Civil Booster - August 2023 Version Update - Check Highlighted Portion

and Marked For Changes

ESE-CIVIL ENGINEERING. PAPER-1 CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 125 121 107 107
2012 149 146 124 105 87 87
2013 165 153 110 102 113 101
2014 202 186 156 100 90 101
2015 262 228 180 187 91 114
2016 229 214 187 183 83 76
2017 202 177 148 151 102 68
2018 207 194 169 188 114 87
2019 188 185 143 159 88 52
2020 238 238 202 227 160 62 238
2021 249 243 196 213 159 59 246
2022 233 233 197 198 127 77 233
ESE-CIVIL ENGG. PAPERS MAINS CUT OFF
Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 283 239 224 221 125 159
2012 342 296 280 255 126 126
2013 352 301 267 252 159
2014 391 373 315 293 158 158
2015 516 470 376 411 197 225
2016 464 418 387 395 223 143
2017 520 459 415 439 315 145
2018 546 502 467 513 308 161
2019 541 500 453 482 252 145
2020 651 576 486 575 365 180 600
2021 617 582 484 519 264 156 581
2022 551 525 474 476 345 263 534

ESE-CIVIL ENGG. PAPER FINAL CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 451 427 369 387 216 251
2012 512 484 422 422 274 393
2013 500 475 412 419 299
2014 572 540 467 453 329 263
2015 674 630 539 552 380 323
2016 623 588 538 539 414 217
2017 691 650 564 578 437 311
2018 710 679 609 671 476 423
2019 702 668 596 640 466 241
2020 807 762 688 725 567 371 759
2021 804 762 642 667 553 272 772
2022 756 729 646 698 506 519 711

A
 SSC JE PAPER 1 CUT OFF (OUT OF 200)
Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2012 62.25 52.5 47.75 43.5 30 30
2013 78 70.5 66.25 63.5 60 40
2014 93.75 82 75.75 70 69 40
2015 103.75 91.25 88 87.75 78 30
2016 100 92.5 84.5 58.5 72.5 40
2017 117 110.75 101.75 105 91.5 61.75
2018 127.4 122.91 107.61 107.01 97.45 61.61 118.99
2019 123.52 115.93 101.70 102.61 92.24 55.73 112.28
2020 120.02 114.21 99.15 99.15 78.83 48.86 108.14
2022 110.57 107.99 86.36 86.32 80.28 40 89.08
SSC JE PAPER 2 CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS

2012 84 54 62 40 40 45
2013 83 69 62 56 59 32
2014 136 100 80 79 79 30
2015 131 62 50 50 50 40
2016 220.5 186 164 163.75 139.5 87.5
2017 244.75 244.75 220.75 228 231.25 152
2018 250.49 209.38 193.68 201.54 162.01 132.68
2019 315.55 265.07 235.51 243 169.02 122.79 270.44
2020 257.84 234.28 201.59 188.11 150.23 137.52 229.58
2022 323.40 310.53 290.01 296.86 244.69 186.65 314.32

SSC JE FINAL CUT OFF RANGE

Year UR OBC SC ST EWS

2012 184  276.75 190  258.5 168  238.75 144.25  237.25
2013 199.75  280.75 226  291.5 213.25  245.5 205  232.25
2014 285  353 287.75  334.5 265.25  307.75 250  392.75
2015 235.5  284.75 236.25  276.25 213.5  289.75 236.25  267.75
2016 238.25  264.75 236  252.25 205.25  225 228.25  245
2017 289.75  301.75 283.5  292.0 262.75  272.25 279.0  291.0
2018 295  275 280  250 270  235 270  245 295  265
2019 362.02  319.14 349.50  305.23 320.17  272.13 318.56  267.61 348.99  304.64
2020 306.76  264.13 280.83  261.3 258.75  227.34 248.38  216.32 297.14  252.26
2022 347.37  323.40 345.43  310.53 322.01  290.01 328.88  296.86 339.41  314.32

B
GATE-CIVIL ENGG. CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC / ST
2011 25 22.5 16.67
2012 33.03 29.73 22.02
2013 27.13 24.42 18.09
2014 26.57 23.91 17.71
2015 27.52 24.77 18.34
2016 25 22.5 16.6
2017 28.7 25.8 19.1
2018 26.9 24.2 17.9
2019 28.2 25.4 18.8
2020 32.9 29.6 21.9
2021 29.20 26.20 19.4
2022 30.4 27.3 20.2
2023 26.6 23.9 17.7

C
 SSC JE APPEARED CANDIDATES DETAILS

GATEAPPEARED CANDIDATES (CIVILENGINEERING)

SSC JE NO. OF FORM

3202
318265

ESE CIVILENGG. VACANCY DETAILS

SSC JE Civil Engg. Vacancy Details

3202
*3901
F
G
H
 How To Get Free Books On Each Data Error

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 Overall Exam Strategy

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 2 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Cement 2
 Cement is a material which has cohesive & adhesive properties in the
presence of water.
 Cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin of UK in 1824 & its colour
resembles to stone found in Portland (England). So, it is called Portland
cement.
 John Smeaton is considered as the father of civil engineering.
Basic - Cement has approximately 40 % voids.
Standard density = 1440 kg/m3
Weight of 1 bag of cement = 50 kg
50
 Volume = = 0.0347 m3 = 34.7 litre
1440
The tolerance in measurement of cement, is  2%
Material Unit weight
Brick Masonry 19 – 20 kN/m3
Plain cement concrete 2400 kg/m3
Reinforced cement concrete 2500 kg/m3
Cement mortar 20–21 kN/m3
Steel 7850 kg/m3
Cement 1440 kg/m3

Types of cement
Hydraulic cement Non-hydraulic cement

It sets & hardens quickly in It obtained from calcination

presence of water & of gypsum or limestone
results in water-resistant because their products of
product which is stable hydration are not water resistant
Ex:- Portland cement Ex:- Plaster of Paris
 Building Material Construction 7

of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO).

2.Rapid hardening cement (IS:8041): More C3S & less C2S as compared
to OPC. It is 10% more costly as compared to OPC.
 Not-used in mass concrete & it produce Large Shrinkage
 RHC attains same strength in 1 day which an OPC attains in 3
days with same w/c. But its ultimate strength is same as normal
setting cement.
 It is suitable for repair of roads, bridges etc.
3. Extra Rapid hardening cement: Rapid hardening cement + 2%
CaCl2 as accelerator.
 Especially used in cold weather but also give Excessive Shrinkages
4. High alumina cement (IS:6452 - 1989): Bauxite (40%), Lime stone
(40%),Iron Oxide (15%)& strength (N/mm2)- 1 Day (35-40), 3 Day
(50) . IST – Min. 30 minute & FST – Max. 10 hour.
 It is used for refractory concrete, industries & used widely in Pre-
casting.
 Particularly suitable to sea & under-water work
 Very resistance to chemical attack, Expansion  5 mm
5. Portland Slag cement: Mixture of Portland cement, Granulated blast
furnace slag & gypsum. It requires more time for curing & shuttering.
 High Sulphate resistance & it is Used in mass concreting
6. Super Sulphated Portland cement : Mixture of 80–85% Granulated
slag , 10– 15% calcium sulphate & 5% Portland cement clinker.
 It is resistant to chemical attacks particularly to sulphate & highly
resistant to sea water. Use for lining of canal and marine work.
 It should not be used with any admixture
7. Low heat Portland cement: Low C3S & C3A and more contents of
C2S .It is use in mass concrete work & widely use in retaining wall,
abutment, dam.
 Rate of development of strength is low but ultimate strength is same
8. Portland Pozzolana cement (IS:1489 Part-I) : OPC + 10– 30% of
fly ash by mass of PPC. It is use in marine work.
 Free lime is removed. Hence, resistant to chemical attack increases
 Pozzolana increase impermeability & water retaining capacity of
concrete. It is resistance to sulphate attack.
 Pozzolana has no cementing property in itself but when it combines
with lime, it produces a stable lime pozzolana compound which has
cementitious property.
 10 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Diameter length & shape of Vicat apparatus for different test:

S. Types of test Diameter or size Sha pe

No.

1. Initial setting time 1mm of square needle Square needle

or 1.13 mm circular

2. Final setting time 5 mm Annular ring

3. Consistency 10 mm Solid circular

Length of above apparatus lie in the range 40 to 50 mm.

1 mm sq
50
Air
vent 6.4
0.3
5
10 
Plunger Enlarged view of needle

3. Initial and Final Setting time

Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time
 It is possible to remix cement paste  Annular collar replaces square needle
during this period  It is the time elapsed between moments
 300 gm cement + 0.85 P of water water is added and paste completely loose
 1 mm2 square needle penetrates by 33–35 its plasticity.
mm from top.  Needle makes an impression but collar
 IST for OPC, RHC is 30 minute, fails to do so.
for low Heat Cement - 1 hour,  FST for OPC, RHC, LHC – 10 Hour
for High Alumina Cement – (3.5) hour for High Alumina Cement – (5) Hour
4. Soundness Test: To detect change in volume after setting
Le-Chatelier method Auto clave test
Measure unsoundness (free lime only) Senstive to both lime & magnesia
100gm of cement  0.78P water internal mould dimension (25×25×282) mm
Result is given in "mm" Result is given % (< 0.8%)

The maximum expansion limit for OPC, rapid hardening, low heat, portland,
masonry cement is 10 mm & for super sulphated, high alumina cement is 5
mm.
 Building Material Construction 17

 Strength of concrete increases with age in the following way.

Months Age Factor
1 1.00
3 1.10
6 1.15
12 1.20
3. Minimum Voids method: Voids in coarse aggregate should be filled
by sand & voids in sand should be filled by cement. Generally in actual
practice, quantity of sand used in the mixture is kept 10% more than
the voids in the coarse aggregate & quantity of cement is considered
15% more than the Voids in sand.
Water cement Ratio: It is the mass of ‘free water’ (excluding that
adsorbed by the aggregate) to that of cement in the mix. The ratio generally
lies between 0.35 to 0.65.
 It is mainly responsible for porosity of the hardened cement paste.
 For durable concrete W/C  0.8. If W/C > 0.6, Porosity increase &
strength decrease.
 Due to the presence of 2% oil in water, the strength of concrete is
reduced to 20% .
 Sea water in the world oceans has a salinity of approximately 3.5% or
35 parts per thousand.
 The constituents of sea water reacts chemically with constituents of
cement concrete causing damage to concrete structure.
 Sea water corrodes the reinforcement of R.C.C. Thus, affecting durability
of structure.
 Sea water due to presence of CaCl2 acceelerates the setting time of
cement.
 The sea water reduce the strength of concrete 10 to 20% .
 The seawater can not be used for pre-stressed concrete
 The strength of concrete cube made from normal water should not be
less than 90% of strength of concrete cube made from distilled water
Exposure conditions and requirements for Building Construction
works with normal aggregates of 20 mm nominal size.
Exposure Description N o mi na l Min gradeMin cement Max free
cover (mm) Content (kg/m 3 ) w/c ratio
RCC/P CC RCC/ P CC RC C/ P CC
Mild Normal 20 M20/M15 300/220 0.55/0.60
Moderate Expose to rain 30 M25/M15 300/240 0.50/0.60
Severe Immersed in sea water 45 M30/M20 320/250 0.45/0.50
Very Severe Exposed to sea spray 50 M35/M20 340/260 0.45/0.45
Exterme Tidal zone 75 M40/M25 360/280 0.40/0.40
20 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2P
Splitting tensile strength (fct) =
DL
Special Point:- Since concrete does not take any tensile strength, it is
taken as zero. But, IS code recommends the flexure tensile strength to be
calculated using fcr = 0.7 f ck N/mm2

(c) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular speci-

mens under direct tension.
 In the absence of test results, the code recommends to use an
estimate of the flexural tensile strength from the compressive
strength by the following equation–
fcr = 0.7 f ck
where,
f ck = Characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2.
fcr = Flexural tensile strength is N/mm2
Special Points: fcr = 0.7 f ck , fct = 0.66 fcr
Bending strength = 0.45 fck
& Direct tensile strength = [0.5 – 0.625]fcr.
where, fcr = Flexural tensile strength
f ct = Splitting tensile strength.
2P
fcr = 0.7 fck ,fct = 0.66fcr =
π DL
(Flexure > Splitting > Direct Tensile strength)
Factors affecting Strength of Concrete
1. Size of specimen: If size decreases then strength increases
2. Age of cement: Strength reduces as it absorbs moisture from
atmosphere.
S.No. Age of testing Compressive strength
1 1 month 1 × Strength at 28 days
2 2 month 1.10 × Strength at 28 days
3 3 month 1.22 × Strength at 28 days
4 6 month 1.46 × Strength at 28 days
5 12 month 1.55× Strength at 28 days
 22 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Adjustment in various igredients of concrete, if desired slump is not obtained

- Water-cement ratio - 0.01 , Water -1%, Cementious material - 1%,
Aggregate - 2%.
Measurement of workability
1. Slump test:
 Dimensions of mould (frustum of a cone )
Top diameter = 100mm
Height = 300 mm
Bottom diameter = 200 mm
 As per IS 1199 (Part 2- 2018), three layers, 25 strokes/layer
 Tamping rod: diameter 16 mm, length 600 mm
Special Point: Slump test is performed for maximum size of aggregate
as 38 mm only, if aggregate size > 38 mm, then wet sieving is done through
38 mm sieve.
10 Dia

10
2.5
1.3
0.2
Thick
30
At least
1.6 thick

0.2 Thick

0.6 20 Dia

All dimensions are in cm in above diagram.

Recommended slumps of concrete

No. Type of concrete Slump (mm)

1. Concrete for road construction 20 to 40
2. Beams & slabs 50 to 100
3. Mass concrete,Dam,Bridge,Retaining wall 25 to 50
4. Normal RCC work,Column,Thin wall 80 to 150
5. Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25
6. Impermeable work 75 to 120
 24 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Values of workability for different placing conditions

D egreeof Slum p C om pacting V ee  B ee

C onsistency U ses
W orkab ility (m m ) Factor T im e (Sec.)
E xtrem ely Low M oist Earth  0.65  0.70  20 Precast Paving Slabs
B linding concrete, Shallow S ection s,
V ery Low V ery D ry See 7.1.1 0.75  0.80 1 0  20 Pavem ents usin g pavers, R oad
(Pow er V ibrator)
M ass concrete, Lightly R einforced
Sections in slabs, beam , w alls, colum ns,
Lo w D ry 25  75 08.0.8 5 5  10
Floors, H and Placed P avem ents, canal
lining strip footing
H eavily R einforced Sections in
M edi um Plastic 50  100 0.85  0.92 25
Slabs, beam s, w alls, C olum ns
M edium Plastic 75  100 0.85  0.92 25 Slipform , w ork, Pum p ed concrete
H ig h S em i  Fluid 100  150 0.92  above  T rench fill, In-S itu Piling
V ery h igh Fluid See 7.1.2   T rem ie C oncrete

3.Vee Bee consistometer: It determines the time required for transforming,

by vibration, a concrete specimen in the shape of a conical frustum
into a cylinder.
 It is suitable for concrete having slump less than 50 mm.
 Consistency of the concrete is expressed in VB degree which is
equal to the recorded time in seconds.
 It is a good laboratory method, particularly for very dry mixes.

10
cm

30 cm

20 cm

260 mm

4. Flow table test: It is the laboratory test which gives an indication of

the quality of concrete wrt consistency, cohesiveness & the proneness
to segregation.In it, pour the freshly mixed concrete in the mould
comprising 2 layers; each layer should be tamped with tamping rod for
25times.The flow table is raised at the height of 12.5mm & dropped.
The same is repeated for 15 times in 15secs.
 28 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Sugar an admixture (retarding agents) used for delaying the setting time
of concrete without detrimental effect on the ultimate strength.
0.05% by weight of cement No effect
0.15% by weight of cement Reduces early strength & increases 28
day strength
0.2% by weight of cement Final set may not take place even for
72 hours.
Oil contamination
 Mineral oils not mixed with animal or vegetable oils in mixing water have
no adverse effects on the strength of concrete.
 Vegetable & animal oils have bad effect on strength of concrete at later
stages.
 Skimmed milk powder (casein) has a retarding effect mainly due to sugar
content.
 Mineral oils is up to 2% by weight of cement significant increase in
strength.
Admixture Us e Example Re ma rk
Plastisizer Reduce water Dose 0.1 - 0.4% (but < 1%)
content (improve  Hydroxylated of weight of cement
workability for a carboxylic acid
given w/c)  Polyglycol esters
Air entrainers Improved  Wood resin Dose 0.005%-1% of wt. of
resistance to  Vegetable oil cement. Reduce segregation,
damage from  Tallous, soap bleeding, density & strength
freezing &  Stearic acid increase impermeability of
thawing  Aluminium powder concrete
Accelerators Rapid setting &  Calcium chloride Dose 0.1-0.2% by
high early strength  Silicate weight of cement.
Super plastisizers Workability greatly  Sulphonated Finer the cement, higher will
enhanced melamine be dose
formaldehyde Reduced water
 Modified requirement by 20-40%
lignosulphonate Dose < 2%
Retarders Longer setting time  Calcium sulphate Dose < 0.5 % by weight
& slower initial  Sugar cellulose of cement. Delay hydration
strength gain  Tartaric Acid process upto 72 hrs.

Special point : Retarders are also used for hot weathering concrete, to
prevent cold joint, for grouting deep oil wells and In ready mix concrete.
 30 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Type of formwork Minimum period before

removing formwork

(a) Vertical formwork to columns, beams, walls 16-24 h

(b) Soffit formwork to slabs (props to be refixed 3 days
just after removal of formwork)
(c) Soffit formwork to beams (Props to be refixed 7days
just after removal of formwork)
(d) Props to slabs
(i) Spanning up to 4.5m 7 days
(ii) Spanning over 4.5m 14 days
(e) Props to beams & arches
(i) Spanning up to 6 m 14 days
(ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days

 Above specifications are valid for OPC & where ambient temperature
do not fall below 15ºC & adequate curing is done.
 For other cements & lower temperature, the stripping time recommended
above may be suitably modified.
Cellular concrete: It is also called aerated/foamed concrete. It is pre-
pared by mixing aluminum in C.C. It is light in weight & spongy in structure
Trasparent concrete: It is also called as translucent concrete or light
transmitting concrete. It is achieved by replacing aggregate with transpar-
ent alternate material use of optical fibre & fine concrete are also used as
transparent concrete
Lean concrete: It is mix where the amount of cement is lower than the
amount of liquid present in strata

S.No Type of Construction Min. Grade

1. Lean Concrete bases M5, M 7.5
2. P.C.C. , Foundation M 15
3. RCC (general construction) M 20
4. Water tanks, dome M 30
5. In sea water M30(RCC)
M20 (PCC)
6. Post-tensioned PSC M 30
7. Pre - tensioned PSC M40
 32 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Timber 4
 Timber applies to the trees measuring not less than 600 mm in
circumference of the trunk.
 Timbers are of three types standing timber, dead timber & converted
timber. Timber is highly anisotropic.
 The tree which is be found in living condition is known as standing timber
 The trunk of tree left after cutting all the branches is known as log
 The art of dressing of edges of timber pieces, so as to make them straight
& square with the face is called shooting
 The timber whose thickness is less than 5cm & the width exceeds 15cm,
is called a board
 Screws for wood work are specified by length
 Best period for cutting of tree is, when sap is in rest condition.
 The best season for felling of trees for timber production in hilly area is
mid summer & for plane area, its mid winter.
 Maximum deflection for timber beam: Span/360.
 Timber beam are Designed as laterally supported beam.
Types of trees

Endogenous tree Exogeneous tree

These grow inward These grow outward
Bamboo, Cane, Palm Deodar, Sal, Teak
Conifers Deciduous
(soft wood) (hard wood)
Needle shape leaves Broad shape leaves
Evergreen tree Open tree
Pine, Chir, Deodar Oak, Teak, Shishum
 For all engineering work we use exogeneous tree.
Exam point: Softwood like Deodar are harder than hardwood like papita.
 34 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special Points: Wood added during early part is different from the wood
added during the late part. Because of this difference between the early
wood & late wood, Growth rings (Annual rings) becomes apparent &
use in age of tree.
Properties of Timber:
1. Specific gravity of wood = 1.54 & It is anisotropic elastic , shrinks
least along length & maximum along circumference
2. Tensile strength along the grains is 2–4 times stronger than compressive
strength. The stronger timber has closed grains.
3. The strength of any timber is highest in direction parallel to the grains.
4. Fibre saturation point is % moisture content at which cell walls are
saturated & cell cavity contains no water.
5. Timber has high sound conductivity (nearly 2–17 times greater than
air).
6. Weight of timber should be noted at 12% moisture content
7. Resistance of wood to cutting across the fibers (shear strength) is 3 to
4 times greater than along the fibers
8. Modulus of elasticity is generally (0.5 – 1)× 104 N/mm2 & its ratio of
longitudinal to transverse direction is 1 –2 times.
Sawing of Timber

Saw cuts
Saw cuts
Saw cuts

ORDINARY SAWING QUARTER SAWING TANGENTIAL SAWING RADIAL SAWING

Ordinary Flat/slab sawing: It is very quick & economical method. It is

widely adopted in our country.
Radial (Rift) Sawing Sawing is done parallel to the rays &
perpendicular to the rings. It will produce the strongest timber piece as in it,
medullary rays are not out as the sawing is done parallel to the rays.
Tangential SawingIn it, cutting is tangential to the annual rings & at
right angles to the meduallary rays. It is unsuitable for flooring.It give minimum
strength timber.
Quarter/Rift Sawing These wood wears better & shrink more evenly.
 Building Material Construction 59

 Gauged mortar is a lime cement mortar. In lime mortar, cement is

sometimes added to achieve early strength & it’s called gauging.
 Light weight mortar is prepared by adding materials like as saw dust,
wood powder etc. to lime or cement mortar. It is used in sound proof &
heat proof construction.
Selection of mortar
S. No. Nature of work Type of mortar Proportions
1. Water logged areas Hydraulic lime 1: 3
2. Damp proof course & cement Cement mortar 1: 2
concrete roads
3. General RCC works, Water tank Cement mortar 1: 3
4. Brick masonry Cement mortar 1:6
5. Internal walls Lime cinder mortar 1: 3
6. Partition wall of Parapet wall Cement mortar 1:3
7. Plaster work Cement mortar 1: 3 to 1: 4
Lime mortar 1:2
8. Pointing work Cement mortar 1:1 to 1: 2.
9. Stone masonry Lime mortar 1:2

Guniting: It is the application of mortar or concrete under pneumatic

pressure through cement gun. Its ratio of cement mortar is 1:3. It is done in
layers of 40–50 mm. A thin layer of grout builds up & acts like a cushion
reducing the percentage rebound in the successive layers. Average unit weight
of gunite is 2300 kg/m3.
Grout: Cement mortar of fluid consistency used to fill the voids & joints
in masonry and to repair the cracks. Water-cement ratio should be kept as
low as possible to increase strength & reduce shrinkage.
Porting: It is the method of injecting epoxy in the gap or crack for repair.

Special Points: Normal curing period for lime mortar is 7 days.

• Quick lime is measured in quintal.
• For 100 kg slaking, we required 40 kg water.
• Lime calcinated at 800-900°C
• Ball test is carried out to identify class B or class C lime.
• Hydraulic lime has earthy smell, grey colour.
• Density of quick lime = 1050 kg/m3 & slaked lime = 640 kg/m3.
• Lime has initial setting time 2 hour & final setting time 48 hour.
• For lime concrete, Slump = 50 – 75 mm
• Flexural strength at 90 days = 0.2 N/mm2
• Compressive strength at 28 days = 1.2 N/mm2 & 90 days = 1.5 N/mm2
 60 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

STONE 9
 Lithology is the study of the general physical characteristics of rocks.
 Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers crystallography
physical, chemical, minerals study etc.
 Petrology is the study of rocks & the conditions under which they form.
 Rockology is introduction to geology at basic level.
 A Rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. Like as Granite is
composed of three minerals Feldspar, Quartz and Mica.
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition & a crystalline structure formed by geological process.
E.g. Mica, Quartz, Gypsum, Calcite, Diamond, Topaz etc.
 Building stones are obtained from rocks which have distinct planes of
divisions along which stones can be easily split. This plane is known as
natural bed.
 In stone masonry, the stones are placed in position such that the natural
bedding plane is normal to the direction of pressure they carry
Types of work Direction of natural bed
Masonry wall Horizontal direction
Arches Radial direction
Cornice/string course Vertical direction
 For the construction of domes, lighter stones are preferred

S.No. Rubble Masonry Ashlar Masonry

1. Use hard & irregular shape Use smooth shape of
of stone stone
2. These type masonry These type masonry having
having rough dressing smooth dressing & regular
& having wide joint. fine joints of 3 mm thick
 Building Material Construction 61

Geological classification -
Sedimentary rock - formed by weathering action of existing rock. Ex. Sand-stone, Lime-
stone, Shales, Gravel, Lignite.
Igneous Rock - formed by cooling & solidification of magma & lava. Ex. Trap, Dolerite,
Rhyolite, Pegmatite, Diorite, Basalt,
Meta-morphic Rock - Igeneous & Sedimentary rocks are undergone considerable change
with high pressure & temperature. Ex- Marble (made from lime - stone), Quartzite ( made
from sand-stone), Static.
Physical classification -
Stratified Rock - Rock showed Layered structure. Ex. Sand stone, Lime stone, Slate,
Marble.
Unstratified Rock - Does not showing layered structure, these can not easily split into
thin slabs. Ex. Granite, Trap.
Foliated Rocks - Metaimorphic rocks are generally foliated rocks. They have the
tendency to split along a definite direction. Their direction are not parallel to each other as
in case of stratifie drocks.
Chemical Classification -
Calcareous Rocks - These have calcium carbonate as their main components. Ex.
Marble, Lime stone.
Argillaceous Rocks - These have clay & Alumina as their main components. Ex. Slate,
Clay, Mudstone, Laterite.
Siliceous Rock - These have silica as their main component. Ex. Trap, Quartz, Cranite.

Stone Type of Rock Us e s

1. Granite Igneous (Silicious) Ornamental columns,
sea walls, railway ballast,
building blocks, bridge piers,
in making of artificial stone.
GS=2.6 - 2.9 ( general range )
2. Basalt or Igneous (siliceous) Paving sets, road material,
trap aggregate in concrete
3. Marble Metamorphic rock Carving & decoration
(from limestone or work, steps, table
dolomite) slabs etc. GS=2.72
4. Gneiss Metamorphic rock Street Paving
5. Sand Sedimentary rock Coarse grained for
stone (silicious variety) rubble work for slabs,
tiles & fine grained for
ashlar work, moulding etc.
6. Slate Metamorphic rock Making electrical Switch board,
formed from shale GS=2.8, as DPC, use
in cisterns for urinal partition
7. Laterite Sedimentary rock As building stone, as road material
 74 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Steel & Glass 13

Some Special Varieties of Glass
Bullet proof glass: It is made up of several alternate layers of plate glass
& vinyl resin plastic. The thickness of outer layers is small as compared
to inner layers .
It is made of thick glass steel & a sandwiched layer of high strength
plastic
Float glass: It is extensively used in residential & commercial build-
ings. It is superior to ordinary glasss in terms of energy consumption, cost
effectiveness, appearance & strength.
Fibre glass : fibre glass consists of minute glass roads(fibres) made
up of the parent material itself. It is soft & flexible.It is used for Thermal
Insulation.
Safety glass : It is also called shatter proof glass. It is extensively
used in automobile glass. the glass does not actually breaks but cracks
therefore preventing damage from flying splinters, pieces of glass.
Ultra violet ray glass : This glass effectively transmits almost all of
the ultra-violet rays incident on the glass irrespective of the angle of
incidence.Other types of glasses made for specific purposes are Heat
excluding glass, Shielding glass, Perforated glass, Structural glass.
Exam Points: Glass typically has a tensile strength of 7 MPa.
 The common house hold glass is soda lime glass.
 Foam glass is recommended while making a building air - conditioned.
 The glass used for display windows of jewellery shop is laminated glass.
 Glass used in railways coaches is wire glass.
 Wired Glass: Used in outside window to resist fire & Breakage.
 Ground Glass: Used where light is to be admitted, but vision is to be
obscured.
Steel
 Vanadium steel is normally used in the manufacture of Axles & springs.
 Manganese steel is used in manufacture of rails.
 Building Material Construction 75

Physical properties of steel

Various physical properties of structural steel are given below.
Unit mass of steel,  = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio,  = 0.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion,  = 12 × 10–6/ºC
Metals can be grouped in the following two categories.
1. Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain Iron (ferrous) as their main
constituent.
Main constituents of ferrous materials are Pig iron, wrought iron, cast
iron, steel & alloys
2. Non ferrous metals: Commonly used non ferrous metals are
aluminium, copper etc. These metals are obtained by processing the
iron ores mined from the earth. Important varieties of iron ores are
(1) Haematite - Fe2O3 (65-70 % of iron)
(2) Pyrite - FeS2 (45% of iron)
(3) Magnetite - Fe3O4 (70-73% of iron)
(4) Limonite - 2Fe2O3.3H2O (60% of iron)
(5) Siderite - FeCO3 (40% of iron)
The crude iron extracted from iron ores is called pig iron, which forms
the basic material for manufacturing of cast iron, wrought iron & steel.

Manufacturing of steel
The process commonly used for manufacturing of steel are
(1) Bessemer Process - Cast iron is made from cupola furnace.
(2) Open hearth process - Wrought iron
(3) Crucible steel process
(4) Duplex process (5) Cementation process
(6) Electric process - Pig iron
(7) Lintz & Dona witz (L.D.) process

Treatment of steel
(a) Mechanical treatment : Mechanical treatment are introduced to give
desired shape to the steel so as to fit the purpose.
(i) Drawing : It refers to the reduction of cross section & to increase it
 80 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Defects in Painting
(a) Blistering: It is the defect caused due to the fomation of bubbles
under film of water paint. The bubbles are formed by water vapours
trapped behind the painted surface.
(b) Running: This defect occur when the surface to be painted is too
smooth due to this the paint runs back & leaves small area of the
surface uncovered.
(c) Craling or sagging: This defect occurs due to the application of too
thick paint.
(d) Bloom: In this defect dull patches are formed on finished polished
surface. This may be either due to defect in paints or due to bad ven-
tilation.
(e) Fading: This is the gradual loss of color of paints due to effect of
sunlight on pigments of paints.
(f) Flashing: It is the formation of glossy patches on the painted surface
resulting from bad workmanship cheap paint or weather action.
(g) Flaking: Flaking is the dislocation or lossening of some portion of the
painted surface resulting from a poor adhesion.
(h) Grinning: This defect is caused when the surface final coat does not
have sufficient opacity so that background is clearly seen.
(i) Saponification: This is the formation of soap patches on the painted
surface due to chemical action of alkalis.
Various constituents of an oil paint are:
(a) Base: It is metallic oxide which is the principal constituent of a paint.
Most common base used for timber painting is white lead & for iron &
steel surface is red lead
It makes the paint film opaque & possesses binding properties which
reduces the shrinkage cracks in the film on drying.
(b) Vehicle: It is also known as binder or carrier or drying oil
 It is an oil to which base is mixed. It holds the constituents of paints
in suspension & helps spread it over the surface to be painted.
 It gives durability, toughness & water proofness & resistance to
weathering.
 Linseed oil, poppy oil, tung oil, animal oils are examples of vehicle.
(c) Solvents: These are oils used to thin the paints, increase the spread.
Also called thinner. Ex. Naptha, Spirit, Petroleum, Turpentine oil.
(d) Drier (e) Adultrants (f) Extenders
(g) Pigments: It is used to hide the surface imperfections & to impart
the desired colour.
 Building Material Construction 81

Name of pigment Colour

Zinc oxide, White lead lithophone White
Copper sulphate, Chromium oxide Green
Burnt siena Brown
Indigo, Prussian blue Blue
Ivory black, Lamp black Black
Red lead, Vermillion Red

Exam Points:
 The drier in an oil paint should not be more than 10% (by volume).
 Gypsum is an insulating material & used as sound proof material.
 Gypsum is composed of calcium sulphate & di-hydrate.
 Density of gypsum is 2960 kg/cum.
 Galvanized iron pipe is used for making drinking water pipes.
 Sewer pipes are made of stoneware.
 The amount of water used for one kg of distemper is 0.6 litre.
 Putty is traditionally made by mixing a base of whiting (fine pow-
dered chalk) with the linseed oil in the various parts. It has similar
texture to clay. It is used for filling holes, microcracks etc. It is used
in domestic construction & repair as a sealant & filler due to it’s high
plasticity characteristics.
 Resin is a natural or synthetic organic compound having a non-crystal-
line or viscous liquid substance.Natural resins are yellowish to brown
in colour. These are typically fusible & flammable organic substances
that are transparent or translucent.They are formed in plant secretions
& are soluble in various organic liquids like as spirit but not soluble in
water. They are used as varnishes & left behind on evaporation of oil.
 Terpentine oil are also used to clean brushes & other tools.
 Peeling is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered
surface, resulting in the formation of a patch.
Thermocol is a very light, cellular plastic.
• The compressive strength of thermocol varies from 117 - 144 kg/cm2 .
• It resist dampness.It is light, strong and durable.
• It is used in acoustic treatment and lining of ceiling and walls.
• It is an excellent insulating material of heat, sound and electricity.
 Estimation-Costing 93

Damp Proofing: Damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture

control technique applied to building walls, floors & roads to prevent mois-
ture from passing into the interior space by using damp proofing materials.It
is provided at plinth level.
Damp Proofing Materials:
1. Flexible material like butyl rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets etc.
2. Rigid materials, like impervious bricks stones, slates, cement morter, or
cement concrete painted with bitumen.
3. Semi-rigid materials like mastic asphalt.
4. Flexible material used for damp proofing is bitumen sheeting
5. The maximum size of the aggregate used in a DPC is about 12.5 mm
6. The most commonly used damp proofing material is bitumen
Binding wire (Steel work) - Binding wire required for (1000 kg) of
reinfrocement = 9 to 13 kg (depending upon diameter of bar). Greater the
diameter of bar, lesser will be the weight of binding wire required.
Special points:
(i) Order of Booking the Dimension in MB = L, B, H
(ii) If depth of excavation < 30 cm, surface excavation (unit m2)
(iii) In Earthwork, Lead & Lift is 30 m & 1.5 m respectively.
(iv) Surface dressing up to 15 cm depth and surface excavation up to
30 cm depth measurements for payments is in the square meter. The
unit of payment for the earthwork for embankment is per m3 .
(v) The maximum depth of borrow pit and horizontal distance between
two borrow pits is 30 to 60cm. and 5m
(vi) Number of Bricks using flat soling & edge soling (using conventional
brick - 224 x 114 x 70 mm ) 32 & 54 respectively in 1 m2.
(vii) For doors & window, we use 6 & 4 hold fast respectively.
(viii) Truck: No. of bricks = 4000, volume of sand = 3-5 m3 (generally)
(ix) In steel roof truss about 5% of steel volume is provided for Rivets & Bolts.
(x) When the ground is fairly uniform, 'Deadman” or “Tell-Tales” shall be
left at suitable intervals to determine the average depth of excavation.
 Weight of steel bar per meter length = (d2/162) = 0.00618 d2 kg.
Degree of Accuracy - Wood Work: 2mm, Weight – 1 kg, length – 0.01
m, Area – 0.01 m2, Volume – 0.01 m3
 Dimensions shall be measured to the nearest of 0.01 m except for
slab(0.005m).
 Estimation-Costing 113

 Group C: Institutional buildings: Include any building used for purpose

like medical or other treatment or care of infant, aged person etc. like
sanatoria, nursing home, hospital, orphanage, jails, mental hospitals etc.
 Group D: Assembly buildings: Include any building like theatre, drama
theatre, auditorium, museums, assembly hall, exhibition hall, restaurant,
place of worship, dance hall, sport stadium, club house, skating rings,
gymnasiums etc.
 Group E: Business buildings: Include any building for transaction of
business, record for similar purpose etc.
 Group F: Mercantile buildings: Include any building which is used as
stores, shop, market for display and sale for mercantile either whole sale
or retail.
 Group G: Industrial buildings: Include any building in which product
or material of all kind and property are fabricated or assembled such as
gas plant, refineries, dairies, smoke house, textile mill and saw mill.
 Group H: Storage buildings: Include any buildings for storage or
sheltering of goods, wares, like ware houses, garage, old storage, etc.
 Group I: Hazardous buildings: Include any building which is used for
storage, handling, manufacturing of highly combustible explosive material
or which are highly toxic in nature etc.

Long wall & Short wall Centre line method

Also called individual/separate Required special
wall/general method,use in CPWD attention at the junction point
Simple method but time consuming Quick method
More accurate Less accurate
In it, length of long wall descreaseand Length remains constant,
short wall increase It is suitable for polygon
as we move from substructure to shape structure without any
superstructure cross wall

 IS - 1480 : 1960 - Metric scales for General purpose

 IS - 1480 : 1961 - Metric scales for Engineers.
 IS - 1491 : 1959 - Specifications for metric scales or architectural
purpose.
 Contractor’s profit and overhead is 15 % ( C.P. = 7.5 % & O.H. = 7.5
%) has been adopted by the CPWD. (Generally it’s 10%).
114 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Soil Origin & Its

Properties 1
 Father of Soil Mechanics Dr. Karl Terzaghi coined the term ‘‘Soil
Mechanics’’ in 1925.Soil in latin word known as Solium.
 A civil Engineer is concerned mainly with (10 -15) m from top crust of
soil in dealing with small or medium size project.
 The soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are visible to the naked eye.
Surface Area
Specific Surface =
Mass or Volume , Unit wt. of soil, generally- 20 kN/m
3

 The specific surface is defined as the total area of surface of grains per
unit of mass. A sphere has least specific surface area as compared to a
plate.
(4)
Existing
rock

(3) Upheaval Weather action (1)

Transportation/
deposition
(2)

Geological Phase

Erosion phase
Physical weathering Chemical weathering
 Retains same composition of  Change in mineral composition
Parent rock
 Bulky particles like as gravel,  Plate like structure with high
sand
surface area, ex- clay, silt
 Shape-Angular, Rounded,  Crystalline particle of colloidal
Flat & Elongated
size known as clay mineral
 Single grain particles without
bonding between them
 Soil Mechanics 115

Soil Deposited by
Alluvial Soil River/running water
Marine Soil Sea water
Lacustrine Soil Still water like as lakes
Aeolian Soil Wind like as Sand-dunes, Loess
Glacial Soil Ice ( Till/drift )
Loess is a wind deposit soil (silt). It is generally of uniform gradation,
with the particle size between 0.01 - 0.05 mm. These deposits have low
density & high compressibility (when they are in wet form). For loess
the permeability in vertical direction is generally larger than that of
horizontal direction.Loess is the most important collapsible soil.
 Soil deposit due to gravity force is called talus (colluvial soil).
Alluvial soil: Low density & liable to liquefaction in earthquake prone
areas.Ex - gravel, sand.
Black Cotton Soil: Residual deposits form basalt or trap rocks, contain
clay mineral. Very poor bearing capacity (50-100 kN/m2).
 If depth of layer of B.C.S. is shallow, Then remove its layer for making
structure.
 If depth of layer of BCS is Deep, then we use under-reamed piles In
foundation for making structure.
 Generally we use raft foundation in black cotton soil.
 Black cotton soil have high shrinkage & swelling characteristics, it’s
shearing strength is extremely low. It is due to Montmorillonite mineral.
Laterite soil: Iron oxide gives red or pink colour. It is residual soil formed
from basalt. It is soft & can be cut with knife.
Desert soil: It is uniform in gradation (ex. dune sand). It is Non-plastic
& highly pervious.
Loam: It is the mixture of sand, silt & clay.
Caliche: It is the mixture of gravel, sand & silt.
Marine soil: It has low shearing strength, highly compressible, soft &
highly plastic.
Peat: It is the organic soil with fibrous aggregates formed from vegetable
matter in excess moisture (ex. in swamps), highly compressible. It is not
suitable for foundation.
Muck Soil - Mixture of inorganic soil & black decomposed organic matter.
Peat & Muck soil are also termed as cumulose soil.
Bentonite: It is formed from volcanic ash. It has high percentage of
Montomorillonite.It is used in drilling operations.
 Soil Mechanics 119

Mass specific gravity of soil

t Gs
Gm =  = = Gs(1-n) , (unitless, Gm < G)
w 1 e
Relative density: It is also called density index.

emax  enatural  d max   d natural   d min 

Dr = e  e =   
max min d natural   d max   d min 

It (Dr) is generally used for sandy & gravelly soils

Relative density Classification

0–15 Very loose
15–35 Loose
35–65 Medium dense
65–85 Dense
85–100 Very dense

Some Important Relationships

W V
1. Ws  2. Vs = 3. a = n × ac
1 w 1 e
t n
4. d = 5. ac + s = 1 6. e=
1 w 1 n
e G+Se
7. n= 8. se = wG 9. t =  w
1 e  1e 
G G+e G–1
10. d = w 11. sat = w 12. submerged = w
1 e 1 e 1 e
w (1   a )G  w
13. S = 14. d = 1  w G 15.  sub   sat   w
w 1
(1  w) 
t G

1
Exam Points: 1.  sat     dry   sub , 2. sub  sat
2

2. If in question,(a)   g / cm 3 , then  w  1g / cm 3 , (b)   kN / m 3 ,

 w  10 KN / m 3 or 9.81 kN/m3
 Soil Mechanics 123

D 60 = Size of the particle such that 60% particle are finer than this size
D 10 = Effective size of particles (particles which if present alone will
cause the same effect as caused by the soil).
D 60 > D30 >D10
b e
a
c
% finer d

Coarse 75 Fine

a  Well graded
a & b  Similarly graded
c  Poorly/uniformly graded coarse grain soil.
d  Gap graded
e  Poorly graded fine soil
Special Points: If there is a abruptly change in the graph, then it shows
the mixture of soil of two different geological formations.
 Boulder > Cobbles > Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay > Colloidal particle (Size)
 In gap grading, one or more intermediate fractions of particles are absent.
D60
Coefficient of uniformity Cu = D
10
(For Gravel, Cu > 4, For Sand, Cu > 6)
D30 2
Coefficient of curvature Cc =
D60  D10
(For well graded soil, 1  Cc  3)
 A uniform soil has less strength & stability than a Non-uniform soil.
• Sedimentation Analysis: Based upon Stoke’s Law.
(  s   w )d 2 (G  1) w d 2
Stoke’s Law: Vt = =
18 18
V t = terminal velocity
d  diameter of the grain
 Stoke’s law valid for range of diameter of particle = 0.2 mm to 0.0002
mm
 If particle size is smaller than 0.0002 mm, then Brownian motion will
occur & if particle size is greater than 0.2 mm, then turbulent motion will
occur.
124 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

h d1 h t
 d2   1 2
t d2 t1 h2
h = height through which particle falls in t-secs.
Special Points:
 Pipette method & Hydrometer method, both follow the same principal,
but different in taking sample/observations.
 Hydrometer is a device which is used to measure the specific gravity
of liquid, calibrated at 200 C.
 7 gm sodium carbonate + 33 gm Sodium Hexa Meta phosphate + 1 litre
water  Dispersing Agent.
 (12 - 30) gm soil + 1 litre water  Soil solution.
Corrections in hydrometer Analysis
• Defloculating (Dispersing) Agent correction  Always negative (Cd)
• Meniscus correction  Always positive (Cm)
• Temperature correction  If temp.is more than 27°C, its positive
otherwise negative (Ct)
• Combined correction
C = Cm – Cd ± Ct
Consistency limits
It is the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed. Atterberg classified
the consistency in 4 - stages  solid, semi-solid, plastic, liquid stage.

VL

VP
Liquid
Assumed

Vdry Plastic
Semi
Assumed solid
solid
WS WP WL
V dry = Volume at shrinkage limit.
VP = Volume at Plastic limit.
VL = Volume at liquid limit.
WL = Water content at liquid limit.
WP = Water content at plastic limit.
WS = Water content at Shrinkage limit.
126 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1
Flow Index   Shear Strength

Plastic limit
 It is minium water content at which soil is in plastic stage.
 Shear strength at the plastic limit is about 100 times at that liquid limit.
 At plastic limit, a soil when rolled into a thread of 3 mm, does not show
any crack on surface. It starts to crumble.
Shrinkage limit
It is minimum water content at which soil is completely saturated or the
maximum water content at which further reduction in water content does
not cause any descrease in the volume of soil sample.
(V1 – Vd)w
V1 – Vd

Water Water Air

V1 W1 Vd
Solid Solid Wsolid Solid Wsolid

Original Soil at Dry soil

saturated soil shrinkage limit (c)
(a) (b)
At shrinkage limit, (a) S = 1, (b) there are two phases (soil & water), (c)
no volume change.
(W1  WSolid )  (V1 -Vd )  w
Water content at shrinkage limit = Wsolid
Shrinkage ratio: It is the mass specific gravity of the soil in dry state.
 V1  Vd 
   100 d
S.R. =  V d  , S.R. = 
W1  W2 w

V1  Vd
Volumetric Shrinkage =  100
Vd

Plasticity Index:
I P = WL–WP
 Soil with large IP & WL  Fat clay and Soil with low IP & WL  Lean
clay.
 The soil used in the base course should have plasticity less than 6 %.
 Soil Mechanics 127

 If the plasticity index comes out negative, then it will be consider 0 (sand,
gravel).
IP Consistency
0 Non Plastic (Gravel, Sand)
<7 Low Plastic
7–17 Medium Plastic
> 17 Highly plastic
 If we add clay particles in gravel, sand etc. (coarser soil), then liquid &
plastic limit of soil particle increases.
 Low plastic soil is used for Embankment because it is easy to compact.
Consistency Index: It is also called relative consistency.
WL  W
Ic = W  W
L P

W  WP
Liquidity Index IL = W  W , (Note: Ic + IL = 1)
L P
Shrinkage Index = Plastic limit - Shrinkage limit.
Consistency Ic IL
Very stiff >1 <0
Stiff 1–0.75 0–0.25
Medium Stiff 0.75 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.5
Soft 0.5–0.25 0.5–0.75
Very soft 0.25–0 0.75–1
Iiquid State <0 >1
Toughness Index: It gives us an idea of strength of soil at plastic limit.
IP S
It   log P , It’s general range 0 - 3.
If Sl
SP = Shear strength at plastic limit, Sl= Shear strength at liquid limit
Thixotropy

 It is regain of loss in strength of soil with passage of time.

During Pile driving in clayey soil, frictional resistance by soil increases
due to property of thixotropy.
128 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Sensitivity (S):
Unconfined Compressive Strength of an undistrubed soil
St =
Unconfined compressive strength of remoulded soil
qu (undisturbed)
St= q (remoulded)
u

Exam Point: Stiff clay having fissures & crack have St  1.

1 Insensitive (Gravel & Coarse sand)
2–4 Normal/ Low sensitive ( Honeycomb)
4–8 Sensitive (Silt & Clay)
8–16 Extra sensitive (Flocculant)
> 16 Quick/ Unstable

For the rapid assessment, following table should be used.

Unconfined compressive Consistency

strength (qu) (kPa)

0 - 24 Very soft
24 - 48 Soft
48 - 96 Medium
96 - 192 Stiff
192 - 383 Very stiff
> 383 Hard

Activity Number (Ac):

More activity means more changes in volume.
IP
Ac =
% of clay size particles (size < 2)

Activity Classification
 0.75 Inactive
0.75  1.40 Normal
 1.40 Active

Dilatancy: It is the volume change observed in granular material when

they are subjected to shear deformation.
• If soil is silty, water rises quickly to its surface & gives it a shiny or
glistening appearance.
 Soil Mechanics 135

Special Points: Zero air void line can not be practically achieved because
all air voids can not be ever removed.

OMC  Clay > Silt > Sand > Gravel, d  Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay

N nW h
Compactive effort E =
V
NNo. of blows per layer, W weight of hammer
nno. of layers, h height of fall, Vvolume of mould
Compaction Tests:

Standard Modified IS:2720 IS : 2720

Protector Test Protector Test Light compaction Heavy compaction
Volume of mould 944 cc 944 cc 1000 cc 1000 cc
No. of layers 3 5 3 5
No. of blows per
25 25 25 25
Layer
Height of free fall 30.48 cm 45.72 cm 31.0 cm 45.0 cm
Weight of Hammer 2.495 kg 4.54 kg 2.6 kg 4.9 kg
Compactive effort
549.29 2696.31  
(KJ/m 3 )

Exam Point: Ratio of compactive effort (energy imparted), in modified

proctor test (2696.31KJ/m3) to Standard proctor test (549.29 KJ/m3) is 4.5.

Compaction Curve for different Soils:

d
GW
SW
ML
CL
CH

wc
 Well graded soil can be compacted more than poorly graded soil
 Low plastic soil (L) can achieve higher compaction than highly plastic (H) soils.
 Soil Mechanics 139

2. Coefficient of Compresibility (av)

e
av  , Unit = m2/kN


e
e0
e1
e1
e2
e2

0 1 2

3. Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)

Volume change per unit volume
mv  , Unit = m2/kN
Increase in effective stress
av
mv 
1  e0 where, e0 = Initial void ratio

Calculation of Primary Settlement

H = Change in depth (settlement)
e0 = Initial void ratio.
 e
1. 
 0 1  e0

cc H  0   
2. H = mv   Ho, 3. H = log  
1+e0  0 

Calculation of Secondary Settlement:

 It is significant only for Highly plastic soil & it occurs due to readjustment
of soil particles.
ct H 0 t2
H = 1+e log10 t
0 1

H 0 = height at the end of 1º consolidation.

e 0 = Void ratio at the end of 1º consolidation
140 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Terzaghi’s one dimensional consolidation equation:

u  2u
 cv 2
t z
u = Excess pore pressure
u
= Rate of change of pore pressure with time
t
C v = coefficient of consolidation

u
= Rate of change of pore pressure with depth
z
K
where CV = m  m2/sec.
v w

 The progress of consolidation can be shown by plotting a series of curves

of Ue (Excess pore water pressure) Against Z for different values of t.
Such Curves are called Isochrones.These vary with time.
Time factor (TV):
CV t
TV =
d2

d H/2
d H H
H/2

One way drainage (semi open) Two way drainage (Open)

CV = Coefficient of consolidation
d = Length of drainage path
(a) d = H (in one way drainage) like as in rock.
H
(b) d= (in two way drainage) like as in soil.
2
 2
(a) u  60%, TV = (u ) , where u = Avg. degree of consolidation

(b) u  60%, TV = 1.781 – 0.933 log10 (100–u% )
152 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Load

Porous
stone
Water Water
Confirming
ring
Porous stone

 In it , shear normally applied at constant rate of strain

 It is quick, inexpensive & simple.
 Shear & vertical deformations are measured during test using dial gauge
Disadvantage
(a) Drainage condition can not be controlled & pore water pressure can
not be measured.
(b) Failure plane is always horizontal & predetermined which may not be
the weakest plane.
(c) Non-uniform stress distribution on the shear plane. Failure start at
edge & progress towards centre.
Triaxial test
 It is suitable for all types of soil
 In it, pore water pressure & Volume change can be measured in undrained
condition.
 Application of additional axial stress produce shear stresses within soil
mass on all planes except horizontal & vertical planes.
 In triaxial test, Axial strain & deviator stress are determined.

a
c

c c

c
a

C = Confining pressure/ Minor , 3 = Intermediate principal stress

1 = C + a, a = Deviator stress ( Additional axial stress)
 Soil Mechanics 159

Various cases of earth pressures

1. Cohesionless soil on a vertical smooth wall

z
H
H/3

paz = ka z, ,
ppz = kp z

ka  H 2 kp  H 2
Fa= , Fp 
2 2
2. Soil with Inclined backfill


Z 
z
H P
 Fa
H/3
From above figure,
z = z cos , Pa = ka z cos 
In It,

 cos   cos2  cos2  

a =  2 
cos 
 cos   cos 2
 cos  

 cos cos2  cos2  

p =  2 
cos  ,
 cos  cos2
 cos  

ka   
Ka X Kp = cos  , Fa=
2
cos 
2
3. Active earth pressure on cohesive soil

2C ka
a
b z0
d H
C-soil z0
h g
f e
K a H  2c K a
 Soil Mechanics 167

7. Allowable bearing pressure: It is the maximum net intensity of

loading that can be imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear
failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
Special Point: It is smaller of Net safe bearing capacity & safe bearing
pressure.
8. Safe bearing Pressure: It is the maximum net intensity of loading
that can be allowed on soil without the settlement exceeding the
permissible value.
Special Point: No factor of Safety is used when dealing with settlement.

(Calculation of Bearing Capacity)

Analytical methods Building codes Field test methods
General shear failure Rankine’s method Standard penetration test
Punching shear failure Bell’s theory Plate load test
Local shear failure Prandtl method Static cone penetration test
Terzaghi method
Skempton’s method
Meyor’s method
Hensen’s Recommendations

Analytical Methods
Based on shear failure criteria
1. General Shear Failure:
P Heaving
Failure load General shear failure of soil
Fa
ilu

Settlement
re

Well defined
pl

Passive
an

Passive failure plane

E.P.
e

E.P.

 Over consolidated clay with low compressibility or stiff clay (

medium dense sand).
 Well defined failure pattern, large heaving will occur.
 Occurs after plastic equilibrium state is reached.
 Brittle type stress-strain curve & failure occur due to tilting of
foundation.
 Occurs in soil with relative density > 70%
2. Local Shear Failure:
186 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Vertical stress due to strip load

Point P below the Point P not below

centre of strip the centre of strip
q
–b q +b
2
X X X 1
2
 

P P
Z Z

q q
z  (2  sin 2 z  (2  sin 2 cos 2
 
Vertical stress due to line load

2
 
  q
2q  1  x
z   
z 2 P(x, z)
1  x  
 z  y
    z

Vertical stress due to a circular area

z = q (1–cos3)

R
q

z
z r 2  z2
cos  
r 2  z2
2
P

Newmark’s Influence chart: It is based on Boussinesq’s equation to

calculate horizontal stress, vertical & shear stress due to uniformly loaded
area of any shape (regular or irregular) below any point, inside or outside
the loaded area
192 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(a) Inside clearance

Cutting edge Sample tube

D2 D1 D3 D4

D 3  D1
Ci =  100 , (1–3)%
D1
(b) Outside clearance
D2  D4
Co =  100 , (0–2)%
D4
As per IS : 1892 : 1979, the outer clearance should not be much greater
than inside clearance.
Exam Point : (C0 > Ci always)
D4
D3
S1

S L
H A
M
P
L
E
Down Ward
Reflection

D1
F
D2
(c) Area ratio
D 22  D12
Ar =  100
D12
< 20% for stiff clays
< 10 % for senstitive clays
Exam Point: For good quality soil sample, area ratio should be less than
10%.

L length of sample before withdraw

Recovery Ratio ( )=
H Penetration of the sampler in the soil mass
 Soil Mechanics 193

L1
Gross Recovery Ratio =
H
L1
True Recovery Ratio =
HF
F = Depth of downward Refraction curve
L1 = Gross length of sample, equal to the distance from the top of the
sample to the cutting edge.
If Recovery Ratio = 1, Good soil
< 1, compressed soil
> 1, swelled soil
Types of Samplers -
1. Open Drive Sampler
(a) Thin walled sampler - ( IS : 2132 - 1972 )
 Used for undisturbed sample by using shelby tube.
 Area ratio < 10 %
(b) Thick walled sampler is used for obtaining disturbed but representative
samples. Area ratio (10 - 25) %.
2. Piston sampler (having sample cylinder and piston system) are useful
in sampling the saturated sands, soft & wet soils which can not be
sampled by open drive sampler.
3. Rotary samplers are useful for sampling in firm to hard cohesive
soils & rocks.
Field tests for depth of exploration -
(a) Vane shear test
(b) Plate load test
(c) Pressure meter test
(d) Penetration test - Static cone penetration test (SCPT), Standard
Penetration Test and Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT).
(e) Geological methods - Using electrical resistivity , Seismic refraction.
 As per IS : 4453, at soil exploration pit bottom, the clear work space
should be 1.2 x 1.2 m.
Exam Point: SPT is carried out in a bore hole but CPT & DCPT are
carried without bore holes.

 Floating caissons are generally less expensive as compared to open

caisons.
204 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1
For structural steel, Endurance limit = × ultimate strength
2

Stress Stress

For Non-ferrous
materials
Endurance
limit
For ferrous material

No of cycle
No. of Cycle

Resilience : It is strain energy that can be store in a given volume of

material under elastic limit.
 Greater the resilience, more desirable is the material for spring action.In
shooting an arrow, the string stores the strain energy during stretching &
when released the energy, it is utilised in shooting the arrow.
 Proof resilence is the maximum strain energy that can be store in a given
volume of material upto elastic limit.
 Maximum strain energy which can be store in unit volume of material
under elastic limit is called modulus of resilience.
Elastic limit
y

Area of shaded portion

= modulus of resilience


2y
Strain energy stored per unit volume =
2E
Toughness: It represents the ability to resist fracture.
 Toughness is desirable against impact loading.
 Bend test is use to measure the toughness.
 The ability of the material to absorb energy till breaking/rupture/failure
takes place is known as toughness.
 Area under stress-strain curve upto fracture is called modulus of
toughness.
 Solid Mechanics 205

 As failure strain is more in ductile material. Hence, mild steel is more

tough than cast iron.

 y = Yield tensile strength

u = Ultimate tensile strength
f = Strain at fracture point
 y  u 
=  
 2  f
modulus of toughness


Striker direction

Specimen
Notch Support

 The Charpy impact test (specimen size - 55 x 10 x 10 mm, supported as

simply supported beam) continues to be used as an economical quality
control method for determining the notch, sensitivity & impact toughness
of engineering materials. But izod testing machine used cantilever beam
as support.
· Toughness- Resists fracture & Hardness- Resists scratch or abrasion
Hardness : Ability to resist scratch or abrasion.
 The higher the yield stress, higher is the hardness.
 Surface hardness is measured by carrying out non-destructive indentation
test.
 Brinell hardness test is used for checking the hardness of a material.
 It is noted that ductile material are tough and brittle material are hard.
 Brinell hardness test uses hardened steel ball (10 mm diameter) as an
indentor.
P
Brinnell Hardness Number 
πD 
D- D 2 -d 2 
2  
208 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

3. 4. In prismatic bar due to self weight

4PL dx

D1D 2 E x Wz

L2  W / 2  L
 or
2E AE
5. Conical bar due to self weight

L2 1
 = (deflection of prismatic bar of same length & same
6E 3
density)
Composite Bars Condition
A2 E2

A1 E1

L
P = P 1 + P2 ..... Equilibrium equation
P1L P2 L
1 = 2 = A E = A E
1 1 2 2

A1E1P A2E2P
P 1 = A E  A E , P2 = A E  A E
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
 Solid Mechanics 209

Poisson’s Ratio:- For homogeneous & isotropic material, elongation/

contraction produced by any axial force in the direction of force is
accompanied by contraction/elongation in all transverse directions & all
such contractions/elongations are same.

 Lateral Strain  Transverse Strain

   
 Axial Strain  Longitudinal or LinearStrain

Material 
Cork 0
Glass 0.01-0.05
Concrete 0.1-0.2
Elastic Material 0.25-0.42
Mild Steel 0.286
Al. (Pure) 0.33
Wrought Iron 0.3
Copper 0.33-0.36
Nylon 0.4
Rubber 0.45-0.5
Brass/Bronze 0.34

Special points:
• Rubber has a Poisson’s ratio close to 0.5 and is almost incompressible.
While cork has a Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes cork function
as a bottle stopper. Since on axial loading, cork will not swell laterally
to resist bottle insertion.
• The poisson’s ratio of a stable, isotropic, linear elastic material can not
be less than –1.0 and nor greater than 0.5 due to the requirement that
shear modulus, Young’s modulus and bulk modulus have positive values.

Elastic Constants:

Normal stress
Young’s modulus (E) = , Shear modulus (G) =
Normal strain

Shear stress Volumetric stress

Shear strain , Bulk modulus (K) =
Volumetric strain
212 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Shear Force And

Bending Moment 2
 A beam is a structural member subjected to transverse loading (bending
moment & shear force).
Special Points:
 Shafts resist torque
 Ties & strut resist uniaxial tension & compression.
 Beam resist bending moment & shear force.
 The difference between two adjacent point of contraflexure is known
as focal length.
 The portion of beam in which shear force is constant is known as
shear span.
Classification of supports:
(i) Free support/Roller support/Rocker support.
It is a simplest support on which beam rest freely & gives only one
reaction, because only one deflection is restrained.
(ii) Built-in or fixed support ( Encaster beam )
It is a support which restrains complete movement of the beam both
in position & direction. The support gives all the three relevant reactions
(say Rx, Ry & Mz)
(iii) Hinged or pinned support.
(iv) Link Support
Gives reaction which acts in the direction of the cable or link.
Light cable

 
 F
Link support
(v) Slider Support
 Two unknown reactions given by slider support are a force & a
moment.
 Solid Mechanics 229

 Total strain energy per unit volume is given by:

1
U= 12  22  32  2(12  2 3  3 1 ) 
2E 
f y2
 Max strain energy per unit volume under uniaxial loading =
2E

1  1  2  3   f y2
2 2 2

 
2E  2(1 2  2 3  31 )  2E
For design purpose:
2
 f 
12  22  32  2( 1 2   2 3  31 )   y 
 FOS 

4. Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant theory)

fy
1     2   3  
FOS

 2/ f y

No yielding

 1/ f y

Failure yielding

(Graphical Representation Rhombus)

It is unsafe for both but for ductile material, its better than Rankine theory.
5. Maximum shear strain energy theory
[Distortion Energy theory][Huber Hencky Von - Mises Theory]
 Max shear strain energy in a body should be less than or equal to max
shear strain energy under uniaxial loading.
230 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 It is applicable for ductile material.

s1/dy
No yielding

1
–1
s1/dy
1
–1

Failure yielding

(Graphical Representation Ellipse)

1
 (1  2 ) 2  (2  3 ) 2  (3  1 ) 2   f y2
2
For design
2
1  f 
 (1   2 ) 2  (2  3 ) 2  (3  1 ) 2    y 
2  F.O.S. 
 It is in perfect agreement with the case of pure shear.
6. Octahedral shear stress theory
1
oct 
3 
 1  2    2  3    3  1 
2 2 2

Applicable to ductile material in pure shear case

Theory Given by Remark

Maximum Principle Rankine Suitable for
Stress or Brittle
Maximum Normal stress
Maximum Principle St. Venant
Strain
Maximum shear Stress Guest & Treseca Suitable for Ductile
Maximum Strain Energy Haigh & Beltrami Ductile
Maximum shear Vonmises & Ductile
Strain energy Hencky
 Solid Mechanics 241

Rectangular
b

d
(iii). d/3 b/3 × d/3 Rhombus

b/3

Square section
d

d
(iv) d/3 d/3 × d/3 Square

d/3

Flitched Beam- It is a composite beam made of wood & steel in which

wooden section is strenghened by the metal plate either provided at bottom
& top or at sides symmetrically.
Generally top & bottom flithched beam is 3-5 times stronger than side
flitched beam.
In composite beam, N.A. will not pass through the centroid of composite
section but it passes through the centroid of equivalent section.
Exam Points -
 Bending stress in a section is zero at it’s neutral axis and maximum at
outer fibers.
 Shear stress is zero at outer fibres and maximum at neutral axis.
 Bending stress at outer fibers is known as principal stress.
244 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

For mild steel Pcr = 250, E = 2 × 105 N/mn²

So  c  88.89 for Euler’s Law to be applicable.

Rankine’s Formula: For Both Short & Long column
1 1 1
 
PR Pc Pe
P C = Crushing load =  C  A
P e = Euler’s load
P R = Rankine load

PC C A C A
   PR
PC C A 1   2
1 1 2
PR = Pe  EA
2
Here, A = Area of column
C
 = Rankines constant =
2 E
Special Point: For long column in which eccentric loading is applied,
secant formula is used.

 In case of eccentrically loaded struts, composite section is preferred.

 Larger radius of gyration results in smaller slenderness ratio, hence

larger load carrying capacity.
246 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

helical spring & open coiled helical spring is called as bending spring.
The angle made by the coil with horizontal is called as the angle of helix.
R

p
P
  = Helix angle

2R
In close coiled helical springs, material is subjected to the torsional mo-
ment.
 max   transverse   torsion
torsion will be maximum at outermost fibers of wire.
P
R PR
torsion
(innerside) (outside)
d
torsion transverse
T=P
R  transverse
(Cross-section)
P
Proof load: Greatest load that the spring can carry without getting
permanently distorted.
Proof Resilience: Strain energy stored when proof load is applied.
Proof Stress: Max stress in the spring when proof load is applied.
Spring Constant: It is the stiffness of the spring measured in load per
unit deflection.
Closed coil helical spring

1 T 2 L 32P2 R3 n
Strain energy U= =
2 GJ Gd4

d 4
we know that , T = PR, Length = 2Rn , J  (using these values)
32
U 64PR 3 n
Axial deflection    :  = =
P Gd 4
 Solid Mechanics 247

P Gd 4
Stiffness of Spring (K) K = =
 64R 3 n

d 3
Proof load Pmax =   max
16R
Equivalent Spring Constant
1. Parallel connection 2. Series connection

K1

K2
K1 K2 K3 Kn K3

Kn
P
P
1 1 1 1 1
Keqa = K1 + K2 + K3 + ........ Kn     ...... 
K eq K1 K 2 K 3 Kn

Special point: If a spring is cut down by K times, then its strain energy
1
decreased by times, its stiftness is increased by K times, and its flexibity
k
1
decreased by time.
k
Flat spiral spring is made up of a band of steel wrapped aroung itself
a number of times.
Applications:Alarm time piece, watch automotive, seat recliners.
1. In road vehicles and railway wapons leaf spring are used to absorbed
suspension load.
2. In cycle seats and bikes coiled spring or helical spring are used.
3. A laminated ( leaf ) spring is given an initial curvature because spring
become flat when it is subjected to design load.
4. Laminated spring are subjected to bending stress only.
252 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Thick & Thin

Cylinder/Sphere 12
1
Thin shells are the shells in which thickness of the wall is less than th to
10
1
th of its internal diameter. In this shells, normal stress is uniformly
15
distributed throughout the thickness of the wall.
1 1
If thickness of wall is greater than th to th of internal diameter, it
10 15
is called Thick Shell.
Thin Cylinder subject to internal pressure

h
h

P
L

L

pd
1. Hoop (circumferencial) Stress: h  , tensile
2t
2. Radial pressure: Inside = p, outside = 0 , compressive
pd
3. Logitudinal Stress:  L = , tensile
4t
pd
4. Longitudinal Strain: l = (1 - 2  )
4tE
 Reinforcement Cement Concrete 265

  f  fm 
2

2. Standard deviation  
m 1
Assumed Standard Deviation
Grade of concrete   N / mm² 
M10
3.5
M15
M20
4
M25
M30
M35
M40, M45 5
M50
M55, M60
Characteristic strength (fCK): Strength below which not more than
5% of test result are expected to fail.
f ck  f m  1.65
 As per IS 456 : 2000 CI 38.1 (C): For the design of flexural members
the characteristic strength of concrete is taken as 0.67 fck.
 Larger size leads to more variability in strength. Hence, the strength of
concrete cylinder will be lesser than the cube strength.
 Grade’s of concrete - 19 total
High strength concrete = 8 No (M65, M70, M75, M80, M85, M90, M95,
M100)
Standard grade of concrete = 8 No. (M25, M30, M35, M40, M45, M50,
M55, M60)
Ordinary grade of concrete = 3 No. (M10, M15, M20)
Design Methods:(a) Nominal mix (upto M20 grade only) (b) Design mix
(IS 10262:1982)
Concrete Mix Design: It is economical selection of relative proportions
of various ingredients of concrete such that it remains workable in fresh
state & impermeable and durable in harden state.
 In Nominal mix Design Method, Specified in terms of total mass of
aggregate, and volume of water to be used per 50 kg of cement.
272 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Whitney found that average stress of the rectangular stress diagram is

0.85 f ck.
kfck 0.85fck

xu a

T
T

 The depth of rectangular stress block is taken as = 0.537d

Modulus of Elasticity
us
ul
s

od
odulu

tM
en


ent M

ng
Ta
l Tang
Stress
Initia

ess for
s
dulu
o
str
nt M
the
a
Sec

Strain
1. Initial tangent (EIT)- also known as dynamic modulus of elasticity.
 It is the slope of curve at origin.It depends upon grade of concrete only.
 It is calculated using resonance frequency test.
2. Tangent modulus (ET)
 It is the slope of curve tangent at any point on stress-strain curve.
3. Secant modulus/Static modulus of elasticity (ES)
 It is the slope of line drawn between origin & point on curve (stress
remains constant)
 For inelastic regions, EIT > ET > ES & elastic Regions, EIT = ET = ES
E c  5700 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M15 (IS 456:1978)

E c  5000 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M20 (IS 456:2000)

This is also called as short term modulus of elasticity.
 It does not consider the effect of creep or age of structure.
 Reinforcement Cement Concrete 273

Limit State Method

& Beam 2
Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies
the performance requirements specified. These are :
(a) Limit state of collapse - which associated with failures, under the
action of probable & most unfavourable combinations of loads on the structure.
It includes flexure, compression, shear, torsion, over-turning, sliding, buckling
& fracture due to fatigue, ultimate load, strength.
 In limit state approach, spacing of the main reinforcement primarily
controls, cracking width within permissible limit under normal expo-
sure condition.
(b) Serviceability limit state - It includes vibration, durability, deflection
& deformation and repairable damage due to fatigue cracking etc.
 Structure will return to it’s original state untill it’s limit state of
serviceability. But, after reaching limit state of collapse it will not regain
its shape.
Special point :
 Durability of member is ensured by cover requirements, grade of ma-
terials etc.

Characteristic Strength
 Due to uncertainties, reliability based analysis was performed & partial
factor of safety were established for material & load.

material Load

1.65  fm 1.65 
fck fm
fck = fm – 1.65  fck= fm + 1.65 
274 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 (fm - 1.65) and (Fm + 1.65) are limits with in which “Probability of lying
test result” is maximum and called confidence limit.
(a) Partial factor of safety in material property
f
f d  ck
 ms

Concrete Steel
0.67 f ck fy
fd   0.45 fck fd   0.87 f y
1.5 1.15

(b) Partial factor of safety under various load combinations

f d  F f

Load Limit State Limit State of

Combinations of Collapse Serviceability
DL LL WL/EL DL LL WE/LL
DL+LL 1.5 1.5 – 1.0 1.0 –
DL + WL/EL 15/0.9 – 1.5 1.0 – 1.0
DL + LL + WL/EL 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Dead Load
 Examples of dead loads are weight of the structural elements like as
beams, columns, slabs etc and non-structural elements like as floor
coverings, false ceiling etc.
 Dead loads are examples of gravity loads (act vertically downwards) &
are relatively constant over time.
 Dead load is not known before the structure is designed& it is considered
as per IS : 875 (Part-1).
Wind Load: Wind pressure acts horizontally on the exposed vertical sur-
faces of walls, chimneys, columns, tower etc. & inclined roof surfaces.
 The wind velocities are measured by anemometer/anemograph installed
at 10 - 30 m heights at meteorological observations.
Live Load
 Live load or imposed loads are those which may change in position and
magnitude.
 Reinforcement Cement Concrete 275

 Live load is expressed as UDL, given in IS : 875 (Part-2)

 Examples of live loads are furniture, equipment and occupant of the
structure
 These are temporary loads of short duration due to the use of structure.
Assumptions of limit state of collapses: Flexure
1. Plane section before bending remains plane after bending (Strain
compatibility)
2. Relationship between compressive stress distribution in concrete &
strain in concrete may be assumed to be rectangular, parabolic,
trapezoidal or any other shape which results in prediction of strength
in substantial agreement with the result of test.
3. Maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre is
taken as 0.0035 in bending (Failure of beam always occur by crushing
of concrete).
4. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
9 X
b 14 u 0.0035
0.42Xu 0.45f ck
3 X 0.193 fXb
7 u cku
Xu 0.36fbx 0.002
cku
4 X 0.171 fXb
d 7 u cku

d-0.42Xu

0.87fy 0.87fy

A st
Cross-section Stress Stress block Strain
diagram diagram diagram
5. Maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall
not be less than

fy 0.87f y
st = 1.15E  0.002  E + 0.002
s s

For Fe 250, st = 0.00108

For Fe 415, st = 0.0038

For Fe 500, st = 0.0042

 Reinforcement Cement Concrete 277

Slab Floor level of

2nd floor
Spandrel
roof beam
Simple beam
(not spandrel beam)
Fig.: Cross section of slab
It is not necessary that under the beam always be wall, there can be
column & window but spandrel beam will provide only at exterior wall.
Singly Reinforced Beam
1. To determine M.O.R (Mu) when beam cross-section is given

0.36f ck bx u  0.87f y A st

0.87f y A st f ck
xu  , Ast, lim. = 0.414 f x u ,lim . b
0.36f CK b y

Types

Xu = Xu lim Xu < Xu lim Xu > Xu lim

Balanced Under Over

reinforced reinforced

 If x < xu lim, the steel in the tensile zone attains its maximum stress
earlier, it means that tension steel yields upto ultimate strength &
the section will be under reinforced which results in tensile failure
(ductile failure) & the under reinforced concrete flexural members
are deeper & undergo larger deflection than balanced & over
reinfoced member.
 If x = xu lim, the concrete & steel attain their maximum stresses
simultaneously. Such type of failure section is known as balanced
section.
 Over-reinfoced & balanced concrete flexural member are stiffer
than under reinforced member.
 If x> xu lim, the concrete attains its maximum stress earlier, it means
that tension steel does not yield upto ultimate strength & the section
will be over reinforced which results in compressive failure / brittle
failure.
278 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Special point:
 Failure always occurs due to crushing of concrete on
compression face.
(a) Balanced section Mu = Mu lim
Mu lim = Ru bd²
Mu lim = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 xu lim )
(b) Under reinforced section (tensile failure)
Mu = 0.36 fck b xu, lim. (d - 0.42 xu, lim. )
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 xu )
(c) Over reinforced section (Compression failure): xu is
limited to xu lim & Mu is calculated as in balanced section.
2. To calculate area of steel, when concrete cross-section & applied
moments are known.
 Ast f y 
Mu = 0.87 f y Ast  d  f b 
 CK 
3. To calculate the cross-section for given bending moment (Mu)
(a) Mu = Ru bd²
 Take d = 2b and get ‘b’ then d
 D = d + 50 (Generally )

 0.87f y A st 
(b) Mu = 0.87 fy Ast  d  0.42  0.36f b 
 CK 
Get Ast
(c) Apply reinforcement checks to prevent any sudden failure

A st min 0.85

 bd f y , Ast max = 0.04 bD, xu < xu lim

Double Reinforced Beam: If Mu > Mu lim’ then either section dimensions

need to be modified or higher grade of steel/concrete to be used.
Special point: If section dimensions are restrained, then compression
reinforcement is provided in such a way that neutral axis does not shifts
downward by providing tension steel greater than Ast lim’
 Reinforcement Cement Concrete 293

0.75 d  Vertical stirrups  , d  Inclined stirrups 


Minimum of Sv
300 mm

Special point: For inclined stirrups or a series of bent up bars, we know
 d 
  (0.87 fy ) (sin  + cos  ) ASV =  u  c  bd
 SV 
 = Angle of inclination of stirrups with the horizontal
 As per clause 17.6.2 , minimum spacing of strrups is 100 mm.

Shear reinforcement:
Design shear strength = C
Nominal shear stress = v
Maximum design shear strength = c.max.
(i) If v >C, then shear reinforcement is provided for a shear force
equal to (v–c) bd.
(ii) If v is less than C, then minimum shear reinforcement is provided.
Minimum shear reinforcement

d
0.87f y ASV    0.4 bd
 sv 

 v is less thanC,- No shear reinforcement is required for beam.

 0.5 c v c provided minimum shear reinforcement for beam.

Minimum shear reinforcement is provided

1. To prevent bursting of concrete cover.
2 To avoid brittle shear failure.
3. To prevent tension failure due to shrinkage, thermal stresses and
internal cracks.
4. To make the section effective with the tie effect. .
5. To hold reinforcement in place while concreting.
296 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

0.87f y  s  2
Ld = = , Ast = 
4bd 4bd 4
Ld = development length
bd = Average bond stress
 = Nominal diameter
Design Bond Stress in Tension for Plain Bar ( LSM )
Grade of concrete M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 and above
 bd  N / mm²  1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9

Development Length Due to Flexure

M1
Ld   Lo
V
L o = maximum (d, 12  )
V = Shear force at the section due to design load.
M 1 = MOR of the section to be considering all reinforcement
at the section to be stressed to 0.87 fy
Special point: When the ends of the reinforcement are confined by
compressive, then M1 is increased by 30%

Ld  1.3M1  L0
V
Bundled bars: The development length of each bundled bars shall be
increased by 10% when 2 bars are bundled, by 20% when 3 bars are bundled
& 33% when 4 bars are bundled.
Bends and Hooks: The length of the straight portion of a bar beyond
the end of the hook should be atleast 4 times the diameter.
Lap Length in Compression: It is equal to the development length
calculated in compression but should not be less than max. of (24, Ld.)
Lap Length in Tension:
 For direct tension- 2Ld or 30 (whichever is larger)
 For flexural tension -Ld or 30 (whichever is larger)
302 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Maximum Longitudinal Reinforcement

 It is 6% of gross cross-sectional area of the column.
 It can be reduced to 4% at lapped splice locations for better placement
& compaction practically.
Other specifications
1. Minimum diameter of longitudinal bar = 12 mm
2. Column’s Slenderness Limit
(a) Unsupported length between end restrains > 60 times least lateral
dimension
(b) If in any given plane one end of column is not restrained, then it’s
100b 2
unsupported length >
D
3. Minimum Number of bars
(a) For rectangular columns = 4
(b) For circular columns = 6
4. Maximum centre to centre spacing of reinforcement = 300 mm
5. Cover to reinforcement
(a) Minimum = 40 mm
(b) It can be reduced to 25 mm for small sized column
(c) In aggresive environment maximum cover is limited to 75 mm.
Lateral ties: Diameter is governed by criteria of stiffness, not by
strength. Therefore, it is independent of grade of steel.It is provided to
resisit buckling of longitudinal steel bars.
 longitudinal, max

ie diameter t   4
6 mm


D(least lateraldimension )
Tie spacing S  
16 longitudinal, min
t

300 mm

Design of short column (Cocentrally loaded)

1. Check for short column   12
2. If emin  0.05 D, then it is short axially loaded column
310 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Net punching force

Punching stress developed = Cross  sectional resisting area

Net punching force, Pnet = P – W (a + d) (b + d)

Cross-section resisting area = 2 ( (a + d) + (b + d)) × d
Permissible punching stress > Punching stress developed
6. Area of steel for shorter span
Mx = st A st jd, (WSM)

Mux = 0.87 fy Ast  d  0.42x u  , (LSM)

This Ast is provided in the central band width B, after it you can find
total reinforcement in short direction by central band concept formulae
also.
Reinforcement in each end bands=
Total reinforcement  Ast in central band
2
7. Area of steel for longer span
My = Ast  st jd  (WSM)
Muy = 0.87 fy Ast  d  0.42x u  (LSM)
This reinforcement is equally distributed over entire width B. In it,
area of steel is calculated for 1 m width. After it, Calculate for width
B, then distribute uniformly
Special Points:
• When the column ends machined & smoothened, then splice are de-
sign to take 50% of total load transfer between two member.
• When the ends of column are not machined & smootheded for com-
plete bearing, Then splice are design to transfer 100% of load.
• Grillage foundations used when soil have low bearing capacity & heavy
loads on column.

Slab Beam Column Footing

IS 456 20 mm 20 mm 40 mm 50 mm
IS 34 20 mm 25 mm 40 mm 50 mm
SP
336 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Any substance in gaseous/liquid phase is called as fluid.

 Fluid is a substance that deforms (flow) continually under an applied
shear stress.
 Fluid does not have tensile strength, but it has compressive strength only
when it is kept in closed container.
 Fluid Static – Study of fluid in rest condition.
 Fluid dynamic – Branch of mechanics dealing with forces & torque in
moving situation and look for the reasons behind the motion and forces.
(a) Kinetics – study of fluid in motion considering forces.
(b) Kinematics – study of fluid in motion without considering forces.
Special Point: In solids, stress is proportional to strain but in fluid stress
is proportional to strain rate.

Types of fluid -

(a) Real fluid - Fluids which are not ideal.

Ideal fluid do not exist, so practically all fluid are real.
(b) Ideal fluid -
Bulk modulus is infinite.
They are incompressible and do not have viscosity & surface tension.
For an ideal fluid, no shear stresses exist and pressure is same in all
directions.
Some Basic fluid properties:
mass
1. Density = measured in kg/m3.
volume
2. If relative density < 1, then fluid is lighter than water.
3. The density of water is maximum at 4oC
4. Fathometer is used to measure ocean depth
5. Density of liquid & gas is directly proportional to pressure and inversely
to temperature
Density of liquid
6. Specific gravity/relative density =
Density of water at 4ºC
Weight of substance
7. Specific weight = , (  = g in N/m3 )
Volume of substance
 Fluid Mechanics 341




d = diameter. 

d = diameter
4
(c) Pressure inside water droplet P =
d

 = Surface tension d

Capillary Effect :
Rise or fall in the surface of liquid when a small diameter (less than 6
mm) tube is inserted into the liquid is called capillary rise or capillary depression
respectively.

 

Water Mercury

 < 90º Cohesion < Adhesion Wetting of surface Concave top surface Rise in capillary tube
 > 90º Adhesion < cohesion Does not wets the Convex top surface Drop in capillary tube
surface

4 cos 
h =
d
 for water glass = 0º, mercury glass = 128º, Kerosene glass = 26º
Special points
1. Capillary effect is due to adhesion and surface tension both
2. Water in soil is able to rise a considerable distance above ground
water table due to capillary action.
3. When a liquid like Hg is spilled on a smooth horizontal surface, It
gathers into droplets because the force of cohesion is more than
force of Adhesion.
4. Force of attraction between molecules of different types is called
adhesion but in molecules of same type, it is called cohesion.
342 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Pressure and its

Measurement 2
 Normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area is called pressure. It is a
scalar Quantity (it has magnitude but no direction).
 Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by atmosphere. It is
measured by Barometer. At MSL, atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 10 5
Pascal or 1 Bar or 10.3 m of Height of water or 76 cm height of mercury.
Special Point: If head of water is ‘h’ meter, then equivalent pressure is
wh and if head of mercury is ‘h’ m then equivalent pressure will be Hgh
Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure w.r.t. atmospheric pressure as datum.
It is measured using Manometer or Bourdon gauge.
 It can be +ve, –ve or zero.
Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure wrt absolute zero or complete
vacuum.It is the actual pressure & measured by Aneroid Barometer.
Patm P local
Pvaccum
P gauge Pabsolute
P local
Patm

Pabs Patm

Absolute Absolute
Vacuum Vacuum
Pabsolute = P atm - P Vacuum Pabsolute
= P + Pa tm gauge

Special point: ‘h’ m of water vacuum means pressure of –hw

Facts about pressure

1. Longer runway is needed at higher altitude due to reduced drag & lift.
2. Nose bleeding starts at higher altitude because of difference in body’s
blood pressure and atmosphere pressure.
344 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

1. Piezometer
 Use for small & +ve pressure
 Very long column of piezometer is required if pressure is large.
 Generally Diameter of Tube > 10 mm

Pat m
h

PA = h
2. U-Tube manometer - Measure absolute pressure at a point.
 For large pressure measurement, gas pressure & –ve pressure
 Simple manometer/U-tube manometer can measure both +ve and –
ve pressure.
Pressure at A = Pressure at H = Patm + G2wy + G1wh
G1
G2 (Sp. gravity)
(Sp. gravity)
B
y
C D A
G h h
A H E Air
F
G
Pipe
PA = G h
Special Points:
 Liquid in U-tube manometer, should have specific gravity more than
the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
 Manometric liquid should be completely immiscible (oil & water does
not mix) with the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
 Liquid should have small thermal coefficient & vapour pressure.
 Mercury is used in manometer & barometer because of high density,
Immiscible & low Vapour pressure.
Special Case: To increase the sensitivity, one leg is inclined.
PA = PB = PC = Gw h = Gw (l sin ) measured reading of tube = ‘l’
 Fluid Mechanics 347

F = Ax F = Ax F = Ax

Ig I g sin 2 
xp  x xp = x  xp = x 
Ax Ax

x & x p are same horizontal plane surface from liquid surface

Special point: In case of vertical surface, when depth of Immersion is

very large. Then centre of pressure = Centre of Gravity. As the depth of
Immersion increases, distance between centre of pressure and centre of
gravity decreases.

Surface C.G. x C.P. x p

h h 2h
1.
b
2 3

h 2h 3h
2.
3 4
b
b
h h
h
3 2

r 5
3. r r
4
4r 3r
4. r
3 16

h 3h 5h
5.
b 5 7
b
2h 4h
h
5 7
a
h  b  2a   h   a  3b  h
6.     
 a  b  3   a  2b  2
b
 Fluid Mechanics 351

G
B

I
Where BM =
V
I = MOI of top view of the immersed part of the body about longitudinal
axis.
 Larger the metacentric height, greater is stability & comfort will decrease.
Time period of oscillation: If a floating body oscillates, then its time
period of transverse oscillation wrt metacentre is given by

I MK 2G K G2
T = 2 W.GM  2 = 2
W  GM  GM.g
Where KG Radius of Gyration about centre, W = weight of floating body.
 Larger the time period, more will be the comfort of passenger,
 For cargo / merchant ships, GM is 0.5-1m, comfort & stability both considered.
 For passenger ship, GM is less(0.5-1m), so more comfortable.
 For battle ship, GM is 1-1.5m, Stability is prime consideration.

Movements of a ship:
If a ship is safe in rolling, it must be safe in pitching.

Z
Yawning y (Longitudinal axis)

Rolling Pitching
X
Transverse
axis
354 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

V 2
dP = dr  (az  g )dz
r
Free Vortex motion : In it, angular momentum remains conserved as
external torque is zero, so mvr = constant. In it, Bernoulli's equation can
be applied.
C
So V 
r
 So as radius increases, velocity decreases, pressure Increases. Ex:
whirlpool in rivers, whirling mass of liquid in wash basin.
 A free Vortex motion is that in which the fluid may rotate without Any
external force applied on it.
Forced Vortex motion : In it, fluid is rotated about a vertical axis at constant
speed in such a way that every particle has the same angular velocity.
 The surface profile of forced Vortex flow is paraboloid.
 Ex. Rotational Vortex is forced Vortex motion.
Rotating Cylinder and flow inside Centrifugal pump.
 A force Vortex motion is that in which the fluid mass is made to rotate by
means of some external source of power.
R

2 R 2  w2R 2 
h=
2g P  gh  g  
H  2g 
V = r w 2 R 2
P
 2

Hence as radius increases, velocity increases, pressure decreases. Ex:

Flow inside centrifugal pump.
Special point: Rankine Vortex motion is a combination of free and forced
vortex motion. For no spilling case, rise above original water level = Fall
below original water level.
 Amount of water spilled out = Original volume – Remaining volume
 Remaining volume = Volume of cylinder – Volume of shaded paraboloid.
 Volume of cylinder = R2H

1  2R 2 
 Volume of paraboloid = ( R 2 )  
2  2g
 eff 
360 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Fluid Dynamics 7
• It is the study of motion of fluid along with the forces causing the motion.
Dynamic behaviour of fluid flow is analysed by Newton's 2nd law of
motion F = ma
(a) Newton’s equation of motion
      
Fg  FP  FV  Ft  Fc  F  ma
(b) Reynold’s equation of motion
    
Fg  FP  FV  Ft  ma
(c) Navier-stokes equation of motion - Use for viscous flow.
   
Fg  FP  FV  ma
(d) Euler’s equation of motion
  
Fg  FP  ma
where, Fg = Gravity force
FV = Viscous force
Ft = Turbulence force
FP = Pressure force
Fc = Compressibility force
F = Surface tension force
Special Points:
 Energy equation can be used to find the pressure at a point in a pipeline
using Bernoulli’s eq.
 Continuity equation is used to find out the flow rate/velocity betweeen
two sections of tapering pipes.
 Euler equation is based on momentum conservation while Bernoulli is
based on energy conservation.
 Fluid Mechanics 361

 Impulse momentum principle is used to find out the force on a moving

vane.
 Concept of moment of momentum (Angular momentum principle) is
used in lawn sprinkler problems.
Bernoulli’s Equation: It is the integration of Euler’s equation of motion
along a stream line under steady incompressible flow conditions.It represent
total energy per unit weight.
Assumptions:
(i) Along Stream line
(ii) Effect of friction is negligible (Ideal flow)
(iii) Steady, Incompressible & ir-rotational .
 p   V2 
Total head H =  g    2g   Z = Constant
   
 p   v2 
Piezometric Head =   z  , Dynamic Head =  
 g   2g 

 p   v2 
Stagnation Head =  g    2g 
   
Static pressure
head Dynamic Hydrostatic pressure
pressure head head

Stagnation pressure head

Piezometric pressure head

P V2
+ + gz = Constant
 2
Pressure Energy Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
+ +
Mass Mass Mass
Special Points: When normal acceleration is zero , (when particles move
on a straight line), then the piezometric head is a constant.
364 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

a1
a2 = area ratio
cd  discharge coefficient
a1a2 2 g
, because this depends only on dimensions of venturimeter,,
a12  a22
it is called venturi-constant.
h  hL Q actual
 cd =  0.98 =
h Q theoretical

Special Point: If in venturimeter, the pipe is not contracted such that

cc = 1 , then it is termed as Nozzle meter and also used for calculating
discharge.
3. Pitot tube:
 Used to measure fluid flow velocity, water speed of a boat
 To measure liquid, air & gas flow velocity in certain industrial
applications.
 Used to measure ship’s speed relative to be water. They are used on
both surface ships & submarine.

h
pc pa  pA VA2 
   2g 
   

C
Zc A
ZA
Datum

 It measures the velocity of fluid at any point by measuring stagnation

pressure.
VA2
 hmeasured  , VA = 2gh
2g

 VA actual = C V 2gh , CV = 0.98 (coefficient of velocity)

 At stagnation point, velocity is already zero. There is no need to measure
velocity at stagnation point.
 Fluid Mechanics 365

Special Points: Anemometer measures gas and air velocity.

Preston Tube is used for Boundary shear stress measurement.
Type of Accuracy Cost Loss of Typical
flow meter total head value of Cd
Venturimeter High High Low 0.95 to 0.98
Orificemeter Low Low High 0.60 to 0.65
Flow nozzle Intermediate b/w 0.7 to 0.8
venturimeter & Orificemeter
4. Pitot Static tube (Prandtl tube) - measure Dynamic pressure
 Pitot Tube is based on principle of Conversion of Kinetic Head into
pressure Head. The point at which velocity reduces to zero is called
stagnation Point.
 It measures the piezometric head at the same point where velocity is
to be measured.
 Velocity head is indicated by the difference in liquid level between
the pitot tube and the piezometer.

Rise due to
stagnation

h
Rise only due to
pressure only.
PA velocity has no.
component
2
VA
 PA
2g
Prandtl tube
VA  C V 2gh, CV = 0.99

 It can also used on rough boundaries.

 Velocity head is found out from difference of toal head and piezometric
head.
5. Elbow meter or Bend meter Measures discharge
  Rotameter is used to measure discharge but current meter is used to
measure velocity in open channel.
  Hot Wire Anemometer:It is used for measurement of Instantaneous
velocity & temperature at a point in flow.
Special Point :The pirani gauge is a robust thermal conductivity gauge used
for measurement of pressure in vaccum system.
 Fluid Mechanics 367

Force acting on a pipe bend:

y

V2 x
P2, A2,

P1A 1
V1
1 W

In y-direction: Fy = Q(v2 sin 2 – v1 sin 1)

P1A1 sin 1 – P2A2 sin 2 + Ry - W = Q(- v2 sin 2 – v1 sin 1)
In x-direction:
Fx = Q(v2 cos 2 – v1 cos 1)
P1A1 cos 1 – P2A2 cos 2 - Rx = Q(v2 cos 2 – v1 cos 1)
Resultant force R = R 2x  R 2y
Magnus effect: It is an observable phenomenon in a real fluid flow, in
which local circulation can be produced through surface drag by rotating the
cylinder itself. The sudden deviation of a ball which has been chopped (as in
Table Tennis or volley ball ) or sliced (as in lawn tennis) by player, from its
normal trajectory is simple illustration of the Magnus effect.
Venna-Contracta - point in fluid stream where diameter of stream is least
and fluid velocity is maximum.
368 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Weir and Notches 9

Weir Notch
1. Constructed in an 1. Used for measuring
open channel to the discharge through
measure its discharge. a small channel or a tank.
2. It is bigger in size 2. It is smaller in size
3. It is concrete or masonary 3. It is generally metallic plate
structure. 4. Useful in model analysis

H Nappe

Crest or sill

Weir or notch
Crest/Sill: The bottom edge of a notch/Top of a weir over which water
flows is known as crest/sill.
Classification of Weirs Based on
Shape of Effect of sides on Shape of crest Nature of
opening emerging nappe discharge

Rectangular With end Sharp edge crested

Ordinary weir
Trapezoidal contraction Narrow crested
Submerged weir
Triangular Without end Broad crested
Cipolletti contraction Ogee-shaped
1. Rectangular sharp-crested Suppressed weir:
 Suppressed – without end contraction.
370 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 If we consider velocity of approach then

8 
Q= cd 2 g tan [(H + ha )5 / 2  ha 5 / 2 ]
15 
Advantages
(a) cd nearly constant with depth.
(b) Only one dimension is to be measured, therefore more accurate
(c) Even for small discharge, high head is obtained. Therefore, no effect.
or viscosity and surface tension.
(d)A triangular notch gives much more accurate results in low discharge
conditions as compared to conventional rectangular notch.
4. Cipolletti-Weir:It is a trapezoidal weir whose slopes are adjusted in
such a way that:
• Reduction in discharge due to end contraction in rectangular weir =
Increase in discharge due to triangular portion.(Side slope 1 H: 4V)
 4V
 H 2
2 1H
L

 1
tan = ,   28º
2 4
2
Q = cd 2g L H3/2
3
c d = 0.63
5. Broad Crested weir
 Consider a Nappe in such a way that stream lines become straight
& pressure variation become hydrostatic over the weir.
 Q = cd Lh 2g(H - h)
 In this, flow adjusts itself to give max. discharge at available head H.
H
h

 For maximum , discharge

2
h = H Qmax = 1.7 cd LH3/2
3
c d = 0.85 – 1,
 Fluid Mechanics 373

v v
h
a

Free flow Drowned flow

Effect on discharge due to error in head measurement

For infinite small errors in head measurement
Q = KH n
dQ = Kn Hn–1dH
dQ  dH 
 100 = n   100 
Q  H 
% error in discharge = n × % error in head measurement
here n = 1 Proportional weir, sutro weir
n = 1.5 rectangular weir,
n = 2.5 triangular weir.

Actual Velocity
Special Point - Cv 
Theoretical Velocity
Actual velocity is always less than theoretical velocity because in ac-
tual fluid are real & in real fluid head losses are takes place, hence the
value of Cv is always less than 1.
For Pitot tube Cv = 0.97 - 0.99, sharp edge orifice Cv = 0.98
For Orifice meter Cd = 0.64 - 0.67, sharp edge orifice Cd = 0.611
For Venturimeter Cd = 0.94 - 0.98, Cc = 1
The Relationship between Cd, Cv, Cc for orifice is given by Cd = CV × Cc

CIVIL Ki Goli :- Cd  Cc  Cv

CV:- Curriculum Vitae

(Resume for job)
374 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Laminar Flow 10
In Laminar flow fluid particles move along the straight parallel paths in layers.
It occurs at a very low velocity, & Viscous force predominates the inertial
forces. (Couette flow: When one plate is moving and other is at rest)
Nature of flow according to Reynold's number (Re)

Laminar Transition Turbulent

Flow in pipe Re < 2000 2000 < Re < 4000 Re > 4000
Flow between Re < 1000 1000 < Re < 2000 Re > 2000
parallel plate
Flow in open channel Re < 500 500 < Re < 2000 Re > 2000
Flow through soil Re < 1 1 < Re < 2 Re > 2

Flow through flat plate in circular pipe (steady uniform flow)

dp d  r dp
1.  , 
dx dy 2 dx
x is the direction of flow
y is perpendicular to x

 y
P.dA x
 p 
 P+ dx  dA
 x 
dx

 r2 
2. V = Vmax 1  2 
 R 
1  dp  2
3. Vmax =  R
4  dx 
396 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Turbines 1
Essential Components of Hydro Electric Power Plant:
 Hydraulic Turbine: It is a hydraulic machine which converts hydraulic
energy into mechincal energy, finally which is converted to electric energy.
 The mechanical energy so obtained is supplied to the generator coupled
to the runner, which then generate electrical energy.
Surge Tank: It is a reservoir fitted at some opening made on a long
pipe line to receive the rejected flow when the pipeline is suddenly closed.
 It reduces the distance between the turbine & free surface.
 When it is not possible to provide forebay, we provide surge tank to
absorb pressure fluctuation.
 It helps in absorbing the sudden pressure rise due to closing of valve
when load on turbine is reduced, hence elminating water hammer effect.
ir or
ervo
Res pond
Dam
Surge chamber

Penstock Motor Generator

Turbine
Draft Tube

Tail Water
Cross section through a pumped storage plant Pond
 Forebay is provided with intake structure to direct water into the pen-
stocks. It stores water temporarily when rejected by plant & to meet the
instantaneous increased demand of water due to sudden increase in load.
 Draft tube connects the outlet of the runner to the tail race.
 Draft tube converts a large proportion of kinetic energy rejected at the
outlet of the turbine into useful pressure energy , which result in
increased efficiency of turbine.It is always immersed in water.
 Hydraulic Machine 405

DN
2. U1  U 2 
60
where D = Db at inner edge, D = Do at expressed edge
Do  D b
D = at mid point
2
D b = Dia of hub or boss, Do = Outer dia of runner
Special Point: The analysis of velocity triangle, powers, Are Similar to
that of francis turbines. In this case generally > 90° and Vw  0 .
2

Performance of Turbines/ Unit Quantities

N
 Unit Speed (Nu): N u 
H

Q
 Unit Discharge (Qu): Q u 
H

P
 Unit Power (Pu): Pu 
H3/ 2
1 1 1/ 2
N P T (FLT )
 Specific Speed (Ns): (NS ) T  =
H5 / 4 L5 / 4
= F1/ 2 L3 / 4 T 3 / 2
 Dimensional formula of a turbine: M0.5L–0.25T–2.5
 Model Laws of Turbines

 H  H
  2 2  2 2
 D N  m (D N ) P

 Q   Q 
  3   3 
 D N  m  D N P

 P   P 
  5 3   5 3 
 D N  m  D N P
 Under unit horse power and unit head, the speed of specific speed
becomes imaginary.
 Hydraulic Machine 413

r od
ng
e c ti
delivery nn
hd
valve Co r

suction 
hs valve Piston
Piston rod
D

2r = L
Volume of water discharged per second.
ALN 3
Q= m / sec
60
A = Area of cylinder (in m2), N = Crank speed (in rpm)
L = Length of cyliner (in m) = 2r
 If the head against which water is to be lifted is
H s = (hs + hd)
hd = delivery head, hs = suction head
 Work done per second = Q(hs+hd)
 To increase discharge & to maintain it more uniform, double acting
reciporcating pumps are used.
2ALN
Q= , hence power also gets doubled.
60
 Slip in Percentage is given by
Q th Qact  Q 
% slip =  100  1  act   100
Q th  Q th 
= (1  cd )  100
where Cd= coefficient of discharge
Slip in negative when (a) delivery pipe is small & suction pipe is long
(b) Pump is running at very high speed.
 Air Vessel is used to obtain continuous supply of water at uni-
form rate, to save a considerable amount of work (Percentage of
work saved is 84.8% when single acting pump with air vessel is
used but this saving is only 39.2% when air vesel is used in double
acting pump) & to run the pump at a high speed without separa-
tion.
 Main adavantage of multicylinder pumps are that the pump even
420 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(2) For maximum discharge

1 A 5/3 1/2 dQ
Q = S , Put 0
nP 2/3
d
2  302º 22 , d = 0.938D
Special point: From Chezy’s equation
d
 For condition of Maximum Discharge 2= 308°, = 0.95
D
d
 For Condition of Maximum Velocity 2= 257° 27’,  0.81
D
Chart for Most Economical Sections
 Geometrical  Rectangular  Triangular  Trapezoidal
Parameters
my my
1V:MH
y IV:mH
y
 Diagram 1
B B

B 2y 1   60º Hor.
 Condition for  y m = 1,  = 45º  B  3 m  3   30º Vert.
2
most Economical

 Area A = B.y = 2y.y  A  my 2  A  (B  my)  y

 A  2y 2  A  y2
 2y
 A
 3

1 
yy 
3 
 3 y 2

 Perimeter P  4y p  2 2y  P  2 3y

y y
 Hydraulic Radius  R  y/2  R2 2  R
2
(R = A/P)

4y
 Top width (T)  T  2y  T  2y  T 3

3
 Hydraulic Depth  Dy  D  y/2  D y
4

 A
D  
 T

In trapezoidal section, most economical trapeziodal section should be

half of regular hexagon.
 Open Channel Flow 423

Gradually
Varied Flow 4
It is a Steady, Non uniform flow, where depth of flow varies gradually from
section to section along the length of the channel.
Assumptions in GVF:
1. Energy Correction Factor () = 1
2. Pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
3. Prismatic channel (Slope & Shape constant)
4. Roughness coefficient is independent of depth.
5. Bottom Slope of channel is very small (HGL will lie at free surface).
6. Flow is Steady (Constant discharge).
7. Chezy’s & Manning’s equations are used to determine energy slope.
Differential Equation for GVF
(i) H = Z+E
dH dz d E d E
=  ,  S0  S1
dx dx dx dx
V2
(ii) H = Z y
2g
dy
Slope Sf = –
dx

v2
2g
TEL

H E y

dz
v Slope S0= – dx
z

x
Datum (Horizontal)

dy S0  SF , Q2T
 Fr 
2
Again differentiating wrt x,
dx 1  Fr2
gA 3
 Surveying 427

Fundamentals of
Surveying 1
 The headquarter of Survey of India is located in Dehradun (1767).
 Both Plan & Map are the graphical representations of the features on
horizontal plane. Plan is a large scale representation but map is a small
scale representation of any structure.

Geodetic Survey Plane Survey

It is done for fixing widely It is done for Engineering projects.
spaced control points. Use for small area.
Geodetic surveying is done by Department of Earth surface is assumed to be flat.
National Survey of India. Line joining two points is a line.
Large areas of earth’s surface involved It is less accurate.
Curvature arc of earth is consider.
Special Points : Plane survey can safely be used when the extent of
area is less than 195.5 km2. ( in some exams, it’s 260 km2 as per options)
 The difference in the length of an arc & its subtended chord on earth’s
surface for a distance of 18.5 km is about 10 mm.(but some books also
recommended 15.2 mm, which is not right as per exam point)
 The earth is an oblate spheroid, the length of equatorial axis being
12,756.602 km & polar axis 12,713.168 km. The polar axis (12713.168
km) is shorter than the equatorial axis (12756.602 km) by about 43 km
(0.34 %).
 The length of an arc of 1.2 km on earth's mean surface is only 1 mm
more than the straight line connecting those two points.
 The average radius of earth is taken 6370 km for all calculations point of view.
Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose or Object
(i) Topographical Survey: It is conducted to obtain data & to make a
map indicating inequalites of land surface. Topographic Survey is done
to determine the Natural features of a Country. Scale range is 1 :
25000 to 1 : 1000000.
(ii) Hydrographic Survey: It is conducted on or near water bodies.
Marine survey is also one of it’s type.
428 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(iii) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction
of streets, water supply & sewage lines etc.
(iv) Astronomical Survey: It is conducted for determination of azimuths,
latitudes, longitudes, local time etc. at various places on the earth by
observing heavenly bodies. Absolute location of a point on earth surface
is obtained by it.
(v) Cadastral Survey : It is used to produce plans of property boundries
for legal purpose. The revenue chain is used in cadastral surveying.
Also called public land survey.
Geological Survey: It is conducted to obtain data of different strata
of earth’s surface for the purpose of geological studies.
Engineering Survey: It is used for design & construction of new
routes (roads & railways). Also used to calculate for route alignment.
Classification based on instrument used -
Chain surveying , Compass surveying, Theodolite survey, Levelling survey,
Contouring, EDM survey, Photogrammetric survey, Tacheometric
survey.
Special Points:
 Archaeological survey is done to collect information about old & relic
structures.
 Reconnaissance Survey is a kind of preliminary survey which is
performed to find out method of survey to be adopted & its rough cost.
 Correct Sequence of Surveys
(a) Traffic Survey
(b) Reconnaissance Survey
(c) Preliminary Survey
(d) Detailed Survey/Location Survey
Principles of Surveying
(i) Work from Whole to Part: So as to localise the error & prevent
their accumulation.
(ii) Locate a Point by Atleast two Measurements: Locating at point C.
C
C

A  B
A B
(a) By measuring AC and BC (b) By measuring AC and angle θ
432 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2. Cumulative errors (Systematic errors)

Cumulative errors (systematic errors)
 These are proportional to the length of the line & may be positive or
negative.
 These are the errors which are liable to occur in the same direction &
tend to accumulate.
Compensating errors (Random/Accidental errors)
 These are proportional to the square root of the length of the line.
 These are the errors which are liable to occur in both the directions &
tend to compensate.

Cases Errors
Incorrect length of tape Cumulative + or –
Tape not stretched horizontally Cumulative +
Error due to sag Cumulative +
Tape not stretched, tight & Cumulative +
straight, but both ends in line
Error due to temperature Cumulative + or –
Variation in pull Compensating + or –
Error in marking tape lengths Compensating + or –
Disturbing arrows after they are set Blunder
Errors in reading the tape Mistake
Incorrect counting of tape length Blunder
Careless holding & marking Compensating + or –

Units of Measurement

1 m = 3.28 foot, 12 inch = 1 foot

10 chain = 1 furlong, 8 furlong = 1 mile , 1 mile = 1.6 km,

100 link = 66 feet = 1 chain

1 ft. = 0.3 m 1 mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 3 ft 1 acre = 43560 sq. ft.
1 hectare = 2.471 acre 1 Nautical mile = 1.852 km
436 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 Accuracy of the french Cross Staff is less than that of an open

cross staff. But french cross staff can be set out at an angles of
45°, 90° & 135°.
(ii) Optical Square: Pocket instrument, more convenient & accurate than
a cross staff.
 Optical Square is used to establish two Points at right angle. The
principle used is of Double reflection. So, Angle between two mir-
rors is 45°.
(iii) Prism Square: It has two reflecting surfaces fixed at 45º. No adjustment
is required in it.
Special Points:-
 It is easier to work downhill while stepping than to work uphill.
 Simple clinometer : For measuring the angle of slope of the ground.
Equipments for Establishing Intermediate points
Ranging - The process of establishing the intermediate points on a straight
line is known as ranging or ranging out in surveying.
There are 3 methods of ranging out - (a) Direct ranging, (b) Indirect ranging
( repeated alignment ), (c) Random line method .
Direct ranging with a line ranger - Line ranger consists of two right
angled isosceles triangular prisms placed one above the other.
Linear Measurement with Chain
On smooth level ground On sloping ground
using chain, pegs &
Stepping Along slope
arrows after establishing
Using Abney level
intermediate points
90º

90º 

Correction in Chain Measurement

(i) Standardisation Correction
Correct length =
Length reported to be measured
Actual length of chain ×
Nominal length of chain
Correction = True length – Measured length
438 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(iv) Temperature Correction (Ct):

Ct   Tm  To L
To = Standardisation temperature
T m = Mean Temperature,  = Thermal coefficient
(v) Mean sea level correction

 Lh
Ch 
R

MSL Traverse
h line

Le

Radius of Earth = R

(vi) Sag Correction (Cs)

2
w2l 3 W l
Cs   2 =

24 p 24 p 2
p = Applied pull
w = Weight of tape per unit length in N/m, W = wl
l = Length of tape suspended between supports

Order of field work in chain surveying

(a) Reconnaissance, (b) Marking of stations
(c) Running survey lines, (d) Taking offsets
Obstacles in chaining
 Forest, Hill - Obstacle to ranging but not chaining
 Small pond, small bend in river - Obstacle to chaining but not ranging
 A big building - Obstacles to both chaining & ranging
440 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(i) True Bearing (ii) Magnetic Bearing

 It is measured with  It is measured with
true north in clockwise magnetic north in
direction. clockwise direction.
 It does not change with  It changes with time since
time since true meridian at a magnetic poles are not
point is fixed. fixed in position.
 It is the horizontal angle  It is the horizontal angle
between the true meridian which line makes with the
& the line. magnetic north.
 It is determined by  It is determined by prismatic
astronomical observation compass or surveyor’s compass

(iii) Arbitrary Meridian: It is the meridian which is taken in any convenient

arbitrary direction.
(iv) Grid Meridian: For survey of a country, the Meridian passing through
the central place is generally taken as a reference meridian for the
whole country. This type of reference meridian is called grid meridian.
Bearing: It is the horizontal angle which the line makes with the meridian
Types of bearing - (a) Magnetic, (b) True, (c) Grid , (d) Arbitrary
 Magnetic bearings are used for small, less important surveys.
 True bearing of a line (also known as Azimuth) does not change with
time & can be re-established even after hundreds of years.

Designation of bearing
Quadrantal Bearing System (reduce bearing) : It is the acute angle
which the line makes with the meridian. Measured from North point or
South point whichever is closer & always less than 90º. Surveyor compass
have quadrantal bearing system.
Whole Circle Bearing System: It is the horizontal angle between the
line & the north end of the reference meridian in clockwise direction. It
varies between 0º to 360º. Prismatic compass have whole circle bearing
system.
 Surveying 447

Traversing 5
A traverse is a series of connected lines whose length & direction are
measured in field. In traversing, two types of measurements are need:
Angular measurement Linear measurement
(a) Loose needle method (a) Taping or chaining
(b) Fast needle method (b) Tacheometric method
(c) Method of deflection angle (c) Electronic distance measuring
instrument (EDMI)
(d) Method of direct angle
(e) Method of included angle

Accuracy order: Coordinate method > Method of included angle > fast
needle method > Loose needle method.
Angle Misclosure: It is equal to the difference between actual sum of
measured angles & the theoretical sum of included angles:
Sum of internal angles of a traverse = (2N – 4)× 90º
Sum of external angles of a traverse = (2N + 4)× 90º
Permissible angle misclosure = K N , N = Number of sides of traverse
K = Depends on theodolite least count, accuracy desired & no. of
repetitions (Generally consider 20'').
Latitude and Departures: The orthographic projection of a line on
meridian & on the axis perpendicular to the meridian is called latitude &
departure respectively.
L
(+, –) (+, +)
D D4 D1
A
L4 4 1
l4 l1 L 1
O D
L3 l3 3 l2
C D3 2 L2

D2 B
(–, –) (–, +)
456 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Tacheometry 7
It is an optical distance measurement method. Generally used for rough or
steep grounds where accuracy is less while chaining (taping)
Tacheometer: Transit theodolite fitted with Stadia diaphragm.
(i) Telescope is fitted with an anallactic lens (convex lens).
(ii) Additive constant (c) should be zero.
(iii) Multiplying constant (K) should be 100,
(iv) Eyepiece has high magnification power.
Subtense Bar ( Horizontal Stave ) : It is used in measuring horizontal
distances & difference in elevation indirectly where the terrain is rough.
Stadia Rod: Also called vertical Stave. It is a 3 – 5 m long graduated rod
in decimals of metre.
Methods of tacheometry -
(a) Tangential method - In it, observations are made for vertical angles
& staff intercepts are obtained with cross wires only. Stadia wires are not
used at all.It is slower than stadia hair method but less accurate.
(b) Range finding - It is used to find out the horizontal distance &
direction of a line without going to far end of the line. The equipment used is
known as range finder.
(c) Stadia method - (i) Fixed hair method - In it, parallactic angle is kept
fixed & the staff intercept is varied.
(ii) Moveable hair method - It is also called subtense method .
Fixed hair system: In this system the vertical distance between the upper
and lower stadia hair is fixed and this fixed distance is called as stadia inter-
val (I).
 The stadia diaphragm consist of two stadia hairs at equal distances.
Principle of Stadia Method

D = KS + C
 Surveying 457

D = Horizontal distance between staff & vertical axis of tacheometer

d f
f2 f1
A
A O B
i C C s
B A
B

..
..
.
C D–C
D

S = Staff intercept
f
K= , C = f  d , (where 1  1  1 )
i f f1 f 2
i = Interval between the stadia hairs of the Diaphragm
d = Horizontal distance between optical center O & vertical axis of
techeometer.
Additive contstant C, range from 0.3 to 0.6m (for external focusing
telescope) & 0.08 to 0.2 (for internal focusing telescope) & taken as 0.
Distance and Elevation Formula for Inclined Sights
(i) When staff is vertical

A A

90º C s
L h
B
V
E
a
 F

D
Staff vertical (angle of elevation)

Elevation of staff station when elevation angle  = HI + V – h

L = KS cos  + c
470 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Properties of Spherical Triangle

A

c b

B C

a
(i) Any angle is less than .
(ii) π < (A + B + C) 3 
(iv) If sum of any two sides is equal to angle, then the sum of angles
opposite them is also equal to .
(iii) Sum of any two sides > third side.
R 2
(vi) Area of spherical triangle =  E , where spherical excess (E) =
180
(A + B +C)– 180.
(v) The smaller angle is always opposite to the smaller side.
sum of all angle in range of 1800 - 5400
 Surveying 471

Measurement of
Area and Volume 12
Measurement of Area

h1 o2 h2 o3 h3 o4 h4
o1 h(n–1) on

d
L = (n– 1)d

h1, h2...hn are offsets at mid point of each division.

(a) Average ordinate rule
n

o1  o2  on 1 nd  Oi
Area =  nd , Area = i 1
n 1 n 1
 o1  on 
(b) Trapezoidal rule: A = d   o2  o3  ...  on 1 
 2 
Where o1 & on are end ordinates.
Trapezoidal rule is more accurate than the Mid-ordinate rule and
Average ordinate rule.
(c) Mid-ordinate rule
Area = (h1 + h2 + ....+ hn) L
(d) Simpson's one-third rule
d
A = [(o0  on )  4(o2  o4  ...  on1 )  2(o1  o3  ...  on2 )]
3
Special Points: Simpson’s Three Point formula

d
A= [h1  4h 2  h 3 ]
3
 Hydrology 487

Precipitation and
Measurement 2
 71% of Earth's area is covered with water.
71%
97.5%saline 2.5% fresh water

69% Glacier 31% other source.

Various types of precipitation- (a) Orographic- Due to mountain barrier
(b) Cyclonic- It occurs due to pressure difference
(c) Convective - It occurs due to heating of air ( temperature difference)
(d) Frontal - It is a type of cyclonic precipitation, which occurs due to
warm & cold air masses.
• Monsoon is due to S-W wind
• Fall of water in various forms on the earth from the clouds.
Forms of precipitation

Rain Drizzle Sleet Hail Snow Glaze

(0.5mm-6mm) (intensity (snow + rain) (5mm-50mm) (density Freezes on
< 0.1 mm/hr) = 0.1 gm/cc) ground contact

Type of Rain Intensity

Light Rain Upto 2.5 mm/hr.
Moderate Rain 2.5 - 7.5 mm/hr.
Heavy Rain > 7.5mm / hr

 If rainfall in a day  2.5 mm, the day is called rainy day..

 For uniformity, the rainfall is measured every day at 8:30 am (IST) and is
recorded as the rainfall of that day.
 Most common rainfall in India is due to Orographic ppt.
 Raingauge (IS : 4897 - 1968) is use to measure the rainfall depth at any
station. Also called ombro meter, Pluviometer & Hyetometer.
488 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Following requirements which has to be statisfied prier to Installment of

raingauge.
(a) Raingauge must be installed on level surface.
(b) Raingauge must be surrounded by open fenced area of 5.5 × 5.5 m.
(c) Raingauge must be installed at a distance of atleast 30 metre or twice
the height of building from the nearby objects.

(a) Non-recording gauge (IS : 4986 - 1968)

 They measure how much rain occured. The non recording gauge used
in India is the Symon’s gauge.Also called 5 inch raingauge.

(b) Recording gauge

It produce a continuous plot of rainfall against time & provide valuable
short duration data on intensity & duration of rainfall for hydrological analy-
sis of storms. The commonly used recording gauge are:

1. Tipping Bucket Type raingauge gives data on the Intensity of rainfall

 The main advantage of this type of instrument is that it gives an electronic
pulse output that can be recorded at a distance from the raingauge. It is
use in hilly or inaccessible region.

2. Weighing-bucket type:
 Also used to calculate water content of snowfall.
 The catch from the funnel empties into a bucket mounted on a weighing
scale. The weight of the bucket & it’s contents are recorded on a
clockwork-driven chart.
 The weighing type is suitable for measuring all kinds of precipitation
(rain, sleet etc.)
 It gives a plot of the accumulated rainfall against the elapsed time, mass
curve of rainfall (accumulated precipitation against time).
3. Natural syphon type:
 It is also known as float type gauge.
 It is adopted as standard recording type rain gauge in India. It has diameter
of 127 mm.
 In it, the rainfall collected by a funnel shaped collector is lead into a float
chamber causing a float to rise. It gives plot of the mass curve of the rainfall.
 As the float rises, a pen attached to the float through a level system
492 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Flow duration curve (Discharge frequency curve) is a curve plotted

between stream flow Q and % of time the flow is equalled or exceeded. It
is used to study the variability of stream flow over a water year.

PMP = p +K 
Probable Maximum Precipitation
p  Mean annual rainfall series
Clear Your Confusion
Evaporation Vs. Transpiration: Transpiration is that water requirement
of plant which is necessary for the metabolism of plant during it’s
growth period.
Evaporation is a phenomenon of liquid, by which liquid molecules at
free surrface continuously changed into gaseous phase (vapour).
The depth of water consumed in both evaporation (from stem & leafs)
and transpiration during use of evapotranspiration.
Rainfall intensity accordding to British ministry of health formula,
 760 
I   , for storm duration 5 - 20 minutes
 t 10 
Where I - mm/hr, t - Minute.

 1020 
I   , for storm duration 20 - 100 minutes
 t  10 
496 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Stream Flow
Measurement 4
Stage : Height of the water surface in the river above some arbitrary
datum.
In small streams of Shallow depth, & observer stands in water, current
meter held at a suitable depth this arrangement is called wading.

Measurement of stage
Automatic Manual
Float gauge Bubble gauge Staff gauge Wire gauge
recorder Below Water Surface Above Water Surface
• Current meter: It is commonly used for measuring velocity of flow of
river. It is caliberated in Towing Tank.
• Most relilable and accurate measurement of stream flow during floods is
current meter.
V = a Ns+b
a, b = Current meter constants.
N s = Number of revolutions per sec
• Velocity distribution in the vertical section across stream is logarithmic
Following are the various methods for velocity measurement.
(a) Average velocity for moderately deep stream ( two point method )
V0.2 d  V0.8 d
V
2
(b) For shallow stream of depth up to 3 m ( one point method )
V  V0.6d
(c) In rivers having flood flow
V  K .Vs
Measurement of discharge -
(i) Indirect method - Slope area method
 Irrigation 513

(2) Border flooding

 In it, the land is divided into a no. of strips (Each strip is of the order of 10
to 20 m in width & 100 to 400 m in length) separated by low levees
called borders.
 Water is allowed to flow from the supply ditch into each strip. The water
flows slowly towards the lower end & it infiltrates into the soil as it
advances.
Intake Field Channel

10 to 20m
Slope
Level
100 to
400m

Drain

(3) Check flooding

 Check flooding is similar to ordinary flooding except that the water is
controlled by surrounding the check area with low & flat levees.
 Close growing (cereal) crops like as jowar or paddy are preferred.
 It is suitable for both more permeable & less permeable soil.
Ditch Openings

Levees
along the
contours

Connecting levee
(4) Furrow method or furrow irrigation
 In it, water is applied to the land to be irrigated by a series of long,
narrow field channels called furrows which are dug in the land at regular
interval.Less evaporation and less pudding.
 The crops are usually grown on the ridges between the furrows
 The water flowing in the furrows infiltrates into the soil & spreads laterally
520 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

reservoir like irrigation, hydropower and water supply.

 Live storage is the volume of water stored between normal pool level
(which is equal to elevation of spillway crest) & minimum pool level (which
is fixed at the elevation of lowest outlet).
Crop period: It is the time between sowing of crop & it’s harvesting.
Base period: It is the time between first watering & last watering
done before harvesting.
Crop period>Base period
Duty: It is expressed in hectare per cumec. It is the area of land in
hectares that can be irrigated when one cumec of water is supplied throughout
entire base period.
Delta: It is denoted by & expressed in cm or m. It is the total depth of
water applied over an irrigated land at different watering throughout entire
base period.
8.64
B =
D
meters, B  Base period in days, D hec/m3/sec

Duty (D)
Crop Delta  (cm)
ha/m 3 / s
Rice 775 120
Wheat 1800 40
Sugarcane 730 120
Vegetable 1000 45
Fodder 2000 22.5
Barley 1800 30

River
F

Main canal
Canal head D Major distributory
regulator
E Branch
canal
C Outlet discharge factor
Minor B A
distributory Field
Water
course

Duty A  Duty B  D C  D D  D E  D F
524 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Canal-Design 4
 Max permissible velocities in Different Type of Linings.

Types of lining Permissible Velocity (m/sec)

Cement concrete lining 2.7
Burnt clay tile lining 1.8
Boulder lining 1.5

Design of lined Mannings irrigation channel ( Ideal shape -Trapezoidal )

1. Triangular section (For Q < 150 m3/sec)
A = y 2 (  cot ) , P = 2 y (  cot )
A y
R 
P 2 2

Top of lining

Free Board

 

y y

2. Trapezoidal section (For Q > 150 m3/sec)

A  y ( B  y  y cot ) , P = B  2 y (  cot )
 Irrigation 525

Top of lining
Free board


 
y

Design of Kennedy unlined canal ( Ideal shape - Semi elliptical )

0  wRS , Where, 0 = Tractive force at the channel bottom/ bed

c  0.056  d (Gs  1) , S = Channel longitudinal slope

c = Critical tractive stress at channel bottom
Gs = Specific gravity of sediment = 2.667

 
y0
0.7
5
RS
RS

sin 2 
At channel side, c  c 1 
sin 2 

= side slope angle, = angle of repose of soil

Special Point: For no sediment movement from
(a) Channel bottom 0 c (d 11 RS)
(b) Channel sides 0  c
Kennedy’s theory-Applicable to irrigation channels only.
RG Kennedy (EE, PWD Punjab) in 1895 Carried out an investigation on
some of canal reaches in upper bari doab canal system.
1. V0 = 0.55 m y0.64 where
 Irrigation 535

(i) Effect due to vertical acceleration (av)

 W 
Net effective weight of the dam reduces to  W  av 
 g 

Vertical acceleration acting downward reduces weight of the dam

(ii) Effect due to horizontal acceleration (ah)
(a) Hydrodynamic pressure Pe  0.555Kh wH 2

W 
(b) Horizontal Inertia force Fh=   a h
 g 

1 2 1  sin 
(4) Silt Pressure Psilt  subh Ka , Ka 
2 1  sin 
If the u/s face is inclined, then vertical weight of the silt supported on
the slope also acts as vertical force.
(5) Wave Pressure
h w  0.032 V.F  0.763  0.271(F)3/4 , F  32  km 
( In some books, it’s (F) 1/4)
h w  0.032 V.F, F  32  km  , F - length of reservoir in km.
h w = height of wave (meter),
(distance between trough & crest of wave)
V = Wind Velocity (km/hr), F = Fetch (Km)
hw
Max. Pw  2.4whw acting at height of 8
from still water (IS : 6512)

(6) Ice Pressure: Pressure thrust on the face of the dam due to expanding
or melting of ice. Magnitude on gravity dam is 500 kN/m2.
(7) Weight of the dam: W   cV
c =Unit weight of concrete, V = Volume of dam body per unit length.
Criteria of Structural Stability & modes of failure of Gravity dam

(1) Overturning about Toe FR  FH2  Fy2

(2) Compression or crushing failure
 Environmental Engineering 561

Aeration
 It is generally used for ground water & removes undesirable gases.
 It can also remove volatile liquid like phenols & humic acids.
 It removes iron and manganese & it also decreases the acidity of water.

Process of Aeration
Nozzles Water spray

Inlet
Outlet

Spray Nozzle
(a) Spray nozzle  removes 90% CO2 & 99% H2S.
(b) Cascade aerator  Removes 20 – 45% CO2 & 35% H2S

Step
Inlet Thin Film of Water

Outlet
Inlet Chamber
Outlet Chamber
Cascades

In the aereation process, the cheapest method is cascade method

(c) Diffused air aerator  Water absorbs oxygen from compressed
air and colour, odour & taste are removed.
(d) Trickling bed or Tray tower: Fe, Mn removal
 To help oxidation, KMnO4 may be used.

Algae Control
 Fairly alkaline water containing more concentration of nitrates &
phosphates are prone to algal growth.
 Environmental Engineering 563

L Length of tank
Time of Horizontal flow = V  Velocity of flow
f

Q
Velocity of flow Vf =
BH
Volume of tank
(Detention time) tD = Discharge
Q
Surface over flow rate, Vs =
BL
 % removal of these particle will be given by
h Vs '

H Vs

Vs '
% removal of particle having velocity   100
Vs
Special Points:
1. Surface overflow rate can be thought of as settling velocity of that
particle which if particle introduced at the top most point at inlet will
reach the bottom most point at outlet.
2. If the overflow rate is increased, the efficiency of sedimentation tank
is decreased & vice-versa.
3. Theortically depth does not have any effect on the efficiency of tank.

Data for Sedimentation Tanks

 Overflow rate : 12000 – 18000 litre/m2/day for plain sedimentation, 24000
– 30000 litre/m2/day for sedimentation with coagulation.
 Design for Maximum daily flow = 1.8 × average daily flow.
 Detention time is 3-4 hours for plain sedimentation tank & 2-2.5 hrs for
sedimentation with coagulation.
Q × detention time = volume of tank
 Vf = 0.3 m/minute., Vf × detention time = length of tank
 Width 10 to 12 m., Length - 4 times the width. (2-5 times)
 Depth of tank 3 m (It do not have any effect on efficiency of tank)
Sedimentation with Coagulation
 A colloidal dispersion is defined as stable when the dispersion shows
little or no tendency to aggregate.
 Aggregation of colloidal particles require:
 Environmental Engineering 567

Design Criteria
 Depth of tank 3 - 5 m. & Detention time taken is 10–30 min.
 Peripheral velocity (Vp) 0.2 – 0.6 meter per sec.
 Generally Gtd adopted is 10,000 – 100,000.
Filtration
 Economically effective in controlling guinea worm disease.
 Filters are classified as:
(a) Slow sand filter – Gravity filter
(b) Rapid sand filter – Gravity filter
(c) Pressure filter - 6000 - 15000 l/hr/m2
Theory of filtration
(a) Sedimentation : In it, particles finer than voids are removed by
sedimentation.
(b) Mechanical Straining: Particles are removed in upper layers.
(c) Biological Metabolism: Three zones of purification.
 The surface coating is known as ‘‘Schmutzdecke’’.
 The ‘autotrophic’ zone existing a few millimeters below.
 The ‘‘heterotrophic’’ zone, which extends around 300 mm into
the bed.
(d) Electrolytic Changes
 Sand grains of filter and impurities in water carry opposite charges.
Due to their interaction, chemical characteristics of water changes & it
becomes pure.
Slow Sand Filter
Inlet chamber
Head loss
Telescopic
outlet
Inlet valve
for Raw water
raw water
Measuring
Gravel water
Sand

Main
collector
Section at end
Section at center to supply reservoir
568 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Comparision of slow sand and Rapid Gravity Filters.

Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter

Cu = 1.8 - 3 Cu = 1.3 - 1.7
D10 = (0.2–0.3) mm D10 = (0.35–0.55) mm
Frequency of cleaning = (1–3) Cleaned through Back washing
months (Using 2-5% of total water filter)
& process takes 15-30 minutes.
Design period = 10 year Base Material is gravel
Use for smaller plants in village Rate of filtration (3000-6000)
Design on maximum daily demand. l/m2/hr ( Efficiency 80 - 90 %)
Rate of filtration (100-200) l/m2/hr Operational Troubles–
is very low as compared to (a) Air Binding - back washing
R.S.F., but efficiency is High (b) Mud ball formations - compressed air
(Bacteria removal is 98–99%) (c) Cracking of filter - due to temp. variation
Depth of sand is 90 – 110 cm Sand layer is 60 – 90 cm deep
Plan area required is 100–2000 m2 Area of tank is 10 – 100 m2/unit
n = 1.22 Q , Q is plant capacity in MLD.
Utilizes the effluent from plain Particle more than 200 µm
sedimentation tank. diameter are
Filter can not be used if efficiently removed. & Removes suspended,
turbidity
is greater than 50 ppm. colloidal matter & microorganisms.
Depth of tank is 2.5 to 3.5 m. Depth of water over sand layer = 1 – 2m.
Top 15 cm of sand layer would be finer. Length/width = 1.25 to 1.33.
(a) Top layer size – 3 – 6 mm Max. loss of head = 2.5 to 3.0 meters.
(b) Middle layer – 20 – 40 mm Washing period is 24 – 48 hrs.
(c) Bottom layer – 40 – 65 mm Rate of washing is 15 to 90 cm rise per
minutes
For cleaning, layer of sand is scraped RSF is highly efficient in colour removal
&top 1.5 to 3
cm of sand is removed when used with coagulation sedimentation.
Efficiency wrt bacteria removal is 80–90%.
It is laid in order to receive filtered It is laid to receive filtered water and also to
water pass water for back washing at very high rate
Period of cleaning 1-3 months Period of
cleaning 1-3 days
Removal of turbidity up to 50 ppm Removal of turbidity up to 40 ppm
Economy-High initial cost & low Low initial cost & High maintenance cost
maintenance cost
It's construction is simple and no It's construction is complicated and skilled
skilled labour required labour required
 Environmental Engineering 587

Disposal of Sewage
Waste 6
BIS Standard for Disposal of Sewage
Parameter Domestic sewage Industrial sewage**
if discharge into surface Inland surface water Public sewer
water source
BOD 5 20 ppm 30 ppm 500 ppm
pH _ 5.5–9.0 5.5–9.0
Suspended Solids 30 ppm 100 ppm* 600 ppm
* Suspended organic matter contains least carbon, therefore relaxation in norms.
** It contains refractory organics, in it industrial sewage not mixed directly into public
sewer.

Dilution Factor Standards of Purification Required

Above 500 No treatment is required. Raw sewage can be directly discharged
into the volume of dilution water.
Between 300 to 500 Primary treatment such as plain sedimentation should be given
to sewage,& the effluents should not contain suspended solids
more than 150 ppm.
Between 150 to 300 Treatments such as sedimentation, screening & essentially chemi-
cal precipitation are required. The sewage effluent should not
contain suspended solids more than 60 ppm.
Less than 150 Complete through treatment should be given to sewage. The
sewage effuent should not contain suspended solids more than
30 ppm, & it is 5 days B.O.D. should not exceed 20 ppm.

Mechanism of Self Purification

1. Dilution and Dispersion: It is not a self-purification method.
Cs Q s  C R Q R
Cmix 
QS  Q R
Where, Cs = Concentration of material of sewage, CR = Concentration
of same material in river
Qs & QR are discharges of sewage and river.
634 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Lateral coefficient of the friction f = 0.15 & lateral friction is useful in

horizontal curve design.
Longitudinal coefficient of the friction f = 0.35–0.4 & The longitudinal
friction is useful in sight distance calculation.( General value - 0.35)
2. Uneven-ness: It is the cumulative measure of vertical undulation of
the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road.
 Pavement surface condition is measured by Bump-Integrator &
Roughometer in terms of unevenness index.
 A value less than 150 cm per km is considered good.
3. Drainage:
4. Light reflection: Concrete roads have better visibility and less glare.
Camber or cross fall: It is the rising of the middle of the road surface
in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
 The cross slope for shoulder should be 0.5% steeper than cross slope
of adjoining pavement, subject to a minimum of 3%.
 Camber is measured in 1 in n or n%
 For cement concrete pavement, Camber is straight line otherwise
parabolic.
Type of surface Range of camber
in areas of rainfall range
Heavy to Light
1. Cement concrete and high 1 in 50 (2.0%) to 1 in 60 (1.7%)
type bituminous surface
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) to 1 in 50 (2.0%)
3. Water bound macadam 1 in 33 (3.0%) to 1 in 40 (2.5%)
and gravel pavement
4. Earthen 1in 25(4.0%) to 1 in 33(3.0%)
Width of Carriage way: It is decided on the basis of capacity which
depend on width of the traffic lane and number of lanes.
IRC Specification for Carriage way Width (m)
Single lane 3.75
Two lane, no kerbs 7.0
Two lane, raised kerbs 7.5
Intermediate carriage 5.5
Multi-lane 3.5 per lane
Median or Traffic Separators:
Minimum desirable width of medians on rural highways is 5 m, but this
could be reduced to 3 m where land is restricted. On long bridges and
 Highway Engineering 667

(b) Abrasion test: It gives hardness of Aggregates

Cover
Plate

Steel Balls

Loss Angeles abrasion test set-up

(i) Los Angeles abrasion test

(ii) Devel abrasion test.
(iii) Dorry abrasion test.
 Diameter of drum=700 (some books recommended 750)mm
& length=500 mm
 Steel balls of 48 mm diameter & 390-445 gm weight.
 Speed of rotation = 30 – 33 rpm & Aggregate quantity used =
5 – 10 kg. Total revolution (500 - 1000) depending on the grade
of specimen.
 Material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve & thus % is calculated.
(c) Impact test: It gives toughness of Aggregates.
 Aggregate passing 12.5 mm & retained on 10 mm sieve.
 Then filled in cylinder of 5 cm height & 10.2 cm diameter in 3
layers.
 Each layer tamped 25 times and weighted W1.
 Give 15 blows from metal hammer of 13.5 – 14 kg from 38 cm
height.
 The amount of Mechanical Energy Imposed on the aggregate
during the Aggregate Impact test is 7980 kg-cm.
 Crushed aggregate passed through 2.36 mm sieve & passing
material weighs W2.

W2
Aggregate Impact Value = W  100
1
694 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

2. Rigid overlay over rigid pavement

h o = (hda  heb ) n
a, b, x, n depend upon pavement and method of overlay construction
h d = Design thickness
h o = Rigid overlay thickness
h e = existing pavement thickness.
3. Flexible overlay over rigid pavement
h f = 2.5 (fhd – he)
h b = 1.66 (fhd – he)
h e = Existing rigid pavement thickness
h f = flexible overlay thickness
h b = Thickness of bituminous overlay.
h d = Design thickness of rigid pavement
f = factor which depend upon modulus of existing pavement.

Wall Features
Parapet wall To give protection to the motorists
Check Wall To add the overall stability to the hill face.
Breast wall To buttress the upfill slopes of the road cross
section.
Gabion Wall Constructed with dry stone masonry encased in wire
mesh

Unevenness index
(i) It measure the undulation of road surface, along the length of road.
(ii) Unevenness index measured by Bump - Indicator.
(iii) According to IRC

Pavement Unevenness index

Good <1500 mm/km

Satisfactory 1500-2500 mm/km
Uncomfort 2500-3500 mm/km
Poor >3500 mm/km
 Airport 701

(iii) Width of safety area: Runway width + shoulder on either side +

area cleared, graded & drained.
As per ICAO, For instrumental runway it is 300 m
For Non Instrumental runway minimum width of safety area
(a) for A, B, C type = 150 m, (b) for D and E type = 78 m
(iv) Length of safety area: It is equal to the length of runway + 120 m
(v) Transverse gradient: for proper drainage. As per ICAO
(a) For A, B and C type = Maximum Value 1.5%
(b) For D and E type = Maximum Value 2%
But minimum value is 0.5% in both above cases
Special Point: ICAO recommends that upto 75 m from centre, its
maximum gradient can be 5%
Runway
Shoulder 1 .5 Shoulder
ax %
Ma
%M x
1.5
2. 5
x %
Ma 45 m M
% ax
2.5
150 m 5%
ax M
M ax
5%

300 m
Runway cross-section
(vi) Sight distance: for A, B, C type of airport any two points having
3 m above surface of runway should be mutually visible from a distance
equal to half of runway length.
(vii) Rate of change of longitudnal Gradient: As per ICAO
Rate of change of gradient Type
max 0.10% per 30 m for vertical Curve A&B
max 0.20% per 30 m for vertical Curve C
0.4% per 30 m for vertical Curve E&D

Description Small Airport large airport

Maximum grade 2% 1.5%
change shouldn't exceed
Length of vertical curve L1 & L2 for 90 m 300m.
each % of grade change
Distance b/w point of grade line 75 (a+b)m 300(a+b)m.
830 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Rivets
1
IS 432:1982 Mild steel and medium tensile steel.
Various physical properties of structural steel are given below.
Unit mass of steel,  = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio,  = 0.3 ( in elastic range ), 0.5 ( in plastic range ).
Coefficient of thermal expansion,  = 12 × 10–6/ºC
Methods of design of steel frame work:
(a) Simple design
 Based on elastic theory & most uneconomical method
 No moment is transferred from the connected member to another
connected member (for design purpose, structure is assumed to be
pin jointed).
 All connection of beams, girder or trusses are virtually flexible.
(b) Semi-rigid design
 It ensure that partial flexibility is available at supports.
 It permits a reduction in maximum bending moments in beams
suitable connected to supports due to partial transfer of moment to
another connected member.
 It is economical than simple design.
(c) Fully rigid design method
 It involves the assumption of the end connections being fully rigid
& capable of transmitting moments & shears.
 The end connection of the members of the frame should have
sufficient rigidity to hold virtually unchanged original angles between
such members & members they connect.
 It is used in convenient cases & given economy in the weight of
steel & saves construction cost.
Wind pressure, P  KV 2
840 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Diameter of bolt holes

For d ( 12 - 14 mm), d' = d + 1 mm, d ( 16 - 24 mm), d' = d + 2 mm,
For d > 24 mm, d' = d + 3 mm
Where d - Nominal diameter, d' - Diameter of hole

Shank area (A sb)

A nb
= 0.78 A sb
Area of root of
thread (A nb)

Types of riveted/bolted joints

Lap joint Butt joint

Double cover Single cover

Single bolted butt joint butt joint
lap joint

Single cover single

Double bolted Double cover bolted
lap joint single bolted

Single cover double

bolted
Double cover
double bolted
S.No. Lap joint Butt joint
1. Lap joint are less strength A butt joint is very strong
2. Number of Rivet required is less Number of rivet required more
3. In Lap joint cover plate are not In Butt joint cover plate are
required required
4. Lap joint is less costly Butt joint is high costly
Single and double cover butt joints both has eccentricity zero but,
lap joint has an eccentricity. As compare to single cover butt joint, double
cover butt joint is more efficient.
850 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Tension Member 5
1. Net area is effective in tension member
3. Permissible stress is fixed (0.6 fy) and design is straight forward
2. There is no stability problem (as case of compression members) but
slenderness ratio is limited to safeguard against buckling during
transportation & erection.
Maximum slenderness ratio

Maximum
Description

Tension member in which reversal of direct
stress occurs due to live load other than wind 180
or earthquake.
In reversal occurs due to wind or earthquake. 350
A tension member permeanently in tension
400
except in pretensioned members.

Net sectional area (Anet):

P
A net required 
at
at = Permissible axial tensile stress
Anet provided  Anet required
(a) Net area for plate section
 pi2 
A net = b  nd h   t
 4g i 
856 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

D escrip tio n  m ax
A stru t co nn ected b y sin g le rivet at eac h en d. 180
In m em b er carryin g lo ad s resu ltin g fro m d ea d
180
lo ad s an d im p o sed lo ad s.
A m em b er sub je cted to co m p re ssiv e fo rce resu ltin g
fro m w in d /ea rth q u ak e fo rc e, p ro v id in g th e d efo rm atio n
250
o f su ch m em be rs d o es n o t a d ve rse ly e ffe ct th e stre ss in
an y p art o f stru ctu re.
C o m p res sio n flan g e o f a b ea m 300
A m e m b e r n o rm ally actin g a s a tie in a ro o f tru ss o r a
b racin g system b u t sub je cted to p o ssib le reve rsal o f 350
stre sses re su ltin g fro m th e a ctio n o f w in d o r e arth q u ick fo rc es.

For prevention of local buckling of flange or web:

K2 E
f cr  2
b
12 1   2   
t
fcr = critical stress, K = depends on support conditions
Special Point: The critical stress at which the plate buckles is inversely
proportional to (b/t)²
To prevent the buckling of flange plate and web plate
b
b > 16 dw
tf > 50
tf tw

tw dw

1. For circular hollow sections

D 88
If  88, then it is a slender section and its Aeff = Ag D/ t2
t 2
 
2. For slender cross-section other than circular hollow section
A eff   Beff t
 t = limiting width to thickness ratio of semi-compact section
Beff = Effective width of slender element, Beff =   L t    b 
250
 = modification factor for yield strength of material  = fy
 Auto Cad 877

Auto-CAD

• Auto-Cad is a Commercial Computer -aided design (Cad) and

drafting software application.
• Auto Cad - Automatic Computer Aided Design
• CADD - Computer Aided Design and Drafting
• CAD - Computer Aided Design
• Auto CAD was first developed by Autodesk in December 1982 and
Latest Version Auto Cad - 2024 version 24.3 released on 4 April
2023.
• Father of Auto Cad - Mike Riddle
• Founder of Autocad - John Walker
• Operating system - Windows, Macos, ios, Android

Type of Autocad
1. 2D CAD (Flat Drawing)
2. 2.5D CAD (Prismatic model)
3. 3D CAD (3D objects)
4. 3D Wireframe & surface modelling
5. Solid Modelling (Solid Geometry)
• Auto Cad file format - dwg
• Auto Cad backup file format -  BAK
• Auto Cad Auto save file format -  SV $
Note:- The Character limit for file is 256 Character.

Type of unit in Auto CAD -

1. Architectural
2. Decimals
3. Engineering
4. Fractional
5. Scientific

Process of Designing - 6 Steps

1. Recognition of need
2. The definition of a problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis & optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
878 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Functionality area of Auto Cad - 4 Categories

1. Geometric Modelling
2. Engineering Analysis
3. Design review & Evaluation
4. Automated Drafting

Work Space - 3 work spaces available

1. Drafting & annotation
2. 3D Basics
3. 3D Modelling

CRT - Cathode Ray Tube Technology used in Traditional Computer

monitors & TV. The color your see on screen is produced by a
blend of red, blue and green light.Computer communicate with user
by CRT.
• .dwt - Drawing Template Extension
• .dwf - Design web format extension
• acad.dwt - Autocad Default Template
• Polar co-ordinates are used mostly for drawing angled lines.
• Polar array creates new objects in a circular pattern.
• Isometric drawing - A 2D pictorial view of object.
• Status bar contain snap, grid, polar & modification tool like erase etc.
not contain on status bar.
• All of the axes in 3D coordinate system meet at 900.
• First angle orthographic projection viewed from one side and placed
on other side of front view.
• A user can adjust the drawing by limit command to control the size
of drawing area.
• In third angle orthographic projection, a plan is placed either above or
below the front view depending upon wheather the viewing is from
above or below.