – c. Write your
answer in the form P(x) = Q(x) (x – c) + R.

1. P(x) = 2x3 + 11x + 12 ÷(x + 4)

2. P(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 4 ÷(x – 2)

3. P(x) = x5 + 32 ÷(x + 2)

4. P(x) = 2x4 – 5x3 + 10x + 8 ÷ (x – 5)

5. P(x) = 6x3 – 19x2+ x + 6 ÷ (x + 5)

Check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator.

Let us summarize what you have learned in this lesson.

• Synthetic division is another method in finding the quotient and the remainder.

• To eliminate the repetition when a polynomial is divided by a polynomial of the form x – c,

synthetic division can be used.

• In synthetic division the terms of the dividend and the divisor are arranged in descending
order of the variable.

If you are ready for the final challenge for this lesson, take the posttest below.

POSTTEST

A. Directions: Use synthetic division to divide the given polynomial P(x) by the given polynomial x – c.

1. P(x) = 4x6 + 21x5 – 26x3 + 27x + 5

2. P(x) = x5 – 3x4 + 4x3 + 5 x – 2 ÷ (x – 4)

3. P(x) = 2x3 – 4x2 – 5x + + 3

4. P(x) = x3 – x2 – 1 ÷ (2x – 3)

5. P(x) = x5 – x2 + 10 ÷ (3x – 6)

B. Find the quotient and the remainder by synthetic division of the polynomial P(x) for the given
polynomial x – c. Check your answer in the form P(x) = Q(x) D(x) + R

1. P(x) = 4x4 + 12x3 + 9x2 – 8x – ÷ 2x + 1

2. P(x) = 15x3 – 19x2 + 24x – 12 ÷ 3x – 2

Check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. I am sure you fared
well. Move on to the next lesson then. If not, revisit the discussion part and study the lesson again.

33
 Lesson THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
3 REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM

In the previous division process illustrated ( synthetic division), a remainder is noted when the
polynomial function is not exactly divisible by another polynomial. You will get a zero remainder when
a polynomial is exactly divisible by another.

By substituting the value of (c) of the divisor x – c in the polynomial P(x), you can also test whether
a certain polynomial is exactly divisible by a given binomial. If so, we say that the binomial is a factor of
a given polynomial function.

Are you ready for this lesson? Your accuracy on operating integers is a skill needed in going through
this lesson. Be careful with your computations and processes.

Before that, let me test you on how well you know the lesson. Take some time to answer the
questions below.

PRETEST

A. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x – c using the remainder theorem.

1. P(x) = (x3 – 7x2+ x + 10) ÷ (x – 2)

2. P(x) = (x4 + 10x3 – 8x – 80) ÷ (x + 10)

3. P(x) = (x5 + 2x4 – 3x3 + 4x2 – 5x + 2) ÷ (x – 1)

4. P(x) = (x3 + 3x2 + 10x + 5) ÷ (x – 3)

5. P(x) = (x3 + 125) ÷ (x + 5)

B. Find the value of the following function using the remainder theorem.

1. P(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + 3x – 7; x = –3

2. P(x) = 5x3 + 7x2 + 8; x = –2

3. P(x) = 4x4 + 5x3 + 8x2 ; x = 4

4. P(x) = 3x3 – 7x2 + 5x – 2; x = –2

5. P(x) = 4x3 + 2x + 10 ; x = –3

34
C. Tell whether the second polynomial is a factor of the first.

1. P(x) = 3x3 – 8x2 + 3x + 2; (x – 2)

2. P(x) = 2x4 + x3 + 2x + 1; (x + 1)

3. P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + x – 6; (x + 3)

4. G(x) = 4x3 – 6x2 + 2x + 1; (2x – 1)

5. H(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 3x + 10; (x – 1)

Check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. Don’t worry if you get
a low score. Just move on.

Remainder Theorem

At times, some problems require finding the remainder when a certain polynomial is divided by a
binomial. Long division and synthetic division can be used but as mentioned earlier, we will employ a
more convenient and easier way to do so.

The Remainder Theorem states that P(c) is the remainder when the polynomial P(x) is divided by
(x – c). The divisor x – c is, then, restated as x = c.

Example 1. Find the remainder using the remainder theorem if

P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 3x – 2 is divided by x – 3.

Solution: Instead of using synthetic division, it is easier to solve by substitution.

x – 3 = 0, x = 3
P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 3x – 2

P(3) = (3)3 + 4(3)2 + 3(3) – 2 Substitute 3 for x.

P(3) = 27 + 36 + 9 – 2

P(3) = 70.

This means that the polynomial P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 3x – 2 is not exactly divisible by x – 3
because there is a remainder of 70.

Example 2. Find the value of P(x) using the remainder theorem when P(x) = x4 + 3x3 – 5x2 –5x +18
is divided by x + 2.

Solution
x + 2 = 0 ; x = –2

P(x) = x4 + 3x3 – 5x2 – 5x - 2 ; x = –2

P(–2) = (–2)4 + 3(–2)3 – 5(–2)2 – 5(–2) –2 Substitute –2 for x.

= 16 – 24 – 20 + 10 +18

P(–2) = 0

35
 Hence P(x) = x4 + 3x3 – 5x2 – 5x – 2 is exactly divisible by x + 2 because the remainder
is zero.

You can also solve an equation using the Remainder Theorem. In the next example,
the polynomial P(x) is equated to the remainder to solve for the value of k, the
numerical coefficient of the x term.

Example 3. Find the value of k when polynomial 3x2 + kx + 4 is divided by x – 1 and the remainder
is 2.

Solution:
3x2 + kx + 4 = 2 The polynomial is equal to the remainder 2.
3(1)2 + k(1) + 4 = 2 Substitute 1 for x, then solve for k.
3+k+4=2
k=2–7
k = –5

Check by synthetic division

3x2 – 5x + 4 Substitute k by –5 in the original expression, 3x2 – kx + 4.

1 3 –5 4
3 –2
3 –2 2 remainder is 2

Factor Theorem

In your experience with numbers, you obtain a remainder of zero when a number is exactly divisible
by another number. We can say that the divisor is a factor of the dividend in that case. The same is true
to polynomials.

A zero remainder obtained when applied using the Remainder Theorem will give rise to another
theorem called the factor theorem. This is a test to find if a polynomial is a factor of another polynomial.

The Factor Theorem states that given P(x)is a polynomial, if c is a zero of P that is P(c) = 0, then (x - c)
is a factor of P(x). Conversely, if (x – c) is a factor of P(x) then, c is a zero of P.

Simply, if zero is obtained as a remainder when c is substituted for the polynomial P(x), then the
polynomial x – c is factor of P(x).

Example 4: Show that x – 2 is a factor of x3 + 7x2 + 2x – 40

Solution:
a. Using the remainder theorem
P(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 2x –40 if x = 2
= (2)3 + 7(2)2 + 2(2) – 40
= 6 + 28 + 4 – 40
P(x) = 0

Since P(x) = 0, then x - 2 is a factor of x3 + 7x2 + 2x – 40.

36
 b. Using another method, by synthetic division

2 1 7 2 –40
2 18 40
1 9 20 0 the remainder is zero.

Since the remainder is 0, then x – 2 is a factor of x3 + 7x2 + 2x –40.

2. Determine if (x – 3) is a factor of (2x4 – x3 – 18x2 – 7).

Solution:

a. by Remainder Theorem

P(3) = 2x4 – x3 – 18x2 – 7 if x = 3

= 2(3)4 – (3)3 – 18(3)2 – 7

= 2(81) – 27 – 18(9) – 7

= 162 –27 –162 – 7

P(3) = –34

Since the P(3) = –34, which is not 0, then, (x – 3) is not a factor of (2x4- x3 – 18x2 – 7).

b. Using synthetic division

3 2 –1 –18 0 –7
6 15 –9 –27
2 5 –3 –9 –34

Since the remainder is –34, then x – 3 is not a factor of the second polynomial.
Again, we can use this knowledge to solve equations. If the polynomial x-c is a
factor of P(x), then you can equate P(x) to zero. An example is given to you on
the next page.

Example 5: Find the value of k so that polynomial x – 2 is a factor of 2x2 – kx - 3.

Solution:
By remainder theorem:

2x2 – kx – 3 = 0 Since x-2 is a factor of the polynomial then equate to 0.

2(2)2 – k(2) – 3 = 0 Substitute x by 2 and perform operations.

2(8) – 2k – 3 = 0 Solve for k.

16 – 2k – 3 = 0

–2k = –13
13
k= 2

How was it? Did you find the discussion /lesson interesting and challenging?
Now, its your turn to do the activity below. Kindly do what you are asked
to do . Write your answers in your notebook.

37
 Activity

A. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x – c using the remainder theorem.

1. P(x) = (x3 - 4x2 – 3x + 18) x + 2

2. P(x) = (x5 + 5x3 – 3x + 7) x – 2

3. P(x) = (x5 + 5x3 – 3x + 7) x + 2

4. P(x) = (x59 + 3x35– 5x7 + 9x + 8) x – 1

5. P(x) = (x99 – 2x81 + 3x5 – 5) x + 1

B. Find the value of the following function using the remainder theorem.

1. p(x) = 5x4 + 6x3 + 10x2; x = 5

2. p(X) = 6x2 + 3x – 9; x = 1

3. p(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 – 5x + 9; x = -3

4. p(x) = 2x4 – 9x3 + 14x2 – 8; x = 2

5. p(x) = 2x4 – 9x3+ 14x2 – 8; x = –2

C. Given a condition, determine the value of k.

1. When 4kx3 –+3x2 + x –+12 is divided by (x – 1), the remainder is 4.

2. When x3 – 4x2 – 10x + k is divided by (x +3), the remainder is 6.

3. When 2x5 + 2x4 – x3 – 8x2 – 8x + k is divided by 3x – 2, the remainder is -2.

4. When 4kx2 – 3x + 10 divided by x +12, the remainder is -6.

5. When 5x2 = –k + 3xdivided by x + 3, the remainder is 1.

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator.

How did you fare? If you did well on it, move on .If not, spend more time to study the lesson again.

Let us summarize…

• A polynomial is divisible by another polynomial if the divisor is a factor of the dividend.

• Remainder theorem can be used to find the value of a function, that is

P(c) is the remainder when a polynomial p(x) is divided by (x– c).

38
 POSTTEST

A. Find the remainder when a polynomial is divided by x - c using the remainder theorem.

1. (-5x3 – 12x2 + 10x – 6) ÷ (x + 3)

2. (-x3 + 6x2 – 10x + 8) ÷ ( x – 4)

3. (-x4 – 3x3 –2x2 + 12x + 72) ÷ ( x + 6)

4. (–2x4 – 9x3 + 14x2 + 68) ÷ ( x – 2)

5. (–5x5 – 3x4 + 4x + 5) ÷ (x – 1)

B. Given a condition, determine the value of k.

1. When kx3 – x2 + 2x – 30 is divided by (x – 2), the remainder is 2.

2. When 8x3 – 4x2 – 7x + k is divided by (x – 1), the remainder is 5.

3. When x5 + x4 – 4x3 – 4x2 – 8x + k is divided by x – 2, the remainder is 0.

4. When kx2 – x + 3 divided by x + 1, the remainder is 5.

5. When 6x2 = 4x + k divided by x + 3, the remainder is 2.

C. Determine the value of k which is necessary to meet the given condition.

1. (x – 2) is a factor of 3x3 – x2 – 11 xs + k

2. (x + 3) is a factor of 2x5 + 5x4 + 3x3 + kx2 – 14x + 3

3. (x + 1) is a factor of –x4 + kx3 – x2 + kx + 10

4. (x + 2) is a factor of x3 + x2 + 5x + k

5. (x – 1) is a factor of x3– x2 – 4x + k

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. You may proceed
to the next lesson if you get a good score. Congratulations in advance for doing a good job!

39
 Lesson
THE ZEROS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
4

Do you have any idea on how to specifically get the zeros of a polynomial function if it has exactly
100 roots? If the polynomial is in factored form, it will be a piece of cake for you! What if the
polynomial is not factorable? Can you still name the 100 values of the variable that will make the
polynomial equal to zero? It sounds impossible.

What we can only know at this point is the number of actual rational roots or zeros of a given
polynomial. Remember that the zeros of a polynomial can be an irrational number or even complex
numbers. Because of this, we will purposively restrict the process of finding zeros up to rational numbers
only.

This lesson is about finding the zeros of polynomial functions of degree greater than 2. In lesson 3,
the factor theorem was introduced to you by simply stating, if zero is obtained as a remainder when c is
substituted for the polynomial P(x), then the polynomial x – c is factor of P(x). This time, you will learn
different methods of finding the zeros of polynomial functions.

Before that, let me test on how well you know about this lesson. Answer the following items. Do
what you are asked to do:

PRETEST

A. Determine the number of roots and the actual rational roots of each polynomial equation.

1. x5 + 2x3 – x – 3 = 0

2. –x7 + 2x6 – 4x5 – x2 + 2x – 1 = 0

3. 2 + x2 – 3x4 – x6 – x8– 2x10 = 0

4. (x – 5)(x + 2)3(2x – 1)2 = 0

5. x2(x + 1)(x – 3)4 = 0

B. Determine the zeros of each polynomial function.

1. f(x) = x(x + 4)(x – 2)

2. g(x) = –x(x + 7)(x – 1)

3. h(x) = (4x – 5)(2x + 3)(x – 3)

4. F(x) = x(4 – 3x)(1 – x)

5. G(x) = x(x + 3)(3x + 1)

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator.If you get a high
score, that is great! Just move on in case you got a low score.

40
Number of Roots Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra which is attributed to Karl Freidrich Gauss of Germany states
that “Every polynomial equation in one variable has at least one root, real or imaginary”. The next
theorem tells us of the exact number of roots of polynomial equation of degree n: “Every polynomial
equation of a degree n ≥ 1 has exactly n roots.”

Example 1: Determine the number of roots of each polynomial equation.

1. 3x7 + 8x5 – 4x – 1 = 0

3x7 + 8x5 – 4x – 1 = 0 is of the seventh degree because the highest exponent among the terms
of the function is seven. Hence, it has 7 roots.

2. (x – 1)(2x + 1)3(2x – 5)2 = 0

(x – 1)(2x + 1)3(2x – 5)2 = 0 is of the sixth degree because the highest exponent among the
terms of the function is six when simplified. Hence, it has 6 roots.

3. x(x – a)m(x + b)n = 0

x(x – a)m(x + b)n = 0 is of the (1 + m + n)th degree. Hence, it has 1 + m + n roots.

Determining the Zeros of Polynomial Functions in Factored Form

Recall that a zero of P(x) is the value of x that will make the function 0. The zeros of a polynomial
function in factored form are determined by equating each factor to 0 and solving for x.

Example 1: Determine the zeros of each polynomial function.

A. f(x) = x(x + 3)(x – 2)

Equate each factor to 0 and solve for x.

x=0

x + 3 = 0, x = -3

x – 2 = 0, x = 2

Therefore, the zeros of f(x) are 0, –3, and 2.

B. y = (5x – 2)(2x + 1)(–3x – 4)

Equate each factor with 0 and solve for x.

2
5x – 2 = 0, x = 5
1
2x + 1 = 0, x = –  2
4
–3x – 4 = 0, x = –  3
2 1 4
Therefore, the zeros of f(x) are 5  , –  2  , –  3

41
The Rational Roots Theorem

The next theorem specifies a finite set of rational numbers where the roots of a polynomial equation
can be chosen.
L
If a rational number F in lowest terms is a root of the polynomial equation P(x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + an
–2
xn – 2 + … + a1x + a0 = 0 where an, an – 1, an – 2, … a0 are integers, then L is a factor of a0 and F is a factor of an

The Rational Roots Theorem states that “Any rational root of the polynomial equation = 0 where
an – 1, an – 2, … a0 are integers, is an integer and is a factor of a0.

Example 3. List all possible zeros of the given polynomial function.

1. f(x) = x3– 6x2 + 11x – 6

Since the coefficient of the highest degree term is 1, the possible rational zeros of f(x) are
the factors of the constant term -6. That is,the possible rational zeros are ±1, ±2, ±3, and ±6.

2. g(x) = x4 – x3 –11x2 + 9x + 18

Since the coefficient of the highest degree term is 1, the possible rational zeros of g(x) are
the factors of the constant term 18. That is, the possible rational zeros are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ±9
and ±18.

3. h(x) = 2x4 + 9x3 + 11x2 – 4

If we let L = the factors of 4: ±1, ±2, ±4, and F = the factors of 2: ±1, ±2.
L 1
Then F = ±4, ±2, ±1, ±  2 are the possible rational zeros.

4. p(x) = 8x4 + 32x3+ x + 4

L = the factors of 4: ±1, ±2, ±4

F = the factors of 8: ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8

L 1 1 1
Then F = ±4, ±2, ±1, ±  2 , ±  4 , ±  8

Determining the Zeros of Polynomial Functions Using the Factor Theorem

The Factor Theorem states that “If P(c) = 0, then x – c is a factor of P(x).” This implies that c is a zero of
p(x). To determine the rational zeros of a polynomial function from the list of all possible rational zeros
using the Factor Theorem, evaluate the polynomial function using these possible zeros one at a time. If
a zero was obtained after evaluating a particular rational zero, then you can say that, that number is a
zero of the polynomial.

42
Example 4. Determine the rational zeros of the given polynomial function using the Factor
Theorem.

1. f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6

There are 3 zeros, real or imaginary. According to the Rational Roots Theorem, the possible
rational zeros are ±1, ±2, ±3, and ±6.
If x = –1, then f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 becomes
f(–1) = (–1)3 + 6(–1)2+ 11(–1) + 6
= –1 + 6 – 11 + 6
=0
–1 is a zero of f(x).

If x = 1, then f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 becomes

f(1) = (1)3 + 6(1)2 + 11(1) + 6
= 1 + 6 + 11 + 6
= 24
1 is not a zero of f(x).

If x = –2, then f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 becomes

f(–2) = (–2)3+ 6(–2)2 + 11(–2) + 6
= –8 + 24 – 22 + 6
=0
–2 is a zero of f(x).

If x = 2, then f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 becomes

f(2) = (2)3 + 6(2)2 + 11(2) + 6
= 8 + 24 + 22 + 6
= 60
2 is not a zero of f(x).

If x = –3, then f(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 becomes

f(–3) = (–3)3 + 6(–3)2 + 11(–3) + 6
= –27 + 54 – 33 + 6
=0
–3 is a zero of f(x).

f(x) has only 3 zeros and we have already found 3. Thus , the zeros are –3 , –2, and 1.

43
Shortcuts in Determining the Zeros of Polynomial Functions

The different ways of determining the zeros of polynomial functions and the different theorems
concerning roots of polynomial equations can be combined. This is illustrated in the next example.

Example 5: Find all the zeros of each polynomial function.

1. p(x) = x2 – 2x2 – x + 2

Possible zeros: ±1 and ±2

–1 1 –2 –1 2
–1 3 –2
1 –3 2 0

Since the remainder is 0, –1 is a zero of p(x) and x2 – 3x + 2 = 0 is a depressed equation. A

depressed function is the resulting function when a certain polynomial function is divided
by its binomial factor (s). Solving the depressed equation by factoring,

x2 – 3x + 2 = 0

(x – 2)(x – 1) = 0

x = 2 or x = 1

Hence, the zeros of p(x) are –1, 1, and 2.

Example 6: f(x) = x4 – 3x3 – 4x2 + 12x

f(x) = x4 – 3x3 – 4x2 + 12x

= x(x3 – 3x2– 4x + 12)

The factored form suggests that one of the zeros is 0. The other zeros can be found from
x3 – 3x2 – 4x + 12 = 12. The possible roots of this equation are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6 and ±12.

2 1 –3 –4 12
2 –2 –12
1 –1 –6 0

Since the remainder is 0, 2 is a zero of f(x) and x2 – x – 6 = 0 is a depressed equation. Solving

the depressed equation by factoring,

x2 – x – 6 = 0

(x – 3)(x + 2) = 0

x = 3 or x = –2

Hence, the zeros of f(x) are –2, 0, 2, and 3.

How was it? Did you find the discussion interesting and challenging? Now, it is your turn to do the
activity. Kindly do what you are asked to do. Write your answers on your notebook.

44
 Activity

A. List all possible zeros of the given polynomial function.

1. f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 2x + 5

2. g(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 2x – 6

3. h(x) = x3 – x2 – 5x – 3

4. p(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 8x – 16

B. Determine the rational zeros of the given polynomial function using the Factor Theorem.

1. f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6

2. g(x) = x3+ 4x2 + x – 6

3. h(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12

4. p(x) = x3 – x2 – 10x – 8

C. Determine the rational zeros of the given polynomial function by factoring.

1. f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12

2. g(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6

3. h(x) = x3 – x2 – 10x – 8

4. p(x) = x3 + 4x2 + x – 6

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator.

How did you fare? If you did well on it, move on .If not, spend more time to study the lesson again.

Let us summarize what you have learned in this lesson

1. Every polynomial equation of a degree n ≥ 1 has exactly n roots.

2. Zeros of polynomial functions in x are determined by equating each factor of the polynomial
to 0, then, solving for x.

3. The Factor Theorem states that “If p(c) = 0, then x – c is a factor of p(x).” This implies that c is a
zero of p(x).

45
 4. The zeros of a polynomial function can be determined easily if the polynomial is in factored
form.

5. Depressed equations are factors of a given polynomial, and can be used to find the roots of
polynomial equation or zeros of polynomial function.

After all your meaningful experiences int this lesson, you are now more equipped to take the last
challenge for you.

POSTTEST

Copy and answer all the questions items below. Present your complete and neat solution.

1. How many roots do the polynomial equation 2x5 + x4 + 8x2 – 2x – 1 = 0 have?

2. Determine the zeros of the polynomial function F(x) = x(x – 2)2(x + 3)(3x – 2).

3. What are the possible rational zeros of p(x) = x4 – 4x3 + 2x2 – 9?

4. What are the possible rational roots 5x5 – 2x4 + x3 – x2 + 8x – 3 = 0?

5. Find all the zeros of h(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 7x + 10.

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key. If mastery of this lesson is evident,
then you may proceed to the last lesson of this module. If not, extend your time to read the lesson and
answer the items where you commit mistakes.

46
 Lesson
GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
5

This lesson is about graphs of polynomial functions of degree greater than two. The graph
of a first- degree polynomial is a line. The graph of a second degree polynomial is a parabola. The
graph of a third- degree polynomial typically has both a minimum point and a maximum point.
The number of maximum and minimum points is at most one less than the degree of the polynomial. The
graph of a polynomial function of degree n has n – 1 turning points.

The lessons will be presented in a very simple way so that it will be easy for you to understand and
be able to do the graphs of the polynomial functions of degree greater than two without difficulty.

Before that, let me test on how well you know about this lesson. Answer the following items
below. Do what you are asked to do:

PRETEST

Copy and answer the items below and do as instructed.

Given a polynomial: f(x) = x3– x2 – 4x +4

a. Determine the behavior of the graph.

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph.

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key. Don’t mind if you get a low score.
This is just the start. Just move on.

Graph of a Polynomial Function

In graphing a polynomial function, the technique of finding and plotting as many points as possible
will be helpful. But there are theorems concerning roots of polynomial equations that will be of great
help to obtain the sketch of the graph of the polynomial function. The graph of a third-degree polynomial
or a cubic polynomial has both maximum and minimum points.

The number of maximum and minimum points is at most one less than the degree of the polynomial.
The graph of a polynomial function of degree n has n – 1 turning point. When you graph higher- degree
polynomial functions, the rational zero theorem and Rene Descartes’ rule can help you find any integral
zeros. If there are many possibilities to try, it is also useful to know the upper bound and lower bound
for the zeros. An upper bound for the real zeros of a polynomial function is a number greater than or
equal to the greatest real zero of the function. Similarly, a lower bound is a number less than or equal to
the least real zero of the function.

47
Upper and Lower Bound Theorem

Let a polynomial function be divided by x – c.

• If c > 0 and all the coefficients in the quotient and remainder are Non-negative, then c is an
upper bound of the zeros.

• If c > 0 and the coefficients in the quotient and remainder alternate in sign, then c is a lower
bound of the zeros.

Example: Find the upper and lower bounds of the zeros of P(x) = 2x4 + 5x3- 3x2 – 9x + 1.

Solution:

It is important to emphasize that c is not restricted to integers. It can

be any real number. However, integers are used in illustrative examples for
convenience in the computation.

Test c = 1 for upper bound

1 2 5 –3 –9 1
2 7 4 –5
2 7 4 –5 –4

Since there is a negative integer in the resulting entry which -5, 1 is not an
upper bound.

Test c = 2

2 2 5 –3 –9 1
4 18 30 42
2 9 15 21 43

The third entries are all positive, so 2 is an upper bound.

Test c = 3

3 2 5 –3 –9 1
6 33 90 243
2 11 30 81 244

The numbers 3, 4, 5, … are upper bounds. The number 2 is said to be the

smallest integral upper bound. This means that there is no zero of P(x) larger
than 2.

Test c = –3

–3 2 5 –3 –9 1
–6 3 0 27
2 –1 0 –9 28

48
 The third entries are alternating in signs, so –3 is a lower bound. If the test for c = –4, –5, –6, …
are made, the third entries are alternating. The numbers –4, –5, –6, … are lower bounds. The number
–3 is said to be the largest lower bound. This means that there is no zero of P(x) smaller than -3.

Another information that may be helpful in graphing polynomial functions is the knowledge
of the maximum number of positive and negative roots. This information can be provided by the
application of Descartes’ Rule of signs. The rule makes use of the number of variations in sign of the
coefficients of the polynomial from left to right. The terms must be arranged in descending powers
of x. A polynomial is said to have a variation in sign if two consecutive terms have opposite signs.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

Let p(x) = 0 be a polynomial function with real coefficients, the leading coefficient an 0, and is
arranged with descending powers of x.

• The number of positive roots of p(x) = 0 is either equal to the number of variations of signs in
p(x), or is less than that number by an even counting number.

• The number of negative roots of p(x) = 0 is either equal to the number of variations in signs in
p(–x), or is less than that number by an even counting number.

Example:

Determine all possible combinations of the number of positive and negative roots of
the given polynomial function.

1. f(x) = 2x4 + 5x3 –2x2 – 4x + 5

f(x): + + – – + 2 variations

f(-x): + – – + + 2 variations

No. of positive roots No. of negative roots Total number of roots

2 2 4

f(x) = 0 has 2 positive roots and 2 negative roots.

Graph of Odd-degree Polynomials

The extreme left and right parts of the graph of p(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + … + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 are:

1. increasing; if n is odd and an < 0.

2. decreasing; if n is odd and an < 0.

49
The domain and range are the set of real numbers.
Example: f(x) is a polynomial where n = 3 and an > 0

Graph of y = –x3

Graph of f(x) which is a polynomial function where n = 5 and an

Graph of y = –x5 + x4 – 3x2

50
Graph of Even-degree Polynomials

The graph of p( x ) = anxn+ an-1 xn-1 + … + a2 x2+ a1 x + a0 has

1. Decreasing extreme left and increasing extreme right parts, n is even and an 0.

2. Increasing extreme left and decreasing extreme right parts, n is even and an 0.

The domain is the set of real numbers and the range is the set of nonnegative numbers.

f(x) is a polynomial where n = 2 and an > 0.

Graph of y= 2x2+x-2

G(x) is a polynomial where n = 4 and an < 0.

Graph of y = -2x4 +3x3

51
Graphing Polynomial Functions

To graph a polynomial function of degree greater than two, first, evaluate the function to determine
the ordered pairs, then plot the points with these pairs as coordinates and connect the points to form
a smooth curve. The x-coordinates of the points where the graph meets the x-axis are the zeros of the
function. The information you can get from the given equation of a polynomial function is the degree
and the number of zeros. From the graph, you can determine the number of x-intercepts, y-intercept
and the number of turning points. The theorems that were previously discussed concerning the roots
of polynomial equations will be of great help to obtain the sketch of the graph of the polynomial
function.

Examples:

1. G( x ) = x3 – x2 - x + 1

a. Determine the behavior of the graph.

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph.

d. Determine the interval where G( x ) ≥ 0.

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 3 which is an odd, so it is an odd-powered function

behaving like a line that startsfrom the right. Since, the leading coefficient is positive,
it is increasing.

b. Using synthetic division

1 1 –1 –1 1
1 0 –1
1 0 –1 0

x2 – 1 = 0

(x + 1)(x – 1) = 0

x + 1 = 0 x–1=0

x = –1 x=1

The zeros of the function are -1 and 1 and the y-intercept (set x=0) is 1.

52
 c. Sketch the graph

d. The interval of the function G( x ) ≥ 0 is x ≥ –1

2. F(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 5x2 – 6x

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph.

d. Determine the interval where G(x) ≥ 0.

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 4 which is an even number; so it is an even-powered

function behaving like a parabola opening upward.

Extreme bounds:

–4 1 2 –5 –6 0
–4 8 –12 72
1 –2 3 –18 72

–4 is the largest lower bound.

2 1 2 –5 –6 0
2 8 6 0
1 4 3 0 0

2 is the smallest integral upper bound and a zero.

53
 b. Location of zeros

x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
F(x) 72 0 –8 0 0 –8 0

The table reveals the following information:

1. The zeros of F( x ) are -3, –1, 0 and 2.

2. y-intercept is 0.

c. Sketch of the graph.

Since n = 4, the function F( X ) has three turning points

d. Since n = 4 and an = 1, the extreme left part is decreasing and the extreme right part is
increasing. The interval of the function F(x) 0 when x – 3, when – 1 x 0 or x 2.

3. G( x ) = -x5 + 15x3 + 10x2 - 24x

a. Determine the behavior of the graph

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph

Solution:

a. The degree of the function is 5 which is an odd, it is an odd-powered function

behaving like a line that starts from the left since the leading coefficient is negative
-1. The extreme left and right parts are decreasing.

54
 b. Possible zeros: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, ±24

The theorems on bounds do not apply for G(x) since the leading coefficient is negative.

x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
F(x) 0 0 20 0 0 80 180 0

The table reveals the following information:

1. The 5 zeros are -3, -2, 0, 1 and 4

2. The y intercept is 0.

c. Sketch the graph.

How was it? Did you find the discussion interesting and challenging? Now, it is
your turn to do the activity below. Kindly do what you are asked to do. Write your
answers in your notebook

Activity

Graph each of the given polynomial. ( 10 pts each).

a. Determine the behavior of the graph.

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph.

1. F( x ) = 2x4 + 9x3 + 11x2 – 4

2. H( x ) = –x4 + 2x3+ 3x2 – 2x + 6

Kindly check and compare your answers using the Answer Key.

How did you fare? Check what your score means. Read the scale below.

55
 Perfect! You are great! Congratulations! You’ve gone through
the process of solving by detailing all the needed information.
20 The x and the y-intercepts are shown in the graph, the number
of turning points are visible and the direction of the graph
on the extreme left and right are also visible. Do the Posttest.
Congratulations! You are good! You gave the correct needed
information (the intercepts and the turning points ) but was
16-19 not visible on the graph as was shown. It would be better if you
will try to sketch the graph again with the needed points and
after which move do the Posttest.
You did fairly, but I suggest you revisit the discussion
15 and
part especially the ones your answers are wrong. Be able
below
to correct your mistakes. If you’re done, do the Posttest.

Let us summarize what you have learned in this lesson.

Summary of the characteristics of the graph of polynomial functions:

An n Properties of the graph

+ Even Comes down from the left.

goes up to the right

+ Odd Comes up from the left.

goes up to the right

- Even Comes up from the left.

goes down to the right

- Odd Comes down from the left.

goes down to the right

POSTTEST

For each of the following polynomials, do the following :

a. Determine behavior of the graph.

b. Get the zeros and the y-intercept of the function.

c. Sketch the graph.

d. Interval where G(x) ≥ 0.

1. P(x) = x4 + x3 + 4x2 + 6x – 12

2. P(x) = –x5 + 15x3 + 10x2 – 24x

Kindly check and compare your answers using the answer key of your facilitator. If you master
the lesson, then you can proceed to the next module. You are on right track Maintain the focus and
enthusiasm as you go through another set of math lessons. Carry on learners!

56
A. References:

Alferez, M. S. et al (2008). Advanced Algebra . Philippines : MSA Academic Advancement Institute.

Alferez, M. S. and Duro, M. C. A. (2004). MSA Elementary Algebra. Quezon City: Gerpress Printing.

Bautista, L. SM. et al. College Algebra Revised Edition. Quezon City:C&E Publishing, Inc.

Barnett, Raymond A., et al.(2002). College Algebra with Trigonometry. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill.

Bellman, A. et al., (2001).. Advanced Algebra. Massachusetts: Prentice Hall.

Buzon, O. N., et al., (2003). Advanced Algebra with Trigonometry and Statistics, Philippines: Salesiana
Publication, Inc.

Orines, F. B. et al. (2008). Advanced Algebra Trigonometry & Statistics: Philippines: Phoenix Publishing
House.

Oronce, O. A. and Mendoza, M. O. (2007). E-Math II Intermediate Algebra. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore,
Inc. .

B. Sources from the Internet:

http://www.mathlife.net/AlgebraI/Functions/BasicGraphing/EmptyGraph.gif

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation

http://www.studygs.net/equations.htm

Quadratic Functions.pdf

Algebra and Trigonometry –Mantesh .pdf

57