GEOGRAPHY

OPTIONAL
by

SHAMIM ANWER

LEARNING GEOGRAPHY -
A NEVER BEFORE EXPERIENCE

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OCEANOGRAPHY
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 KEYNOTE IAS

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
OCEANOGRAPHY
INDEX

1. OCEANS AND THEIR CONFIGURATION..............................................................1-5

Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean & Indian Ocean
2. TEMPERATURE, SALINITY & DENSITY OF OCEAN WATER...........................6-10
3. OCEAN DEPOSITS ................................................................................................11-12
4. TIDES AND WAVES .............................................................................................13-15
5. OCEAN CIRCULATION ......................................................................................16-21
6. MARINE RESOURCES ..........................................................................................22
7. CORAL REEFS .......................................................................................................23-28
Fringing Reefs, Barrier Reefs & Atolls;
Coral Reef Bleaching
8. SEA LEVEL CHANGE............................................................................................29-30
9. MARINE POLLUTION............................................................................................31-32

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1. OCEANS AND THEIR

ocean is a single inter-connected body of water,
CONFIGURATION which is large in size and volume. It can be divided
The oceans are the largest and most prominent into five principal oceans-the Pacific, Atlantic,
feature on Earth. In fact, they are the single most Indian, and Arctic Oceans and the Southern or
defining feature of our planet. Water covers Antarctic Ocean The ocean floor can be divide
roughly around 70%of Earth'ssurface. The world dint three major provinces:

(1) Continental margins, which are shallow-water Plate tectonic processes are integral to the
areas close to continents, formation of these provinces. Through the process
(2) Deep-ocean basins, which are deep-water areas of sea floor spreading, mid-ocean ridges and deep-
farther from land, and ocean basins are created. Elsewhere, as a continent
is split apart, new continental margins are formed.
(3) The mid-oceanridge, which is composed of
shall ower are as near the middleofan ocean.

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Continental Shelf-The continental shelf is defined A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made
as a generally flat zone extending from the shore by living or dead organisms that forms a mound
beneath the ocean surface to a point at which a or rocky elevation like a ridge. Coral reefs are a
marked increase in slope angle occurs, called the characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where
shelf break. It is usually flat and relatively they are associated with seamounts and guyots.
featureless because of marine sediment deposits The largest reef in the world is found off the
but can contain coastal islands, reefs, and raised Queensland coast of Australia. Since the reefs may
banks. The underlying rock is granitic continental extend above the surface, they are generality
crust. The average width of the continental shelf dangerous for navigation.
is about 70 kilometres, but it varies from a few Continental Slope -After some depth the slope of
tens of meters to 1500 kilometres. The broadest the continental shelf suddenly gets much steeper,
shelves occur off the northern coasts of Siberia turning into the continental slope which lies beyond
and North America in the Arctic Ocean. The the shelf break. It is a submarine geological feature
average depth at which the shelf break occurs is which connects the continental shelf to the abyssal
about 135 meters. Around the continent of plain. Together, the continental shelf and slope are
Antarctica, however, the shelf break occurs at 350 often referred to as the "continental margin."
meters. The type of continental margin will Submarine canyon comprises the most outstanding
determine the shape and features associated with relief feature of the continental slope. It looks like
the continental shelf. For example, the east coast a long steep sided V-shaped valley with tributaries
of South America has a broader continental shelf similar to those of river cut canyons on land.
than its west coast. The east coast is a passive
margin, which typically has a wider shelf. In Submarine Canyons - The continental slope and,
contrast, the convergent active margin present to a lesser extent, thecontinental shelf exhibit
along the west coast of South America is submarine canyons,which are narrow but deep
characterized by a narrow continental shelf and a submarine valleys thatare V-shaped in profile view
shelf break close to shore. and have branches ortributaries with steep to
overhanging walls. They resemble canyons formed
Most commercial exploitation from the sea, such on landthat are carved by rivers and can be quite
as metallic-ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbon large. They are formed due to turbidity currents.
extraction, takes place on the continental shelf.
Bank, Shoal & Reef: These marine features are
formed as a result of erosional, depositional and
biological activity. Also, these are produced upon
features of diastrophic origin. Therefore, they are
located on upper parts of elevations.
A bank is a flat topped elevation located in the
continental margins. The depth of water here is
shallow but enough for navigational purposes. The
Dogger Bank in the North Sea and Grand Bank in
the north-western Atlantic off Newfoundland are
famous examples. The banks are sites of some of
the most productive fisheries of the world.
A shoal is a detached elevation with shallow
depths, since they project out of water with Continental Rise-The continental rise is an
moderate heights, they are dangerous for underwater feature found between the continental
navigation. slope and the abyssal plain.Thisfeature can be
found all around the world, and it represents the
final stage in the boundary between continents and
the deepest part of the ocean. The formation of the
continental rise is a constant and very slow process.
As rivers and streams travel over land, they pick
up sediment, silt, and other material, which is
gradually carried out to sea. Some of these
sediments settle on the continental shelf, but others
drift down the continental slope to form the
continental rise
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Abyssal Plains - It is a flat depositional surfaces may produce is lands (suchastheis lands of Japan,
extending from the base of the continental rise into an is landarc) oravolcanic mountain range along
the deep-ocean basins. Theyaresomeofthedeepest the margin of a continent (such as the Andes
and flattest regions on Earth.Abyssal plains are Mountains, a continental arc).
formed by fine particles of sediment slowly drifting
onto thedeep-oceanfloor.There are several distinct
abyssal plains across the world's oceans. Each one
starts at a continental riseand continues until it
reaches a mid-oceanic ridge, resuming on the other
side. They cover around 40% of the ocean floor.
Volcanic features such as seamounts, guyots and
abyssal hills can be found here. A submarine
mountain peak rising morethan 1000 m above
ocean floor are knownas "seamount".Flat topped
seamounts are known as"Guyots". Volcanic
features whose height is less than 1000 m are
called abyssal hills.

Ocean Trenches-An ocean trench is a geological

structure which occurs undersea along the
boundary of a tectonic plate. Specifically, ocean
trenches form along the subduction zones, in areas
where one plate is beingsubducted under another.
They comprise the deepest part of the ocean. The
deepest ocean trench is the Mariana Trench, in the
Western Pacific Ocean. The deepest point on
Earth's surface 11,022 meters is found in the
Challenger Deep area of the Mariana.The land
ward side of the trenchrisesasa volcanicarc that

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Mid-Ocean Ridges -It is a continuous, fracture-
looking mountain ridge that extends through all
the ocean basins. They results from sea-floor
spreading along divergent plate boundaries. These
are entirely oceanic and composed of basaltic
lavas.
Oceanic Islands-There are three basic types of
oceanic islands: (1) islands associated with
volcanicactivitya long the mid-oceanic ridge (2)
is land sassociated with hot spots(suchas the
Hawaiian Island sin the Pacific Ocean); and(3)
islands that are island arcs and associated with
convergent plate boundaries (such as the Aleutian
Islands in the Pacific Ocean). All three types are
volcanicinorigin.

Tristan da Cunha, St Helena and Gough.

ATLANTIC OCEAN By and large the Atlantic Ocean lacks in troughs
The Atlantic is roughly half the size of the Pacific and trenches, which are more characteristic of the
Ocean and resembles the letter 'S' in shape. It has Pacific Ocean. North Cayman and Puerto Rico are
prominent continental shelf with varying width- the two troughs and Romanche and South
the largest width occurring off north-east America Sandwich are the two trenches in the Atlantic
and north-west Europe. The Atlantic Ocean has Ocean.
numerous marginal seas occurring on the shelves, Ridges: Rio Grande Ridge, Wyville-Thompson
like the Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea and the North Ridge, New found land Ridge, Walv is Ridge,
Sea. Telegraphic Plateau, Sierra Leone Ridge,
The most striking feature of the Atlantic Ocean is Raykjanes Ridge, Cape Swell, Dolphin Rise,
the presence of Mid-Atlantic Ridge which runs Challenger Rise.
from north to the south paralleling the 'S' shape of Basins: Labrador Basin, Iberian Basin, Cape-
the ocean itself, dividing the Atlantic into two Verde Basin, Guinea Basin, Sierra Leone
deeper basins on the either side. Basin,Cape Basin, Argentina Basin, Agulhas
The ridge is about 14,000 km long and about 4,000 Basin.
metres high. Several peaks of this ridge project Deeps & trenches: Moseley Deep, Buchanan
out of the ocean surface to form islands of the mid- Deep, Valdivia Deep, Romanche Deep, Puerto-
Atlantic. Examples include Pico Island of Azores, Rico Deep, Nares Deep.
Cape Verde Island. Also, there are coral islands
PACIFIC OCEAN
like Bermuda and volcanic islands like Ascension,
This part is characterised by maximum depth and
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a large number of deeps, trenches and island areas. seas. Linear deeps are almost absent. The only
Some well-known trenches are Aleutian, Kuril, exception is Sunda Trench, which lies to the south
from 7,000 to 10,000 metres. There are also a large of the island of Java.
number of seamounts, guyots and parallel and
There are a number of broad submarine ridges in
arcuate island chains in the central part.
this ocean, which include the Lakshadweep-
South-West Pacific: Chagos Ridge, the St. Paul Ridge which widens
The average depth of this part is about 4,000 m, into the Amsterdam St. Paul Plateau, the Socotra-
and this part is marked by a variety of islands, Chagos Ridge, the Seychelles Ridge, the South
marginal seas, and continental shelf and submarine Madagascar Ridge, the Prince Edward Crozet
trenches. Mariana Trench lies in this portion and Ridge, the Andaman-Nicobar Ridge and the
the Mindanao Trench is also very deep with a depth Carlsberg Ridge. These ridges divide the ocean
of more than 10,000 metres. bottom into many basins. Chief among these are
the Central Basin, Arabian Basin, South Indian
South-East Pacific:
Basin, Mascarene Basin, West Australian and
This part is conspicuous for the absence of South Australian Basins.
marginal seas, and has submarine ridges and
Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean are
plateaus. The Tonga and Atacama are prominent
continental islands and are present in the north and
trenches.
west. These include the Andaman and Nicobar,
Ridges: Albatross Plateau, Cocos Ridge, San- Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar. The
Felix-Juan Ridge, Hawaiian Swell, MarcusNecker Lakshadweep and Maldives are coral islands and
Rise, Chatham Rise, Lord Howe Rise,Norfolk Mauritius and the Reunion Islands are of volcanic
Ridge, S. Tasmania Ridge. origin. The eastern section of the Indian Ocean is
Basins: Aleutian Basin, E&W Caroline Basin, Fiji almost free from islands.
Basin, E. Australian Basin, Jeffrey's Basin, S W Ridges: Socotra-Chagos Ridge, St. Paul Ridge,
Pacific Basin, SE Pacific Basin, Pacific Seychelles Ridge, Crozet Ridge, Crozet Ridge,
AtlanticBasin. Kerguelen Ridge, Laccadives-Chagos Ridge,
Trenches: Aleutian Trench, Kuril Trench, Chagos St. Paul Ridge, Kergel-Gausberg Ridge,
PhilippineTrench, Cape-Johnson Deep, Nero Andaman Rise.
Deep,Mariana Trench, Tonga-Kermadec Basins: Somali Basin, Oman Basin, Natal
Trench,Aldrich Deep, Brook Deep, Planet Deep. Basin,Mauritius Basin, Agulhas Basin,
INDIAN OCEAN AndamanBasin, Cocos-Kelling Basin, E. Indian-
AntarcticBasin.
This ocean is smaller and less deep than the
Atlantic Ocean. Since it is completely blocked in Trenches: Sunda Trench, Valdivia Deep,
the north by the Asian landmass, it can be Jeffreydee
considered only half an ocean. It has few marginal

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2. TEMPERATURE, SALINITY AND the year and they become more and more slanting
DENSITY OF OCEAN WATER. towards the pole.
Unequal distribution of land and water. Oceans
Temperature, salinity and density are the three very
in the northern hemisphere will receive more heat
important physical properties of the ocean water.
due to their contact with the larger extent of land
They are not static but change with the space and
than the oceans in the southern hemisphere. Due
time.These properties affect the physical, chemical
to the differential heating of the land and water
as well the biological environment of the oceans.
there are temperature contrasts and the isotherms
do not follow latitudes and are curved near the
coasts .There curvature is more pronounced in the
northern hemisphere due to the extensive land
masses than in the southern hemisphere where
oceans are more extensive.
Prevailing winds-The winds blowing from the
land towards the oceans drive warm surface water
away from the coast resulting in cold water
upwelling from below. It results in the longitudinal
variation of the temperature. The on shore winds
pile up the warm water near the coast and this
raises the temperature. The temperature of the
eastern part of the oceans is lower than that of the
western part in tropics due to the prevailing trade
winds there. On the contrary, temperature is lower
Temperature of the ocean water on the western coasts than the eastern coasts in
The ocean water gets heated when it receives heat the temperate zone due to the prevailing westerlies
energy from the sun and its temperature rises. there.
Temperature influences the radiation balances and Ocean currents- Warm ocean currents raises the
the heat budget of the earth, the general temperature of the ocean water whereas the cold
atmospheric conditions and control the planetary ocean current leads to a fall of the temperature.
wind belts. Global hydrological cycle to a For example, the Gulf Stream (warm current)
considerable extent. increases the temperature near the east coasts of
North America and western coast of Europe .while

the Labrador Current (cold current) decreases the

Distribution of temperatures in the oceans.-
temperature near the north east coasts of North
Horizontal distribution patterns depend upon the America.
following -Latitude-The temperature of the surface
Mixing of ocean water-The temperatures of the
water generally decreases as we move from the
enclosed waters differ from that of the open
equator towards the pole. Because the insolation
waters.The enclosed seas located in the low
decreases as the sun's rays are vertical throughout
latitudes record relatively higher temperatures than
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the open seas whereas enclosed seas in the higher Temperature layers-
latitudes have lower temperature than in open sea. There is a boundary margin between the surface
Vertical distribution-The surface of the sea water waters and the deeper layers. The temperature
receives the largest amount of solar insolation and structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes
has the highest temperatures. As we go deep into can be described as a three layer system from
the sea the sun's rays are reduced and so does the surface to bottom.
temperature. Hence, there is a fall in temperature First layer- represents top layer of warm oceanic
with the depth. However the rate of fall is not same water, temp. Range between 20-25 degrees. This
everywhere. layer within the tropics is present throughout the
year but in the mid-latitudes it is developed in the
summer only.
Second layer- thermocline layer-The boundary
region from where there is a rapid decrease in the
temperature is called the thermocline. About 90%
of the total volume of water is found below the
thermocline in the deep ocean.
Third layer- very cold layer and extends up to
the deep ocean floor.in the arctic and the Antarctic
latitudes, the surface water temp are close to0
degrees and so the temperature change with depth
is very slight. Here only one layer of cold water
exists from surface to deep ocean floor.

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Salinity of the ocean waters Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity
Salinity is the ratio of the mass of dissolved Salinity differences are created only by dilution
substances to the mass of the water sample. or concentration as fresh water is added or
Salinity is often expressed in parts per thousand. removed, or as salty water is rejected from sea ice
The distribution of dissolved salts in the oceans as it freezes. Adding more water, dilutes the
and adjacent seas varies in space and time dissolved component and lowers the salinity of the
sample. Conversely, removing water increases
Salt Name Percentage salinity.Precipitation, runoff (stream discharge),
melting icebergs, and melting sea ice decrease
NaCl SodiumChloride 77.8 seawater,however, the formation of sea ice and
MgCl2 MagnesiumChloride 10.9 evaporation increase seawater salinity by
MgSO4 MagnesiumSulphate 4.7 removing water from the ocean.
CaSO4 CalciumSulphate 3.6 Surface salinity distribution-The salinity of
surface water varies considerably due to surface
K2SO4 PotassiumSulphate 2.5 processes, with the maximum salinity found
CaCO3 CalciumCarbonate 0.3 nearthe Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and them
MgBr2 Magnesium 0.2 in imumsalinity foundin high-latituderegions.
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Salinity also varies with depth down to about 1000 salinityincreases with the depth up to 200
meters (3300 feet), but below that the salinity of fathomsand then it starts decreasing.At equator
deep wateris very consistent. A haloclineislayer surface salinity is low but justbelow it greater
of rapidly changing salinity salinity is found which againdecreases at the
Lowest salinities occur in the Arctic and Antarctic bottom due to presence ofcold water mass.
where there is both net precipitation and seasonal Seawater Density- Low-density water exists
ice melt. Highest salinities occur in the Red Sea nearthe surface and higher density water occurs
and Persian Gulf, both located in the north western below. Except for some shallow inland seas with
Indian Ocean, where net evaporation is high. High a high rate of evaporation that creates high salinity
salinity is also found in the Mediterranean Sea. In water, the highest-density water is found at the
the open ocean, high salinity occurs in the deepest ocean depths As the temperature
subtropical areas of net. A band of low salinity increasesseawater density decreases and.as
underlies the ITCZ at 10°N. salinity increasesseawater density increasesAs
The effect of continental runoff is apparent in pressure increasesseawater density increasesOf
lowered surface salinity near the mouths of major these three factors, only temperature and salinity
rivers such as the Amazon and the Congo and the influence the density of surface water Cold water
numerous large rivers that empty into the Bay of that also has high salinity is some of the highest-
Bengal, east of India, including the Ganges and density water intheworld. Thedensityofseawater
Brahmaputra. Runoff from many rivers around the there sulto fits salinity and temperature influences
Gulf of Alaska in the north eastern Pacific and current sinthe deep oceanbecaus ehigh-density
around the Arctic Ocean is important in the water sinks belowless-dense water.
lowered salinities of high-latitude ocean regions
Latitudinal Distribution - It decreasesfrom Equator
towards the Poles. The averagesalinity of N-
Hemisphere is 34‰while for S-Hemisphere it is
35‰. In general there is lowsalinity in equatorial
zone, high in tropicalbelt, low in temperate zone
and minimum insub-polar zone.
LatitudinalZones Salinity(%)
10-15N 34.5-35
15-40N 35-36
40-50N 33-34
50-70N 30-31
10-30S 35-36
30-50S 34-35
50-70S 33-34
Regional Distribution - The amount ofsalinity
varies from ocean to ocean, mainly dueto supply
of fresh water, rapidity of evaporationand water
mixing tendency. The greatestproportion of salt is
found in two areas whichlie about the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic ofCapricorn. From these
regions the salinitydecreases both towards equator
and the poles.Salinity of the inland seas and lakes
is very highbecause of the regular supply of salt
by the riversflowing into them and the evaporation
makestheir water continuously more and more
saline.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity - Salinity of the
ocean decreases or increasestowards the bottom
according to the natureof the water mass.In high
latitude salinity increases withdepth due to dense
water found at thebottom. In the middle latitude

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3. OCEAN DEPOSITS part of ordinary sand contains grains of quartz,

because it is the most abundant constituent of the
The study of marine deposits is very important for
earth's crust not subject to easy disintegration or
the understanding of the rocks exposed on the
chemical change. A little finer sediment ranging
surface of the earth. The unconsolidated sediments
from very coarse to very fine sand is also the result
derived from various sources like weathering and
of wear of the rock.
erosion of continental rocks are transported to the
oceans by rivers, winds etc. volcanic eruption also Silt, clay or Muds: These deposits in general are
provide sediments. Besides, the decay and finer particles much smaller than sand. Clays are
decomposition of marine organisms (both plants somewhat finer than the muds and act as a binding
and animals) also contribute sediments to ocean material of sediments. Their proportion increases
deposits. The study of oceanic deposits involves with the distance from the land. The origin of silt
the consideration of the sources from which or clay is generally from the disintegration of the
sediments are derived, the methods of continental rock both sedimentary and plutonic.
transportation from the source to the destination, The silt is then carried by rivers into the sea, as
and the horizontal and vertical variation in their suspended particles. Muds are finer texture than
distribution. The marine sediments continuously the sands. They consist to a large extent of minute
being deposited on the ocean floor are derived from particles of various rock forming minerals, quart
various sources and are distinguished by the nature being the most abundant. Murray distinguishes
of their source regions. between three classes of mud based on the colour
of the sediments ranging from black to white with
addition of blue, yellow, red or a mixture of all
these.

These deposits consist of:

1. Terrigenous Material
Under the process of disintegration and
decomposition the terrigenous rocks constituting
mostly of igneous or sedimentary rocks are
shattered into pieces. These rocks are disintegrated Blue Mud: It is the most common and widespread
into smaller fragments and are carried down to deposit in the deeper areas surrounding continental
the sea by rivers as mud and sand. lands, and in partially enclosed seas. It is
considered to be mainly formed of land detritus
The larger fragments of the terrigenous origin are
hence carbonate of lime ranges upto 35 percent.
laid down close to the shore, but the finer sediments
Most of the deposits of blue mud are found along
are carried far away into the ocean. The distance
the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and
to which the rock material travels not only depends
the Banda Sea.
upon the size of the fragments but also on the
strength of the waves and ocean currents. On the Red Mud: It is differentiated from others by the
basis of texture of the source region, mode of presence of iron oxide. As compared to blue mud
formation, nature of transporting agency and this variety is rare. Typical localities of its
chemical composition the sediments are broadly occurrence are Yellow Sea, the coasts of Brazil,
divided into gravel, sand and mud. and large areas of the floor of the Arctic Ocean.
Gravel: It is a coarse material ranging between Green Mud: It is mostly seen off high coasts
boulders and granules. These gravels mostly form free from large rivers and their deposits, such as
pebble banks along the coast and are too heavy to the Pacific and the Atlantic coasts of North
be transported. America (South of Cape Hatteras and California
specially), off the coasts of Japan, Australia and
Sand: The sand deposits contain fragments of
South Africa. As regards the minerals, percentage
different rocks i.e., igneous or sedimentary or
glauconite ranges up to 7-8% and carbonate of
metamorphic, thoroughly mixed up. But the greater
lime 0.56%. Green mud is found between 100-

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900 fathoms depth. subtypes on the basis of dominance of a particular
2. Volcanic Product organism.

The volcanic material after chemical and (a) Radiolarian ooze: is formed by the shells of
mechanical weathering is transported to the ocean radiolaria and foraminifera. Silica predominates
by the action of running a water and wind. These but calcium carbonate is also present. Lime content
deposits mainly consist of lava. decreases with increasing depth and it absolutely
disappears at greater depth. It covers the largest
3. Organic Remains areas in the Pacific Ocean.
Organic remains are basically of two types: the (b) Diatom ooze: is formed of the shells of very
Neretic and the Pelagic. The former consists of microscopic plants containing silica in abundance
dead skeletons of marine animals and plants and also contains some clay. It is very frequently found
the latter is a type of algae found in the open at greater depth in high latitude. Significant area
oceanic environment. Neretic matter is deposited of this deposit includes the zone around Antarctica
mostly on the continental shelves and are generally and a belt from Alaska to Japan in the N. Pacific,
covered by terrigenous material. These include at a depth of 600-2000 fathoms.
shells of molluscs and their fragments, skeletons
of radiolaria and spicules of sponges, calcareous III. Inorganic Materials: Majority of inorganic
and siliceous plant remains. elements are basically precipitates which fall down
from above. These elements fall on the land as
Pelagic deposits consist of matter derived from well as in the oceans. Some of the inorganic
algae and are mostly in the form of liquid mud, elements are transported from the land to the
generally known as ooze. Pelagic materials are oceans by various agencies. The inorganic
oozes which are divided into the two groups on precipitates include dolomite, amorphous silica,
the basis of lime and silica contents as follows: iron, manganese oxide, phosphate barite etc.
I. Calcareous oozes: contain lime content in Besides, glauconite, phosphorite, feldspar,
abundance and are seldom found at greater depth phillipsite and clay minerals are also found.
because of their high degree of solubility. On the IV. Red clay: Previously considered to be of
basis of principal organisms calcareous oozes are organic origin is the most significant inorganic
further divided into two sub types. matter and very important member of pelagic
(a) Pteropod Ooze: Most of the pteropod oozes deposits. It covers the largest area of deep sea
are formed of floating pteropodmulluscs having deposits. Silicates of alumina and oxides of iron
thin shells of generally conical shape. It contain are the chief constituents of red clay. Besides,
80 per cent of calcium carbonate and is mostly calcium, siliceous organisms and a few mineral
found in the tropical oceans and seas at the depth are also present. It also contains decomposed
of 300-1000 fathoms. The main location of volcanic material. It may be pointed out that red
pteropod ooze includes the western and eastern clay contains more radioactive substances than any
parts of the Pacific Ocean, surrounding of Azores, other marine deposit. Red clay is widely distributed
Canary Islands, Antiles, mid Mediterranean at the greatest depth in all the ocean. Its dominant
submarine ridge and Indian Ocean. location include the zone between 400 N and 400
(b) Globigerina Ooze: Though this ooze is S in the Atlantic Ocean, eastern part of the Indian
formed from the shell of a variety of foraminifera Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean covering 129
but most of such oozes are formed of germs called million km2 of area.
globigerina. Globigerina is found mostly in the
tropical and temperate zones of the Atlantic Ocean,
on the eastern and western continental shelves of
the Indian Ocean and in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
It contains about 65 percent of calcium.
II. Siliceous Ooze: When silica content
dominates, the ooze becomes siliceous in nature.
Silica is derived from group of protozoa or
radiolarian and benthic animals mainly sponges.
This ooze does not dissolve as compared to
calcareous ooze because of less calcium carbonate
and dominance of silica. Thus, such oozes are
found in both warm and cold water at greater
depths. This group is further divided into two
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4. TIDES AND WAVES

Tides
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by
the combined effects of gravitational forces exerted
by the Moon, Sun, and rotation of the Earth. The
tide producing force of the moon is slightly more
than twice that of the sun. Moon being closer has
greater impact than the sun. However, its amplitude
depends upon the -movement of the moon,
revolving position of sun and moon with reference
to earth, uneven distribution of water, irregular
bottom topography of the oceans.
Tides vary on time scales ranging from hours to
years due to a number of factors. While tides are
usually the largest source of short-term sea-level
fluctuations, sea levels are also subject to forces
such as wind and barometric pressure changes,
resulting in storm surges, especially in shallow seas
and near coasts.
Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but
can occur in other systems whenever a
gravitational field that varies in time and space is
present.
Characteristics
Tide changes proceed via the following stages:
• Sea level rises over several hours, covering the
intertidal zone; flood tide.
" The water rises to its highest level, reaching high
tide.
• Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the
intertidal zone; ebb tide. Semidiurnal and Diurnal Tides
• The water stops falling, reaching low tide. if the earth were perfectly round with no big land
Types of tides masses, all bodies of water in the world would
experience two nearly equal high tides and two
High Tide and Low Tide low tides each day. This tidal pattern is known as
Because the moon is closer to the earth than the semidiurnal tides. However, the continents of earth
sun, it has the most influence on the tides. In fact, disrupt water bodies, and so this can produce
it's fair to say that tides would not occur if the different tidal patterns. For example, some bodies
earth and the moon were not attracted to each other. of water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, have diurnal
The gravitational pull of the moon causes the tides, which mean only one high tide and one low
oceans and other major water bodies to bulge out tide each day.
toward the moon. Spring Tides and Neap Tides
When the gravitational pull is at its highest point, The earth and moon are constantly in motion
the result is high tide, which is the highest level of around the sun, and all have their own gravitational
the tide. When the pull is at its lowest point, we pull. So, when the alignment between the three
see low tide, or the lowest level of the tide. The bodies changes, it changes the strength of the
earth itself is also pulled toward the moon but with overall gravitational pull and therefore the size of
less strength. This pulls the earth away from the the tides.
water on the opposite side of the earth, making
the water on that side bulge as well. Therefore, Spring tides are tides that occur when the earth,
high tide occurs on both sides of the planet at the moon and sun are aligned, [syzygy] and the tidal
same time. Meanwhile the earth is rotating. So range between high and low tide is at its maximum.
the tides throughout the day are experienced. This happens basically twice a month, during the

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 14
full and new moon phases. At these times, the three Advantages-
bodies are in line and their gravitational pulls • Helps in navigation by increasing the water level
reinforce each other. When the spring tide is in the rivers. For example the Kolkata port is also
happening, we see higher than average high tides called the tidal port because of this fact.
and lower than average low tides.
• Help in the generation of the tidal energy, one of
A few weeks after the spring tides, the neap tides the cleanest sources of energy.
are observed. These are tides that occur when the
moon and sun are at right angles to the earth's orbit, • Rich biodiversity in the form of inter tidal zones
and the tidal range between high and low tide is at in the form of mangroves.
its minimum. The neap tides occur when the moon • Help in the natural cleansing of the ports.
is in its first and last quarter phase. Because of • Helpful to the ship building industry in many ways.
the position of the moon and sun, their gravitational
pulls on the waters of earth partially cancel each Disadvantages-
other out, resulting in smaller differences between • High amount of water intrusion causes destruction
the high and low tides. to a great extent
• Low lying areas are affected badly. Tides causes
floods and submergence of these areas.
• Restricts delta formation as the accumulated
sediments are moved by the tides into the sea
Waves
Waves represent a series of parallel crest separated
by troughs. They travel over a definite direction
for great distances but it's only the wave motion
that is transported whereas the water particles
remain at the same places. Waves are surficial
manifestation of the dynamism induced in the sea
water by the sub aerial forces of the wind and
difference in the atmospheric pressure.
Sculpting seawater into crested shapes, waves
move water and energy from one area to another.
Waves located on the ocean's surface are
commonly caused by wind transferring its energy
to the water, and big waves, or swells, can travel
over long distances. A wave's size depends on wind
speed, wind duration, and the area over which the
wind is blowing This variability leads to waves of
all shapes and sizes. The smallest categories of
waves are ripples, growing less than one foot (3
m) high. The largest waves occur where there are
big expanses of open water that wind can affect.
Places famous for big waves include, Hawaii;
Mavericks, California; Ireland; and Tahiti. These
large wave sites attract surfers, although
occasionally, waves get just too big to surf.
They are generally classified as longitudinal and
transverse waves. Longitudinal waves have
particles moving parallel to the line of propagation
and the general motion is to and fro while the
transverse waves have particles moving back and
forth and perpendicular to the propagation of the
wave motion.
 15

Characteristics of the waves-

The crest of the waves is defined as its highest
part and the trough is the lowest part, whereas the
wave height or the amplitude is the vertical
distance from the trough to the crest and the wave
length is the horizontal distance between the crest
to crest. The wave velocity is equal to the distance
travelled by the wave in seconds and the wave
period is the time taken between the occurrence of
one wave crest and another at fixed location.
Sea waves are generated mainly by the frictional
force of the wind over the sea surface. They are
also caused by the differences in the atmospheric
pressure, temperature, density and salinity of sea
water sea waves are high waves with low energy
rogue waves and storm beakers are high energy
waves but they are local phenomenon and occur
rarely.

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 16

5. OCEAN CIRCULATION would flow between 60 and 90 degrees latitude as

a result of the polar easterlies.
Ocean currents are masses of ocean water that flow
from one place to another. The amount of water In reality, however, flow of the ocean surface
can be large or small, currents can be at the surface currents is influenced by many factors such as
or deep below, and the phenomena that create them distribution of continents etc.
can be simple or quite complex. Simply put, Main Components of Ocean Surface
currents are water masses in motion. Circulation
Ocean currents are either wind driven or density SUBTROPICAL GYRES The large, circular-
driven. Wind-driven currents move water moving loops of water that are driven by the major
horizontally and occur primarily in the ocean's wind belts of the world are called gyres which
surface waters, so these currents are called surface generally comprises of four main currents. They
cur-rents. Density-driven circulation, on the other rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
hand, moves water vertically and accounts for the counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
thorough mixing of the deep masses of ocean water. World's five subtropical gyres:

Ocean Surface Currents

Surface currents occur within and above the
pycnocline to a depth of about 1 kilometre and
affect only about 10% of the world's ocean water.
Origin of Surface Currents
Simplistically the friction between wind and
surface water generates the surface ocean currents.
During this process very little amount of wind
energy will get transferred to the ocean surface. If
there were no continents on Earth, the surface
currents would generally follow the major wind
belts of the world. In each hemi-sphere, therefore,
a current would flow between 0 and 30 degrees
latitude as a result of the trade winds, a second
would flow be-tween 30 and 60 degrees latitude
as a result of the prevailing westerlies, and a third
 17

1. The North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre EQUATORIAL COUNTERCURRENTS -

2. The South Atlantic Subtropical Gyre Equatorial currents moves large volume of water
westward. As a result water piles up along the
3. The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre western margin of an ocean basin, which raises
4. The South Pacific Subtropical Gyre sea level on the western side of the basin. The water
5. The Indian Ocean Subtropical on the western margins then flows downhill under
the influence of gravity, creating narrow equatorial

The main components of subtropical gyre are: counter currents that flow to the east counter to
Equatorial Currents - produced by trade winds of and between the adjoining equatorial currents.
both the hemispheres and flow westward. They SUBPOLAR GYRES Northern or southern
are called north or south equatorial currents, boundary currents eventually move into subpolar
depending on their position relative to the equator. latitudes. They are driven in a westerly direction
Western Boundary Currents - the Coriolis force by the polar easterlies, producing subpolar gyres
deflects the Equatorial currents away from the that rotate opposite the adjacent subtropical gyres.
equator as western boundary currents. For Subpolar gyres are smaller and fewer than
example, the Gulf Stream and the Brazil Current subtropical gyres. Two examples include the
are western boundary currents. They carry warm subpolar gyre in the Atlantic Ocean between
water to high latitudes. Greenland and Europe and in the Weddell Sea off
Northern or Southern Boundary Currents - they Antarctica.
are produced by prevailing westerlies and lied Several other factors influence circulation patterns
between 30 and 60 degrees latitude. They flow in subtropical gyres, including Ekman spiral and
towards east. In the Northern Hemisphere, are Ekman transport, geostrophic currents, and
called northern boundary currents; in the Southern western intensification of subtropical gyres.
Hemisphere, they are called southern boundary Ocean Currents and Climate
currents.
Ocean surface currents directly influence the
Eastern Boundary Currents -Coriolis force and climate of adjoining landmasses. For instance,
continental barriers turn Northern or Southern warm ocean currents warm the nearby air. This
Boundary Currents toward the equator, creating warm air can hold a large amount of water vapour,
eastern boundary currents .Examples of eastern which puts more moisture in the atmosphere. When
boundary currents include the Canary Current and this warm, moist air travels over a continent, it
the Benguela Current. They carry cool water to releases its water vapour in the form of
lower latitudes. precipitation producing humid climate in general.

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 18
Conversely, cold ocean currents cool the nearby Main Surface Circulation Patterns in Each
air, which is more likely to have low water vapour Ocean
content. When the cool, dry air travels over a The pattern of surface currents varies from ocean
continent, it results in very little precipitation to ocean depending upon the geometry of the ocean
producing dry climate. basin, the pattern of major wind belts, seasonal
Upwelling and Downwelling factors, and other periodic changes.
Upwelling is the vertical movement of cold, deep, Atlantic Ocean Circulation
nutrient-rich water to the surface; downwelling is Atlantic Ocean surface circulation, which consists
the vertical movement of surface water to deeper of two large subtropical gyres: the North Atlantic
parts of the ocean. Upwelling brings chilled water, Gyre and the South Atlantic Gyre.
rich in nutrients, to the surface resulting into higher
productivity in that area. Downwelling, on the THE NORTH AND SOUTH ATLANTIC
other hand, is associated with much lower amounts SUBTROPICAL GYRES The North Atlantic
of surface productivity but carries necessary Subtropical Gyre rotates clockwise and the South
dissolved oxygen to those organisms living on the Atlantic Subtropical Gyre rotates counter
deep-sea floor. They provide important mixing clockwise, due to the combined effects of the trade
mechanisms between surface and deep waters and winds, the prevailing westerlies, and the Coriolis
are accomplished by a variety of methods such as effect. The two gyres are partially offset by the
diverging surface water and converging surface shapes of the surrounding continents, and the
water etc. Atlantic Equatorial Counter current moves in
between them.
In the South Atlantic Gyre, the South Equatorial
Current reaches its greatest strength just below
the equator, where it encounters the coast of Brazil
and splits in two. Part of the South Equatorial
Current moves off along the north-eastern coast
of South America toward the Caribbean Sea and
the North Atlantic. The rest is turned southward
as the Brazil Current, which ultimately merges
with the West Wind Drift and moves eastward
across the South Atlantic. The Brazil Current is
much smaller than its Northern Hemisphere
counterpart, the Gulf Stream, due to the splitting
of the South Equatorial Current. The Benguela
Current, slow moving and cold, flows towards the
equator along Africa's western coast, completing
the gyre.
The North Equatorial Current moves parallel to
the equator in the Northern Hemisphere, where it
is joined by the portion of the South Equatorial
Current that turns northward along the South
American coast. This flow then splits into the
Antilles Current, which passes along the Atlantic
side of the West Indies, and the Caribbean Current,
which passes through the Yucatán Channel into
the Gulf of Mexico. These masses re-converge as
the Florida Current.
 19

branch crosses the North Atlantic as North Atlantic

Drift, which turns southward to become the cool
Canary Current. The Canary Current is a broad,
diffuse southward flow that eventually joins the
North Equatorial Current, thus completing the
gyre.

CLIMATIC EFFECTS OF NORTH ATLANTIC

CURRENTS The warming effects of the Gulf
Stream are far ranging. The Gulf Stream not only
moderates temperatures along the East Coast of
the United States but also in northern Europe. Thus,
the temperatures across the Atlantic at different
latitudes are much higher in Europe than in North
America because of the effects of heat transfer
from the Gulf Stream to Europe. For example,
Spain and Portugal have warm climates, even
The Florida Current flows close to shore over the though they are at the same latitude as the New
continental shelf. As it moves off North Carolinas England states. The warming that northern Europe
Cape Hatteras it is called the Gulf Stream. experiences because of the Gulf Stream is as much
The Sargasso Sea - The Gulf Stream gradually as 9°C, which is enough to keep high-latitude
merges eastward with the water of the Sargasso Baltic ports ice free throughout the year. On the
Sea. The Sargasso Sea is the water that circulates western side of the North Atlantic, the southward-
around the rotation centre of the North Atlantic flowing Labrador Current which is cold and often
gyre. The Sargasso Sea can be thought of as the contains icebergs from western Greenland keeps
stagnant eddy of the North Atlantic Gyre. Its name Canadian coastal waters much cooler. During the
is derived from a type of floating marine alga called Northern Hemisphere winter, North Africa's
Sargassum that abounds on its surface. coastal waters are cooled by the south-ward-
flowing Canary Current and are much cooler than
Southeast of Newfoundland, the Gulf Stream
waters near Florida and the Gulf of Mexico.
continues in an easterly direction across the North
Atlantic. Here, one major branch combines the
cold water of the Labrador Current with the warm
Gulf Stream, producing abundant fog in the North
Atlantic. This branch eventually breaks into the
Irminger Current, which flows along Iceland s west
coast, and the Norwegian Current, which moves
northward along Norway s coast. The other major

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 20

Indian Ocean Circulation

along the coast of Africa. An Equatorial Counter

current is also established. During the summertime
southwest monsoon, the winds reverse, causing the
North Equatorial Current to be replaced by the
Southwest Monsoon Current, which flows in the
opposite direction. The winds cause the Somali
Current to reverse as well, which flows rapidly
northward and feeds the Southwest Monsoon
Current. By October, the northeast trade winds are
re-established and the North Equatorial Current
reappears.
Because of the shape and position of India, the The movement of winds during the summertime
Indian Ocean exists mostly in the Southern southwest monsoon also affects sea surface
Hemisphere. From November to March, equatorial temperatures, which cool near the Arabian
circulation in the Indian Ocean is similar to that Peninsula because of upwelling as water is drawn
in the Atlantic Ocean, with two westward-flowing away from shore. This cool water also supports
equatorial currents separated by an eastward- large populations of phytoplankton during the
flowing Equatorial Counter current. The shape of summer southwest monsoon.
the Indian Ocean basin and its proximity to the
high mountains of Asia cause it to experience INDIAN OCEAN SUBTROPICAL GYRE
strong seasonal changes. Surface circulation in the southern Indian Ocean
is similar to subtropical gyres observed in other
Not only does this seasonal changes affect weather southern oceans. When the northeast trade winds
patterns on land, it also affects surface current blow, the South Equatorial Current provides water
circulation in the Indian Ocean. In fact, the for the Equatorial Counter current and the Agulhas
northern Indian Ocean is the only place in the Current, which flows southward along Africa's east
world where reversing seasonal winds actually coast and joins the West Wind Drift. Turning
cause major ocean surface currents to switch northward out of the West Wind Drift is the West
direction. During the winter time northwest Australian Current, an eastern boundary current
monsoon, offshore winds cause the North that merges with the South Equatorial Current,
Equatorial Current to flow from east to west and completing the gyre.
its extension, the Somali Current, flows south
 21

Pacific Ocean Circulation Two large subtropical gyres dominate the

circulation pattern in the Pacific Ocean, resulting
in surface water movement and climatic effects
similar to those found in the Atlantic. However,
the Equatorial Counter current is much better
developed in the Pacific Ocean than in the Atlantic,
largely because the Pacific Ocean basin is larger
and more unobstructed than the Atlantic Ocean.
The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre includes the
North Equatorial Current, which flows westward
into the western intensified Kuroshio Current near
Asia. The warm waters of the Kuroshio Current
make Japans climate warmer than would be
expected for its latitude. This current flows into
the North Pacific Current, which connects to the
cool-water California Current. The California
Current flows south along the coast of California
to complete the loop. Some North Pacific Current
water also flows to the north and merges into the
Alaskan Current in the Gulf of Alaska.
The South Pacific Subtropical Gyre includes the
South Equatorial Current, which flows westward
into the western intensified East Australian
Current. From there, it joins the West Wind Drift
and completes the gyre as the Peru Current.

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 22

6. MARINE RESOURCES
The ocean environment holds a wealth of resources
that we rely on, from fuel sources to food supplies.
The sea floor is rich in potential mineral and
organic resources. Some of the marine resources
available to us are as follows:-
Petroleum-Of the non-living resources extracted
from the oceans, more than 95% of the economic
value is in petroleum products.Major offshore
reserves exist in the Persian Gulf, in the Gulf of
and on bank satdepths shallower than 1000 meters
Mexico, off Southern California, in the North Sea,
(3300 feet).Concentrations of phosphates in such
and in the East Indies. Future offshore petroleum
deposits commonly reach 30% by weight and
exploration will continue to be intense, especially
indicate abundant biological activity in surface
in deeper waters of the continental margins.
water above where they accumulate. Because
Hydrocarbons- The.Hydrocarbons are found in phosphates are valuable as fertilizers, ancient
sedimentary rocks beneath the seabed, usually marine phosphate deposits that have been uplifted
along the edges of continents where onto land are extensively mined to supply
sedimentstransported by rivers were laid down in agricultural needs.
thick sequences in the geological past. These
Biofuels from marine algae-One promising
sediments also trap dead organic matter from plants
source of biofuels has been identified as marine
and animals.The organic matter is turned into oil
algae grown in large open ponds. The algae would
and methane gas (CH4), through the action of
be harvested and turned into a carbon neutral fuel
elevated temperatures and pressures. The oil and
source
gas usually form in organic-rich shales. They then
migrate through fractures and pool in highly porous Sandand Gravel- The offshore sand and gravel
and permeable rock formations, such as sandstones industry is second in economic value only to the
and limestones, creating a hydrocarbon reservoir. petroleumindustry. Sand and gravel, which include
srock fragments that are washed out to sea and
Gas hydrates- Gas hydrates may represent a
shells of marine organisms, is mined byoffshore
future source of fuel Gas hydrates are widespread
barges using a suction dredge. This material is
around the world and are usually found in
primarily used as aggregatein concrete, as a fill
continental margin sediments.
material in grading projects, and on recreational
Food-The seas and oceans contain vast natural beaches. Off shore deposit sareamajor source of
resources that are increasingly available to humans sand and gravelin New England, New York, and
as technology and scientific understanding through out the Gulf Coast. Many European
improve. Fishes are important components of countries, Iceland, Israel, and Lebanon also depend
seafood. Ocean ranching, whaling, marine farming heavily on such deposits.Some off shore sand and
are some of the forms for utilising the sea gravel deposits are rich in valuable minerals.
resources.
Vitamins and Drugs Resources
Poly metallic manganese nodules-The non-
Researches to use marine organism (plants and
living resources of the deep ocean floor are
animals) for vitamins and medicines to cure
increasingly attractive for the mineral industry.
different diseases is going on.Shark oil and cod
Polymetallic manganese nodules (also known
liver oil are already in use as energy tonics.
as manganese nodules) are small potato-sized
lumps of material precipitated from seawater and It is beyond doubt that if the present rate of growth
sediment pore water at slow rates over millions of of world population continues, the demand for
years and occur mainly on the deep-seafloor They world supply of food would also increase
contain approximately 24% manganese, compared proportionately in future, which cannot be met with
to 35 to 55% manganese in land ore bodies, so land sources alone. Thus, it is necessary to look
they do not offer solid economics as a manganese towards marine food resource. It is evident that
source, Apart from these metals, nodules include the pressure on marine resource would increases
trace amounts of molybdenum, platinum and other in future; therefore it is necessary to initiate
basemetals necessary suitable steps for exploitation,
utilization, conservation and preservation of
Phosphates Phosphorus- bearing compounds
marine resource.
(phosphates) occur abundantly ascoating
sonrocks and as noduleson the continental shelf
 23

7. CORAL REEFS A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt, 0.5 km to

2.5 km wide. This type of reef grows from the deep
Corals are nothing but calcareous rocks, formed sea bottom with the seaward side sloping steeply
from the skeletons of minute sea animals, called into the deep sea.
polyps. The polyps extract calcium salts from sea
water to form hard skeletons which protect their Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of
soft bodies. These skeletons give rise to corals. sudden and large increase in depth. The surface of
The corals live in colonies fastened to the rocky a fringing reef is rough, as it is covered with coral
sea floor. New generations develop on skeletons remains forming a boulder zone or reef flat.
of dead polyps. The tubular skeletons grow 2. Barrier Reef:
upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous This is the largest of the three reefs, runs for
rocky mass, collectively called corals. The shallow hundreds of kilometres and is several kilometres
rock created by these depositions is called reef. wide. It extends as a broken, irregular ring around
These reefs, later on, evolve into islands. the coast or an island, running almost parallel to
The corals Occur in different forms and colours, it. A barrier reef is characterised by distant location
depending upon the nature of salts or constituents of the reef from the coast with a broader and deeper
they are made of. Progressive development of lagoon, which is sometimes joined with the sea
corals appears over the sea surface in different water through one or more channels cutting across
forms over a period of time. Small marine plants the barrier reef.
(algae) also deposit calcium carbonate, thus A barrier reef is very thick, going even below 180
contributing to coral growth. metres from the surface with the seaward side
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth sloping steeply into the deep sea. The surface of a
1. Corals thrive in tropical waters-between 30°N barrier reef is covered with coral debris, boulders
and 30°S latitudes. and sand.The most famous example of this type of
reef is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of north-
2. The ideal depths for coral growth are 45 m to eastern Australia, which is 1900 km long and 160
55 m below sea surface, where there is abundant km wide.
sunlight available.
3. The temperature of water should be around
20°C.
4. Clear salt water is suitable for coral growth,
while both fresh water and highly saline water are
harmful for polyp growth.
5. Adequate supply of oxygen and microscopic
marine food, called plankton, is essential for
growth and existence. As the food supply is more
abundant on the seaward side, corals grow more
rapidly on the seaward side.
Types of Coral Features:
Coral reefs can be classified on the basis of large-
scale reef morphology; the size and shape of a
reef, and its relation to nearby land (if any).This 3. Atoll:
is usually (but not always) sufficient to clearly It is a ring like reef, which, partly or completely,
distinguish one type from the others. There is often encloses a lagoon. The lagoon may have a level
a great deal of overlap among the major reef types surface, but the seaward side of the reef slopes
(within a given biogeographic region) in terms of steeply into deep sea. The lagoon has a depth 80-
the dominant groups of animals and plants, as well 150 metres and may be joined with sea water
as their ecological interactions. through a number of channels cutting across the
There are three major types of coral reefs: Fringing reef.
Reef, Barrier Reef and Atoll Atolls are located at great distances from deep sea
1. Fringing Reef: platforms, where the submarine features may help
in formation of atolls, such as a submerged island
It is by far the most common of the three major or a volcanic cone which may reach a level suitable
types of coral reefs. It is a coral platform attached for coral growth.
to a continental coast or an island, sometimes
separated by a narrow, shallow lagoon or channel. Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than

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 24
any other ocean. The Fiji atoll and the Funafuti coral polyps cannot stand a long exposure to
atoll in the Ellice Island are well known examples atmosphere, but the outward growth towards the
of atolls. A large number of atolls also occur in sea continued.The material eroded by waves was
the Lakshadweep islands. consequently deposited on its surface. The origin
Distribution of Coral Reefs of the other two reefs, the barrier and the atoll, is
not so easy to explain. Hence, there are different
The majority of reef building corals are found views on their origin.
within tropical and subtropical waters. These
typically occur between 300 north and 300 south All the theories of reef formation can be broadly
latitudes. categorised into two groups:

The Indonesian/Philippines archipelago has the 1. Subsidence theories

world's greatest concentration of reefs and the 2. Non-subsidence theories
greatest coral diversity. Other area of reef Darwin's Subsidence Theory:
concentration are the Great Barrier Reef of
Australia, the Red Sea and the Caribbean, the latter This theory was put forth by Charles Darwin in
having a much lower diversity than all major Indo- 1837 and modified in 1842, during his voyage on
Pacific regions. the Beagle when it became clear to him that coral
polyps could grow only in shallow waters.
World's major coral reef regions:
Darwin assumes that along a suitable platform,
• Caribbean/ western Atlantic coral polyps flocked together and grew upward
• Eastern Pacific towards a low water level. The resulting reef, in
• Central and western Pacific this stable condition, would be a fringing reef. But,
at the same time, Darwin assumes, the sea floor
• Indian Ocean and the projecting land in coral seas started
• Arabian Gulf submerging, and the living corals found themselves
• Red Sea in deeper waters. Hence, an urge to grow upward
and outward would be balanced by the subsidence
of the land.
As a result of this, Darwin postulated that the
fringing reef, barrier reefs and atolls are only three
stages in the evolutionary growth of a reef. As the
land subsides, the fringing reef would grow
upwards and outwards, resulting in the formation
of a shallow lagoon.
Further subsidence would convert it into a barrier
reef with wide and comparatively deeper lagoon.
The width of the reef is increased due to the rapid
outward growth of the reef and deposition of coral
debris along it. The last stage of submergence
(comparable to thousands of feet) results in partial
or complete disappearance of the land and the
existence of a coral ring enclosing a lagoon.
Theories on Origin of Corals: In spite of continued subsidence, Darwin maintains
Various theories have been put forth to explain that the shallowness of the lagoon would be due
the mode of origin of coral reefs, taking into to the deposition of the sediment from the nearby
account the fluctuation of the Pleistocene sea level subsiding land. Hence, the lagoon always remains
and the stability of the land concerned. The latter flat and shallow.
fact analyses three conditions-a subsiding island, The theory, though simple in its presentation,
a stationary island and an emerging land with reefs implies that the barrier reef and atoll can occur
along them. only in the areas of submergence, and the great
Out of the three types of reefs, fringing reef is amount of vertical thickness of coral material is
perhaps the most simple and easiest to explain. primarily due to the subsidence of land and
Corals in the past established themselves along consequent upward growth of coral polyps.
suitable submarine structures, within around 50 Evidence in Support of the Theory:
metres of depth. Upward growth, however, ceased
There is much evidence of subsidence in coral
when the reef reached the low tide level because
 25

areas. For example, submerged valleys in the east submerged, leaving behind corals as islands. There
of Indonesia and the coastal areas of Queensland. is no evidence of the existence of such a vast land
Had there been no subsidence, the sediment area in Pacific Ocean which existed in the ancient
produced by the erosion of coral reefs would have times.
filled the lagoons and caused the death of corals.

The material produced by erosion gets Murray's Stand Still Theory

continuously accumulated at the subsiding lagoon John Murray was against the idea of coral
bottom. That is why the lagoons are shallow. formation due to subsidence of submarine
During an experimental boring, done to a depth of platform. As per him, any submarine platform
340 m in the island atoll of Funafuti, dead corals could be lowered by erosion or built up by
were discovered at these depths. deposition until it was at a suitable height for corals
Only subsidence can explain existence of corals to grow.
at this depth because, generally, corals cannot grow Then the corals will start growing on this platform
below 100 metres. Also, these dead corals showed leading to the formation of a fringing reef. Due to
the evidence of their having got 'dolomitised' which the increased growth on the outward margin of
is possible only in shallow waters. All this evidence the reef it will turn into a barrier reef.
goes to prove the subsidence theory.
Atolls are formed due to outward growth of corals
Evidence against the Subsidence Theory: in all directions at the top of the submarine
Some scientists, have argued that the corals have platform. In the Lagoon side of the Atoll, dead
developed in places where there is no evidence of corals are found which get dissolved making the
subsidence. Timor is one such area. Similarly, lagoon deeper and on the other side we'll find living
lagoons, with depths of 40m to 45m and many corals.
kilometres wide, cannot be explained on the basis He argued that either by the erosion of volcanic
of subsidence. hills rising above sea-level or by the deposition of
Also, the question arises as to why there is uniform sediments on those lying below sea-level, it was
subsidence in the tropical and subtropical areas possible to have an adequate number of shallow
and not so in other areas. submarine platforms on which the reef-building
If it is supposed that the coral islands are a product corals could grow.
of subsidence, we will have to assume the existence He explained the existence of corals bellow 30
of a vast area in the Pacific Ocean which has fathom depth by saying that above this depth reef

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will be formed by living corals, while at greater
depths mostly coral debris will be found which
will be cemented by ocean water.
His theory has been criticised due to the following
reasons:
• Existence of submarine platforms everywhere is
doubtful.
• It is difficult to accept lagoon formation by
solution as sea water is not a good solvent.
• Reefs are found below the depth of 30 fathoms.
• The assumption that both erosion and deposition
are active at the depth of 30 fathoms, does not
seem logical.
Daly's Glacial Control Theory:
Daly, while studying the coral reefs of Hawaii,
was greatly impressed by two things. He observed
that the reefs were very narrow and there were
marks of glaciations. It appeared to him that there Evidence in Support of Daly's Hypothesis:
should be a close relationship between the growth The experimental borings done on the Funafuti
of reefs and temperature. atoll provide evidence in support of Daly's
According to Daly's hypothesis, in the last glacial hypothesis. Also, in the ice age, all the platforms
period, an ice sheet had developed due to the fall were cut down to the sea level by marine erosion.
in temperature. This caused a withdrawal of water, Hence, the depth of these platforms and that of
equal to the weight of the ice sheet. This lagoons with barrier reefs and coral atolls were
withdrawal lowered the sea level by 125-150 m. almost equal.

The corals which existed prior to the ice age had Study shows that the depths of the platforms and
to face this fall in temperature dining this age and of lagoons are equal at all places. The greatest
they were also exposed to air when the sea level merit of this hypothesis is that it needs no
fell. As a result, the corals were killed and the coral subsidence of the crust, as is the case with Darwin's
reefs and atolls were planed down by sea erosion hypothesis. Finally, the sea waves and currents
to the falling level of sea in that period. could have easily cut down the islands and
converted them into low platforms.
When the ice age ended, the temperature started
rising and the ice sheet melted. The water returned Evidence against Daly's Hypothesis:
to the sea, which started rising. Due to the rise in There are some platforms which are so long and
temperature and sea level, corals again started broad that their formation cannot be considered
growing over the platforms which were lowered as the work of marine erosion alone. One such
due to marine erosion. platform is the Nazareth Platform-350 km long
As the sea level rose, the coral colonies also rose. and 100 km wide. It is about 600 m high
The coral colonies developed more on the everywhere.
circumference of the platforms because food and Also, Daly could not explain the existence s of
other facilities were better available there than coral colonies at depths of 100 metres. He had to
anywhere else. admit local subsidence to be able to explain coral
Hence, the shape of coral reefs took the form of colonies in some deeper areas. Daly had also
the edges of submerged platforms. A long coral calculated that the fall of sea level during the ice
reef developed on the continental shelf situated on age was around 80 metres.
the coast of eastern Australia. Coral reefs and atolls It appears that this calculation is not correct. In
developed on submerged plateau tops. After the fact, the fall of sea level can be correctly measured
ice age, the surface of platforms was not affected by the angle of walls of submerged V-shaped
by any endogenetic forces and the crust of the earth valleys. If calculation is done on this basis, the
remained stationary. sea level should have fallen by more than 80m.
Finally, Daly had stated that the temperature was
lowered during the ice age. It must have caused
the death of corals, but there is no evidence of this
 27

phenomenon. depths may be attributed to the sedimentation, but

From the above discussion, it appears that the this in no case proves that the original bottom of
hypotheses of Darwin and Daly are not the lagoon, concealed beneath, may not be showing
contradictory but complementary. Both together different depths.
throw a lot of light on the phenomenon. Coral reef bleaching
Davis' Application of Physiography to the Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have been
Problem of Origin of Coral Reefs: subject to unprecedented degradation over the past
Davis gave his explanation in order to revive and few decades. Disturbances affecting coral reefs
re-establish the old idea of submergence as applied include anthropogenic and natural events. Recent
to the coral reef problem. In 1928, he attempted to accelerated coral reef decline seems to be related
give concrete physiographic evidences to explain mostly to anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation,
various problems hitherto unsolved. overfishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient
overloading. Natural disturbances which cause
To begin with, Davis reasserted the validity of damage to coral reefs include violent storms,
submergence. He stressed that the indented and flooding, high and low temperature extremes, El
embayed coastlines found in the coral seas Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events etc.
demonstrate the submergence of the land.
According to him, the flatness does not denote the Coral bleaching occurs when the relationship
true bottom of the lagoon, but is only due to the between the coral host and marine algae, which
deposition of debris. Similarly, the shallowness of give coral much of their colour, breaks down.
the lagoon illustrates the subsidence of the land. Without the marine algae, the tissue of the coral
animal appears transparent and the coral's bright
Davis has also taken into consideration the facts white skeleton is revealed.Coral reef bleaching is
of changing sea level. According to him, lowered a common stress response of corals to many of the
sea level on subsiding islands would also create various disturbances mentioned above.
cliffs and spurs, but most of them would be
protected by reefs along the shores from wave Corals begin to starve once they bleach. While
attack, hence cliffs would not be seen. Further, some corals are able to feed themselves, most
subsidence would also drown such cliffs if they corals struggle to survive without their algae.
were formed. If conditions return to normal, corals can regain
their algae, return to their normal colour and
survive. However, this stress is likely to cause
decreased coral growth and reproduction, and
increased susceptibility to disease.

Thus, this theory advocates the old idea of

subsidence with renewed application of Bleached corals often die if the stress persists.
physiography. It is also comprehensive in its Coral reefs that have high rates of coral death
application as it includes the changes of the following bleaching can take many years or
sealevel as well as the tectonic changes of the decades to recover.
landmass.
Causes of coral bleaching
In spite of the above evidence, one fact is left
unexplained, viz. the assumed equal depth of the As coral reef bleaching is a general response to
lagoons. The flat floor of the lagoon and its shallow stress, it can be induced by a variety of factors,
alone or in combination. It is therefore difficult to

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 28
unequivocally identify the causes for bleaching Spatial and temporal range of coral reef
events. The following stressors have been bleaching
implicated in coral reef bleaching events. Mass coral moralities in coral reef ecosystems
Temperature have been reported in all major reef provinces since
Coral species live within a relatively narrow the 1870s. The frequency and scale of bleaching
temperature margin and therefore, low and high disturbances has increased dramatically since the
sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching. late 70's. This is possibly due to more observers
Bleaching events occur during sudden temperature and a greater interest in reporting in recent years.
drops accompanying intense upwelling episodes, More than 60 coral reef bleaching events out of
seasonal cold-air outbreaks etc. 105 mass coral moralities were reported during
1979-1990, compared with only three bleaching
Solar Irradiance events among 63 mass coral moralities recorded
Bleaching during the summer months, during during the preceding 103 years.
seasonal temperature and irradiance maxima often
occurs disproportionately in shallow-living corals
and on the exposed summits of colonies.
Sub-aerial Exposure
Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the
atmosphere during events such as extreme low
tides, ENSO-related sea level drops or tectonic
uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
Fresh Water Dilution
Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated
precipitation and runoff has been demonstrated to
cause coral reef bleaching.
Other causes includes the increase in the
concentration of inorganic Nutrients,
sedimentation, oxygen starvation caused by an
increase in zooplankton levels as a result of
overfishing, ocean acidification, changes in
salinity, sea level change due to global warming,
cyanide fishing etc.
 29

8. SEA LEVEL CHANGE of mapping of areas likely to be affected by storm

surges and periodic flooding becomes possible only
By changes in sea level, we mean the fluctuations
if we know the likely areas to be affected by future
in the mean sea level, i.e., the average level of the
sea level rise. The construction of tidal power
sea surface. Thus, the changes in sea level may
generation units needs suitable locations. By
also be termed as a relative change in sea level.
identifying the areas of possible submergence in
During a relative rise in sea level, either the land
the near future it becomes possible for us to set up
or the sea surface may undergo upliftment or
tidal power generation plants in suitable locations.
subsidence, or both may rise and fall at the same
time. Mechanisms of the Change in Sea Level:
The major categories of change in sea level are The fluctuations of sea level involve three basic
mentioned mechanisms: changes in ocean water volume;
changes in ocean basin volume; changes in the
(i) Eustatic changes occur when the volume of sea
geoid, i.e., the shape of the earth
water changes due to factors such as global
warming and melting of ice sheets (rise in sea Changes in the volume of ocean water: The present
level) or ice ages (fall in sea level). sea level would rise by about 60 to 75 m if the ice
in Antarctica melts, whereas the Greenland ice cap
(ii) Tectonic changes occur due to a change in the
would contribute about 5 m rise in sea level. It is
level of land. These changes occur due to the
assumed that, in such a case, the added load of
following factors:
ocean water would lead to the sinking of the ocean
(a) Isostatic changes which take place due to floor due to isostatic compensation. So the total
addition or removal of load, e.g., during ice ages, rise of sea level would be about 40-50 m. However,
landmass subsided due to the tremendous load the isostatic adjustment of the land and the ocean
exerted by the glacial ice; as a result, there was an is still not clear due to lack of data.
apparent rise in sea level. On the other hand, the
Change in the volume of the ocean basin:
landmass of Scandinavia is still rising as the glacial
ice is being removed Changes in the volume of ocean basin and the
resultant changes in sea level were an important
(b) Epeirogenic movement occurs due to broad
event of the Mesozoic Era and the early Cenozoic
scale tilting of continents which may result in the
Era.
rise of one part of the continent in relation to the
mean sea level even as the other part may subside Such changes occur due to the following
causing an apparent rise in sea level. factors:
(c) Orogenic movement is related to folding and (i) Changes in the volume of mid-oceanic
flexuring (stretching of a part of the earth's crust) ridges:
of the lithosphere which results in the formation An important tectonic cause of sea level rise,
of lofty mountains and an apparent fall in sea level. changes in the volume of mid-oceanic ridges may
Relevance of the Study of Sea Level Changes: occur due to periodic reorganisation of plate
boundaries which cause variations in the total
The study of sea level changes is important. It
length of the ridge system. If the lithosphere is
provides key evidences regarding climate change
warm, the spreading rate increases causing an
and also enables us to draw a benchmark for
increase in ridge volume and vice versa. The sea
estimating the rates of tectonic upliftment in the
level rises when the oceanic ridge increases in
past geological periods. Sea level directly
volume.
influences the rate and pattern of erosional and
depositional processes in the coastal areas. By (ii) Accumulation of sediments on the ocean
studying the fluctuations of sea level it becomes floor:
possible to assess the suitability of coastal Sediments are produced by the denudation of
locations for industrial development. The continents and are deposited on the ocean floor.
fluctuations in sea level determine the availability The deposition of sediments may result in the
of land, particularly in coastal areas, which are subsidence of the ocean floor and the removal of
important for agricultural purposes. The sediments either through subduction or upliftment.
submergence of land in future could be a disaster If we do not take these two factors into
for the human civilisation as it may endanger our consideration, there will be a rise in sea level due
food security. By predicting climate change and to the decreased volume of the ocean basin.
the possible areas to be submerged under sea, it
(iii) Impact of orogenesis:
becomes possible for the low-lying countries to
build coastal dykes and embankments. The task As orogenesis causes shortening and thickening

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 30
of continental crust and a reduction in the area of (iii) Velocity of ocean currents:
continents, the sea level falls as a result of an Fast-flowing ocean currents when taking a curved
increase in the volume of the ocean basin. path cause arise in sea level on their outer fringes.
Short-Term Changes in Global Sea Level: Short- (iv) Ice formation and fall in sea level:
term changes occur during a year. Commonly,
seasonal variations of 5-6 cm in sea level are During winter the ocean water trapped in the
observed in a year. But the fluctuations of sea level icecaps of the northern and the southern
reach 20-30 cm or more in almost all coastal areas hemispheres leads to a fall in sea level.
of the world. Even if the causes of such short-term (v) Piling up of water along windward coasts:
changes are not known, the fluctuations of sea level A local rise of sea level occurs in the coastal region
may be due to a complex interaction of the as water is driven towards the coasts by an air
following factors: mass, for example, the sea level rises in south and
(i) Marine water density: Temperature and East Asia during the monsoon months due to
salinity control the density of sea water. Low landward movement of the air mass. The twentieth
temperature and high salinity produce high density century has observed short-term global sea level
of sea water and lower sea level. It is due to lower rise due to the following factors. Global warming
temperature and higher salinity that the eastern in the last century due to anthropogenic activities
part of the Pacific Ocean has a sea level30-50 cm has resulted in thermal expansion of ocean water.
higher than the Atlantic Ocean. Impact of the sea level fall- changes in the base
(ii) Atmospheric pressure: level of rivers, rejuvenated landforms ,extended
Low pressure results in higher local sea level and shoreline ,lengthening of rivers ,death of coral
vice versa. The sea level rises locally in places of reefs, extension of ice caps.
low pressure because water is sucked in by the
upward moving air mass.
 31

9. MARINE POLLUTION consumer products. Some of these chemicals enter

the sea through deliberate dumping. For centuries,
Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or
the oceans have been a convenient dumping ground
potentially harmful, effects result from the entry
for waste generated on land. Chemicals also enter
of the chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural
the sea from land-based activities. Chemicals can
and residential waste, noise, or the spread of
escape into water, soil, and air during their
invasive organisms into the oceans.
manufacture, use, or disposal, as well as from
Causes-The various causes of marine pollution accidental leaks or fires in products containing
are as follows- these chemicals. Once in the environment, they
• Oil- Oil spills cause huge damage to the marine can travel for long distances in air and water
environment. Oil spills penetrate into the structure Evidence is mounting that a number of man-made
of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, chemicals can cause serious health problems
reducing its insulating ability, and making them including cancer, damage to the immune system,
more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and behavioural problems, and reduced fertility.
much less buoyant in the water. Clean up and
• Radioactive Waste-Radioactive waste is also
recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends
dumped in the oceans and usually comes from the
upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled,
nuclear power process, medical use of
the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation
radioisotopes, research use of radioisotopes and
and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines
industrial uses. The difference between industrial
and beaches involved.
waste and nuclear waste is that nuclear waste
• Fertilizers- Fertilizer runoff from farms and lawns usually remains radioactive for decades. The
is a huge problem for coastal areas. Nitrogen-rich protocol for disposing of nuclear waste involves
fertilizers applied by farmers inland, for example, special treatment by keeping it in concrete drums
end up in local streams, rivers, and groundwater so that it doesn't spread when it hits the ocean floor.
and are eventually deposited in estuaries, bays, The concentration of radioactive waste in the
and deltas. These excess nutrients can spawn concrete drums varies as does the danger to marine
massive blooms of algae that rob the water of life and humans.
oxygen (eutrophication), leaving areas where little
• Underwater noise- Marine life can be susceptible
or no marine life can exist. Eutrophication has
to noise or the sound pollution from sources such
created enormous dead zones in several parts of
as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys,
the world, including the Gulf of Mexico and the
and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound
Baltic Sea.
travels more rapidly and over larger distances in
• Solid garbage- Solid garbage also makes its way the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals,
to the ocean in the form of Plastic bags, balloons, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and
glass bottles, shoes, and packaging material. live in a world largely defined by acoustic
Plastic garbage, which decomposes very slowly, information.
is often mistaken for food by marine animals. High
• Ocean Mining- Ocean mining in the deep sea is
concentrations of plastic material, particularly
yet another source of ocean pollution. Ocean
plastic bags, have been found blocking the
mining sites drilling for silver, gold, copper, cobalt
breathing passages and stomachs of many marine
and zinc create sulphide deposits up to three and a
species, including whales, dolphins, and seals,
half thousand meters down in to the ocean.
puffins, and turtles This garbage can also come
Ecosystem is severely hampered. This permanent
back to shore, where it pollutes beaches and other
damage dealt also causes leaking, corrosion and
coastal habitats.
oil spills that only drastically further hinder the
• Sewage disposal- In many parts of the world, ecosystem of the region.
sewage flows untreated, or under-treated, into the
• Major shipping corridors result in direct damage
ocean. For example, 80% of urban sewage
to the marine environment by anchor drag and the
discharged into the Mediterranean Sea is untreated.
need for dredging activities to maintain shipping
This sewage can also lead to eutrophication. In channels. Activities at larger ports present a risk
addition, it can cause human disease and lead to of introduction of species, accidental spills,
beach closures potential contamination, and habitat destruction.
• Toxic chemicals- Almost every marine organism, Pressure from ports, other marine facilities and
from the tiniest plankton to whales and polar bears, related infrastructure is expected to increase.
is contaminated with man-made chemicals, such Effects of marine pollution
as pesticides and chemicals used in common
• Effect of Toxic Wastes on Marine Animals-

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 32
Oil spill is dangerous to marine life in sev- eaten by large animals, which then affects the
eral ways. The oil spilled in the ocean could whole food chain.
get on to the gills and feathers of marine ani- • Affects Human Health- Animals from im-
mals, which makes it difficult for them to pacted food chain are then eaten by humans
move or fly properly or feed their children. which affects their health as toxins from these
The long term effect on marine life can in- contaminated animals gets deposited in the
clude cancer, failure in the reproductive sys- tissues of people and can lead to cancer, birth
tem, behavioural changes, and even death. defects or long term health problems.
• Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs- Oil Marine environmental management
spill floats on the surface of water and pre-
vents sunlight from reaching to marine plants • Environmental impact assessment should be
and affects in the process of photosynthesis. undertaken by developers with projects that
Skin irritation, eye irritation, lung and liver are likely to significantly impact the environ-
problems can impact marine life over long ment.
period of time. • Impacts have to be considered collectively,
• Depletes Oxygen Content in Water- Most of such as dredging, nutrient enrichment and the
the debris in the ocean does not decompose input of contaminants, and cumulatively
and remain in the ocean for years. It uses where impacts from multiple developments
oxygen as it degrades. As a result of this, contribute to significant, cumulative loss or
oxygen levels go down. When oxygen levels disturbance of habitats.
go down, the chances of survival of marine • Marine and coastal habitat mapping should
animals like whales, turtles, sharks, dolphins, be incorporated, in order to estimate the scale
penguins for long time also goes down. of damage caused due to human activities geo-
• Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea graphically.
Animals- Industrial and agricultural wastes • Mangrove assessment projects should also be
include various poisonous chemicals that are undertaken to document and assess informa-
considered hazardous for marine life. Chemi- tion about mangroves, in order to assist in
cals from pesticides can accumulate in the their management and conservation.
fatty tissue of animals, leading to failure in • Various mitigation measures to be imple-
their reproductive system. mented to reduce impacts to benthic habitats
• Effect on Food Chain- Chemicals used in in- from marine pollution and towed equipment,
dustries and agriculture get washed into the as well as mitigation to be implemented to
rivers and from there are carried into the reduce impacts to reef fish, will also mini-
oceans. These chemicals do not get dissolved mize impacts to corals from various marine
and sink at the bottom of the ocean. Small projects
animals ingest these chemicals and are later