WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II

GRAMMAR

2021

▪ Building blocks of the English Language........................ 2

▪ Parts of speech............................................................... 5

▪ Nouns................................................................. 5

▪ Pronouns............................................................ 6

▪ Adjectives........................................................... 8

▪ Verbs.................................................................. 10

▪ Prepositions....................................................... 13

▪ Adverbs.............................................................. 15

▪ Conjunctions and Connectors....................................... 16

▪ Interjection........................................................ 17

▪ Determiners.......................................................18

1
Building Blocks of the English Language

▪ Text

▪ Paragraph

▪ Sentence Other examples:

- Syntax:
A declarative question:
o Simple Ex.: ‘You did this?’
o Compound A declarative directive:
o Complex Ex.: ‘You must do as I say.’
Exclamatory comments:
o Complex-compound
Ex.: ‘Isn’t that a beautiful flower!’
- Semantics: The Amorphous Sentence:
o Declarative Don’t have definite shape or
Affirmative and negative feature.
Express an emotion. No clear
statements.
subject or predicate
Ex.: ‘I love my car’. Ex.: ‘God morning!’, ‘Sorry’
o Interrogative
Ex.: Do you live here?
o Exclamatory
Don’t need a verb.
Ex.: ‘What a lovely idea!’, ‘How nice you are!’
o Imperative
Orders/commands that don’t need to show a subject.
Ex.: ‘Pay attention, please!’
o Optative
Ex.: ‘Long live the Queen!’

▪ Clauses:
o Finite clause/ non-finite clause
● Finite clause: must contain a verb which shows tense (conjugated).
Ex.: ‘It doesn’t transmit’

2
 ● Non- finite clause: subordinate clauses. Contain verb that does not show
tense.
o Independent/main clauses
● Can stand alone and transmit a complete idea. On itself, an independent
clause is called a sentence.
o Dependent/subordinate clauses
● Can not stand alone as a complete sentence; they depend structurally on
the main clause. They are introduced by a subordinator.

❖ Kinds of Subordinate Clauses:

⮚ Adverbial Clauses: adverbial adjuncts introduced by

subordinating conjunctions: if, when, because, where, etc.
⮚ Relative/adjectival Clauses: take the place of nouns or nominal
phrases.
⮚ Relative/adjectival Clause: modify nouns and complete
sentences. They are divided into two types: defining and
non-defining.
▪ Phrase: is based around a particular word class.
o Noun/nominal phrase:
● Pre-modifier:

⮚ A determiner (some, ‘s, a number, articles).

⮚ Adjective

⮚ Another noun (English student)

⮚ Gerund (waiting room)

⮚ Present participle (smiling student)

⮚ Past participle (determined students)

⮚ Demonstrative adjective

● Post-modifier:

⮚ A prepositional phrase

3
 ⮚ Relative clause

⮚ Present participle/present part. phrase (students waiting for a

quick answer).
⮚ Past participle (material uploaded)

⮚ Adverbs
o Verb phrase:
● Phrasal Verbs: verb + adverbial (die down). Just an intransitive verb.

● Prepositional verbs: verb + preposition (turned off). Transitive

separable/inseparable.
● Phrasal prepositional verb: verb + adv. + prep (run out of). Transitive
separable.
o Prepositional phrase
o Adjective/adjectival phrase:
● Pre-modifier:

⮚ Determiner

⮚ Another adj.

⮚ Noun

⮚ Ground

⮚ Present participle

⮚ Past participle

● Post-modifier:

⮚ Prepositional phrase

⮚ Relative clause

⮚ Present participle

⮚ Present participle phrase

⮚ Past participle

4
 ⮚ Adverbs
o Adverbial phrase:
● A phrase beginning with an adverb, preceded and/or followed by a
modifier.
Ex.: He left very early in the morning.
o Pronominal phrase

▪ Word

▪ Morphemes
o Definite: The ; Indefinite: a – an
o Prefixes and suffixes
▪ Letter

What is a sentence?

- Should contain a subject and a predicate.

- Begins with a CAPITAL LETTER and ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an
exclamatory mark (!).
- FRAGMENT: lack of subject or verb.

What is a clause?

- Group of words containing a subject and a predicate.

- It could be a complete sentence or part of a sentence.

5
PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

A word that represents a person, a

place, a thing, or a quality or idea.

Proper Nouns:

▪ Begins with a capital letter

▪ Name...
- A person
- A place
- A thing

Common Nouns:

▪ Concrete

▪ Abstract

▪ Collective

▪ Compound

o Countable Nouns: could be singular, ex.: a book or house, or plural (regular: books, &
irregular: people).
o Uncountable Nouns: bread, meat, love, water, etc.

Nominalization of adjectives:

- Sometimes we use adj. As a noun. Ex.: ‘The rich people live a luxurious life.’

Nominalization of adverbs:

- Sometimes we use an adverb as a noun. Ex.: ‘Yesterday was a great day.’

6
PRONOUNS

A word that is used in place of one or more nouns or

pronouns.
We often use them to avoid repeating a word many
times in a row.

Personal / Subject Pronoun:

I
o Function as the subject of the sentence or refers to it. You
- Anaphorically (mentioned before) We
- Cataphorically (mentioned after) The
- Exophorically (subject is used outside) y
He
o These pronouns are classified in terms of person and number. She
1st person 🡪 🡪 🡪 I (singular), We (plural). It
2nd person 🡪 🡪 🡪 You (singular & plural).
3rd person 🡪 🡪 🡪 He, She, It (singular), They (plural).

Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns:

o Refer to the subject of the sentence: 'I have cut myself’ Myself
Yourself
o Emphasize the subject of sentence: ‘I did it myself' Ourselv
es
Themsel
ves
Himself
Herself

Demonstrative Pronouns:

o Are used to point at sth. They function as the subject of the

This
sentence That
Ex.:' This is perfect!’ Thes
e
Thos
e

Interrogative Pronouns: What

o Introduce a question
Which
Who
Ex.: ‘ What is your name?’ Whom
Whose

7
Indefinite Pronouns:

o Opposed to personal pronouns.

o Refer to an indefinite entity.
Ex.: ‘ I need a pen. Any '
All
Any
Everythin
g
Both
Somethin
g
No one
None
Anything
Relative Pronouns: One
o Introduces relatives clauses (adds info. about
That
the noun that comes before it). Which
Who
Whom
Whose

8
ADJECTIVES

A word that describes a noun or a pronoun.

⮚ One-word Adjectives
Ex.: Short, Beautiful, Expensive.

⮚ Two-words Adjectives
- Adj. + Present participle: good-looking
- Adj. + Past participle: long-sleeved
- Noun + Adj. : World-famous
- Adj. + Prepositions: rolled-up
- Noun + prepositions: cast-off
- Noun + present participle: life-changing

⮚ Comparative Adjective
- Short adj. + -er (short 🡪 shorter).
- Long adj. : more / less + adj. (more/less expensive).

⮚ Superlative Adjective
- Short adj. + -est (shortest).
- Long adj. : The most / the least + adj. (The most/the least expensive).

⮚ Irregular Comparative & Superlative Adjective

- Good: comp.: better sup.: best
- Bad: comp.: worse sup.: the worst
- Far: comp.: farther (real distance) / further (time distance)
hvubu sup.: The farthest/the further

Adj. Position

� Attribute position: Pre-modifier of a noun.

� Predicate position: After linking verbs. (That student is new).

� Modifying other adj.: Intensifiers (that was a pretty boring party)

Adj. before nouns:

More than one adj. before a noun must be separated with commas

9
VERBS
A word or group f words that describes an
action, experience or state.

10
Auxiliary Verb (helping verb)

Verbs that have a grammatical function and are used (to interact/help) with another verb (the
main/lexical verb) to show its tense, person, mood, etc.

o To be
o Do
o Have
o Modal Auxiliary Verb (can, could, may, should, will, must, need, dare, etc.).

Main Verbs (lexical verbs or full verbs)

Are divided in form and function.

o Action (or dynamic): Run, Scream, Teach, etc.

o State (or non-action): Know, Believe, Have, Be, etc.

Form:

o Single-word verbs: run, believe, etc.

o Multi-word verbs:
1. Phrasal Verbs: verb + adverbial (die down). Just intransitive verb.
2. Prepositional verbs: verb + preposition (turned off). Transitive
separable/inseparable.
3. Phrasal prepositional verb: verb + adv. + prep (run out of). Transitive separable.

Function:

- Transitive Verbs:
Needs a direct object to complete their meaning.
Are the only verbs that can be turned into passive.
Ex.: we are studying (transitive verb) verbs. (direct object)
- Bi-transitive Verb:
Verbs that take two objects to complete their meaning.
Ex.: he told (bi-transitive verb) me (indirect obj.) the truth (direct object).
- Intransitive Verbs:
Verbs that don’t need an object to complete their meaning.
Ex.: they are laughing (intransitive verb).
- Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
. we are studying.
. we are studying grammar.

Link or Copulative Verb

Special kind of intransitive verbs that do not need an object but a subject complement to
complete their meaning.

11
 - Ex.: They are (linking verb) students (subject complement).

. Some common linking verbs: be, become, get, seem, appear, look, smell, feel, sound, taste, turn,
grow, remain, stand.

. Some linking verbs can be transitive verbs:

- I got mad with the news!

- I got great news!

How Verbs are Formed?

Verbs are changed to show tense and aspect.

1) Bare infinitive (play)

- Imperatives: listen to me.
- After Modals Verbs: She may come to the party.
- Some patterns:
. My parents don’t let me go to the party.
. I want to hear you a apologize.
. The teacher made us study a lot.
. Can you help me clean the house?
. We watched the car disappear in the distance.
2) Full infinitive (to infinitive)
- Subject of a sentence: To be an astronaut is my dream.
- After adj. (post modifier): it’s hard to be an astronaut.
- Subject complement: the best thing is for you to tell everyone.
- Some patterns:
. I want to be...
. Lucy asked to have...
. She promised to study a lot.
. Why don’t you try to sleep?
. I hope to finish this.
- Adjunct of purpose: (in order) to feel better, you should...
3) Some verbs change by adding a morpheme.
- 3rd person singular present simple: plays
- Past single regular verbs: played
- Past participle verbs: played
- Present participle verbs: playing
- Gerund: playing

The Past Participle

o Pre-modifier of a noun: ‘this is a well written book.’ (adj. Function)

o Post-modifier of a noun: ‘the plays written by...’
o Adjunct of time: ‘viewed from a distance, the...’

12
 o Adjunct of reason: ‘persuaded by our optimism, he entered our team.’
o Adjunct of concession/contrast: ‘although built before the war, this car...’
o Adjunct of condition: ‘if accepted for the post, you will be...’
o Perfective tenses: ‘we have won this award twice’

The Present Participle

o Pre-modifier of a noun: ‘pay attention to the boiling water.’

o Adjunct of time: ‘having left the room, I felt relieved.’
o Adjunct of reason: ‘being anxious to please her, he prepared..’
o Adjunct of condition: ‘unless paying by credit card, please pay by cash.’
o Adjunct of concession/contrast: ‘while admitting that he was the thief, he refused to...’
o Post-modifier of a noun: ‘the train arriving in platform 8 is coming from...’
o Part of continuous tenses: ‘I have been training a lot.’
o After verbs of movement/position: ‘I went shopping yesterday’, ‘He lay looking at the...’
o After verbs of perception (verb + obj. + obj. complement): ‘I heard him crying.’

The Gerund

o Subject of the sentence: ‘swimming is healthy’. The Gerund have the same quaality
as a noun.
o Some patterns: ‘I don’t like singing/his singing’.
Ex.: ‘swimming/it is healthy.
o After prepositions: ‘I’m not good at singing’. Paraphrase with ‘for’ to be sure.
o Subject complement: ‘Her hobby is collecting stamps’. Ex.: ‘Walking stick’
o Premodifier of a noun: ‘I need a walking stick’. ‘Stick for walking’
o As object complement: ‘I call that cheating’.
o After ‘no’ in prohibitions: ‘No Smoking’.
o After some phrasal verbs: ‘I look forward to hearing from you’.

Gerunds are not only Spanish ‘-ando’ or ‘-endo’.

13
PREPOSITIONS

Words that are used before a complement to show

place, time, direction, etc.
Prepositional Phrase: a phrase beginning with a
preposition followed by complement.
The complement is called the object of the preposition.
Ex.: He travelled to Spain by plane.

Kinds of prepositions:

▪ One-word prepositions: Simple

. In . By . On . Above

▪ Multi-word prepositions: Complex

o Two words: such as, as for, apart from, ahead of, according to, along with, etc.
o Three words (prep. + noun + prep): In spite of, on top of, with reference to, etc.
o Four words (def. or indef. article): for the sake of, in the hands of, etc.

After a preposition:

The object of the preposition could be a/an...

o Noun: at home
o Noun Phrase: on the plane
o Adjective: in private
o Adverb: for ever
o Prepositional Phrase: except in here
o Wh-clause: on when are you leaving?
o Wh + to + -inf: apart from where to stay?
o Gerund: despite knowing the cons

Before a preposition:

Prepositional phrases can be pre-modified by other elements, in particular adverbs, and to a lesser
extend nouns:

o Adverbs:
Intensifying:
- He’s absolutely on top of the world.
- You can see the park right through the window.
Directional:
- He went down to the basement.
Focusing:
- He spoke just for the sake of arguing.
o Noun phrase:

14
 - It happened way back in history.

Functions of the Prepositional Phrase:

⮚ Post-modifier of a noun phrase: the bridge over the river is new. Post-modifier:

⮚ Post-modifier of an adj. Phrase: I’m fed up with this weather. Gives info. of the noun.

⮚ Adverbial adjuncts: I left the book on the table. Adverbial adjunct:

Gives info. Of the verb.

⮚ Adverbial compliment: is obligatory, you need it.
When, where or how
- We went to the cinema yesterday.
⮚ Attitudinal disjuncts: express our believes/opinions.
- From my point of view, you are wrong.
⮚ Conjuncts: join sentences
- That’s wrong! In that case, I won’t help you.
⮚ Subject complement: you must be out of your mind!

⮚ Object complement: his illness left him without a job.

⮚ Complement of an adverb: they don’t live far from here.

Sometimes the same word can be a preposition or another part of the speech:

- Prep. or conjunction?
Ex.: After the rain, the sun...preposition
After it stopped raining, the sun...conjunction
- Prep. or verb?
Ex.: The price’s for one room, including breakfast. preposition
We’re including two members in the group. verb
- Prep. or adverb?
Ex.: Their behaviour is beyond belief. preposition
From here you can see the house and beyond. adverb

Prepositions are always followed by a complement.

Adverbs are always alone

15
ADVERBS

Words that add to the meaning of a verbs, an adj., or another adverb, or a

whole sentence.

Forms of adverbs:

- Simple form: one word

. Now . Then .Here
- Derived forms (adj. + -ly)
. Badly . Carefully
- Derived forms: noun + -wise, -ways, ward(s)
. Clockwise . Sideways . Backwards
- Compound forms:
. Indoors . Somewhere . Overall
- Phrasal adverbs:
. Off course . At all . Kind of . Sort of . In fact . As well

Functions of the adverb

⮚ As adjunct in a clause:
- He did well in the exam.
⮚ Modifier of an adj.:
- After the rain, he was all wet.
⮚ Modifier of an adverb:
- They met very often.
⮚ Modifier of a noun phrase:
- The then minister resigned unexpectedly.
⮚ Modifier of prepositional phrase:
- The car went just down the road.
⮚ Post-modifier of an adverb:
- He was driving fast enough.
⮚ Post modifier of a noun:
- I need to find the way out.
⮚ Complement of a prepositional phrase:
- Look! She is over there.

16
CONJUNCTIONS/CONNECTORS

A conjunction is a word or group of words that joins words, groups of

words (phrases), clauses, sentences and paragraphs.

Coordinating Conjunctions

▪ Join words and phrases within the same sentence or two independent clauses.
- And/As well as: cumulative (idea of addition).
- Or/Else: alternative or disjunctive (idea of choice).
- But/Yet/Still: adversative (idea of contrast).
- So/For: illative (idea of inference: consequence/reason).
- Both...and/Not only...but also: correlative cumulative (sth. in the middle)
- Either...or/Neither...nor: correlative alternative or disjunctive.
Ex.: Alice cooked the dinner and Peter tidied the house.
My friend Lucy as well as my friend Karen passed the test.
She is both clever and beautiful.

Subordinating Conjunctions

▪ Also called “connectives”, introduce the dependent clause in a sentence and join it to the
independent clause.
- Time: when, while, whenever, before, after, until, since, once, as, now that, as
soon as, whereas, as long as, by the time, all the time, every time, immediately, no
sooner...than, scarcely...when.
- Place: where, wherever, everywhere, as far as.
- Manner: as, as if, as though, in that, like, how, in the manner that, in the way that.
- Degree/Comparison: as, as...as, so...as, than.
- Result: so that, so...that, such (a)...that.
- Cause/Reason: because, since, as, inasmuch as, seeing (that), considering (that),
now (that).
- Purpose: that, in order that, for fear (that), in case.
- Condition: if, unless, provided that, so long as, in case, in so far as,
on condition (that), so/as long as, suppose, supposing.
- Concession: although, though, even though, while, whereas, even if,
no matter how, not with standing that, as.
- Relative Pronouns/Adverbs: who, when, where, which, why, whom, whose, that.

Ex.: When I arrived home, I was really tired.

You’ll be successful if you follow my advice.

In subordinating Conjunctions we
can’t omit the subject.
We can’t omit the verb to be if it is a
main verb.
17
CONJUNCTS

They join one sentence with another sentence, and they link
paragraphs in a text (inter-paragraph connectors)

▪ Moreover, however, as a result, for example, therefore, summing up, for instance, that is
to say, what is more, etc.

Ex.: I was really tired. However, I went to the party.

I studied a lot; as a result, I passed the exam.

INTERJECTION

Are words that express an emotion and have no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence.
They are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by an exclamatory mark or by a comma.

Express: Strong Feeling 🡪 🡪 Hey! (...)

Mild Feeling 🡪 🡪 Oh. (...)

. Interjection ≠ Onomatopoeia

18
DETERMINERS
Also called “determinative s”, they are words that are used before a noun in order to
show which thing/how many things you mean.

⮚ Can’t be alone.

⮚ Restrict the idea.

o Demonstrative Adjective: This, that, these, those.

o Possessive Adjective: My, your, his, her, its, our, their, ‘s.
o Wh-determinatives: Which, whose (express a specific selection among a known number),
what (ask about the identity or kind of thing something is), whatever/whichever (express
non-specific selection).
o Indefinite Quantifiers: Some, any, no.
o Quantifiers: Cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.); Ordinal numbers (first, second,
third, etc.); some, any, no, much, many, little, few, all, both, either, neither, each, every,
another, other.
o General Ordinals: Last, next, previous, former, later.
o Negative Determiners: no
o Articles: a/an, the.
o Multipliers: Double, twice, hundreds of, thousands of.
o Fractions: One third, a quarter, five-sixth, etc.
o Exclamative/Emphasized: What (a), such (a), quite (a)

Order of Determiners

1. Determiner: before the noun

Articles, demonstrative adj., wh-determinatives, exclamatives, quantifiers, possessive adj.

Ex.: The house is new.

2. Pre-determiners: before a determiner.

Quantifiers, multipliers, fractions, exclamatives.
Ex.: Half the houses are new.
3. Post-determiner: after a determiner.
Quantifiers.
Ex.: Half the first built houses are new.

19
Segundo cuatrimestre 2021

20
Verb Tenses
Time: related to the perception of reality. There are 3 times: past, present and future.
Tense: a grammatical category which is marked by verb inflection. There are 2 tenses (tiempos
verbales): present and past.
Aspect: shows the relationship between the action and the passage of time as seen from the
speaker’s point of view. There are 2 aspects in English:

● The continuous (also called the progressive) aspect. Express duration.

● The perfect aspect. Express completion.
● The perfect continuous aspect. Is the combination of the aspects.

Present Tenses
Verb Tense

Present Simple ● Permanent situations.

- We are married.
3rd person singular = ● Things that are generally true.
She plays - Vegetarians don’t eat meat.
● Habits. (routine)
- She always laughs when she’s nervous.
● Things that happen regularly.
- I visit my grandparents every weekend.
● Actions with state verbs.
- I know you!
● Informal reports and instructions.
- You submit this tomorrow.
● Performing actions by speaking.
- I promise not to lie again.
● Retelling plots.
- (...) and in the end they live happily ever after.
● Narratives (historical present).
- When the man opens the door... guess what?!
Present Continuous ● Actions in progress at the moment of speaking.
- I cannot talk now. I’m cooking dinner.
Pronoun + to be + -ing ● Temporary situations.
- I’m currently working as a freelancer.
● Changing/developing situations.

21
 - The cases of Covid are spreading rapidly.
● The description of special situations.
- What’s the matter, Jim? You’re being quite rude
today!
● (+ Always) for annoying habits.
- Susan is always complaining about everything!
Present Perfect Simple ● To describe past events which are connected to the present.
- We’ve lived in this house since 2010.
Pronoun + have/has + ● To mean “at any point up to now”.
participle - I’ve never been abroad.
● With state verbs.
- I’ve been a teacher for 20 years.
● In clauses beginning with after, as soon as and when for
completed actions in the future.
- I will call you when I have finished making dinner.
Present Perfect ● To describe an action in progress up to now.
Continuous
- It’s been raining quite a lot lately.
● To talk about sth. as if it is a continuous action up to the
Pron. + have/has + present.
been + -ing - He’s been calling you.
● With dynamic verbs.
- I’ve been living here for ten years.

Past Tenses

Tenses

Past Simple ● To describe complete actions at a specific point in the past.

- I started studying English many years ago.
Pronoun + verb in ● To talk about the past states.
past - In the past, many people believed the earth was flat
● To tell a sequence of events in a narrative.
- Jenny opened the door and then saw a dark figure...
● In conditional sentences for an unreal present situation that
might happen in the future.
- If I had more time, I would do more exercise.
● In when- clauses to suggest cause and effect.

22
 - When Lucy phoned me, I ran to her house
immediately.
Past Continuous ● To describe actions in progress at a specific point in the past.
- Today at 6 am, I was sleeping.
Pronoun + was/were ● To make polite requests (hope, wonder, think).
+ -ing - I was wondering if you could help me with my
homework.
● In while- clauses to describe two or more simultaneous
actions.
- While the teacher was talking, the students were
listening.
● To describe an event as if it was a continuous action.
- Before the exam, she was going to the library and
studying everyday.
● Together with the Past Simple in when- and while- clauses.
- While the teacher was talking, one of the students
stood up.
- The teacher was talking when one of the students
stood up.
Past Perfect ● To describe actions that happened before another action in the
(Pluperfect)
past.
- When I entered the classroom today, the exam had
Pron. + had + already started.
(already/just) + part. ● In conditional sentences to talk about imaginary situations in
the past.
- If I had listened to your advise, I wouldn’t have made
such a mistake.
Past Perfect ● To describe events in progress that happened before another
Continuous
event in the past.
- When the doctor arrived, I had been waiting for one
Pron. + had + been + - hour.
ing

Future

Tenses

23
Will ● To give or ask for information.
- Christmas will be on a Friday.
Sb./pron. + ● Prediction based on experience (predictive conditionals).
will/won’t + inf. - If you eat too much ice cream, you’ll be sick.
● Instant decision.

Shall Use it with ‘I’ or ‘we’.

● To express determination.
I/we + shall + inf. - We shall never forget.
● In questions to make offers or suggestions.
- Shall I make some tea?
Future Continuous ● Future actions in progress at a particular time.
- I’ll be sending in my application tomorrow.
Pron. + will/won’t ● Way of expressing plans or intentions.
+ be + -ing - Next week at this time, you will be lying on the beach.
Future Perfect ● Sth. will be completed by a particular time.
- By next summer I’ll have finished my degree.
Will + have + past
participle
Future Perfect ● When we look ahead to a future time and imagine an action
Continuous
lasting from a point before that time up to that future time.
- On the 10 of this month, I’ll have been living here for
th

Will + have been + - exactly 2 years.

ing

Be Going To ● Prediction based on what we feel or think now.

- Oh, no, I think I am going to be sick.
Pron. + be + going ● We use would or was/were going to when we describe a past
to + inf. prediction about the future.
● Decision already made.
- I’ve decided I’m going to get a new phone.
Present Simple ● Future events in a schedule or timetable.
- The new course starts in January.
sb./pron. + inf. ● For future actions in clauses after subordinating conjunctions.
3rd person singular - I’ll see when I get back.

24
Present Continuous ● Future actions we have planned or arranged.
- We’re playing tomorrow.
Pron. + be + -ing

Other Future Forms

Forms

Qualifying for… We can make predictions, intentions or decisions stronger or weaker by

using certain adverbs, for example: definitely, certainly, probably, possibly.
ex.: I certainly won’t give you…
Pron. + adverb + she’ll definitely make a fool of herself.
inf.
Be to (formal Official arrangements in the future.
English) - The President is to hold an official reception...

sb./pron. + be to +
inf.

Be to (if clauses) ● When we wish to say that the event in the if clause is dependent
on the event in the main clause happening first.
If + sb. + be to + - If British tennis is to reach world standard again, both
inf. more money and more commitment will be necessary.

Be (not) to + ● For normal commands and instructions.

infinitive
- You are not to disturb the head teacher while...

Be due to ● An event which forms part of a timetable.

- Carriageway repairs on this stretch of the motorway are
due to start on...
Be about to ● Events that we intend or expect to happen in the near future. The
event may or may not be planned, but we often use ‘about to’
when evidence in the present indicates that it will happen.
- The performance is about to start.
On the point of ... ● Sth. is about to happen.
&
- (...) You can see he is on the point of losing his temper.
On the verge of…

25
 - (...) Some species are on the verge of extinction.

Be + phrase +
noun/-ing

Be likely to / Be ● Sth. in the future is (im)probable.

unlikely to
- They are unlikely to arrive before 6(...)
+
Inf.

Be sure ● Sth. is definitely going to happen.

(bound/certain)
- The new timetable is sure/bound/certain to annoy some
to
of the(...)
+
Inf.

26
27
28
Modals
Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

⮚ Single words that always have the same form: I will help you.

⮚ Are used before the base form of other verbs: I must leave now.

⮚ Are not used before another modal verb: You’ll get the job (You’ll can..)

⮚ Are not used with do in questions and negatives: Will you help me? (Do you will help me?)

What are Phrasal Modals?

Lexical modality

▪ Verb phrases beginning with be or have which can be used instead of modal:
- I have to wear a uniform at school.
▪ They replace modal verbs in 5 structures:
- After a modal:
You will have to arrive earlier next time!
- Where an infinitive is needed:
I want to be able to speak English.
- Where a gerund is needed:
I hate not being able to do what...
- For perfective forms:
They have had to wait for hours.
- For continuous forms:
I am having to wear a uniform for work.
▪ They can be used before another phrasal modal:
I am going to have to go to the shop for more bread

What are Complex Modals?

● The Modal Perfect is formed with a model before have and a Past Participle:
- Tom must have left his house.
● The Modal Continuous is formed with a modal before be and a Past Participle:
- He must be lying.
● The Modal Perfect Continuous is formed with a modal before have been plus a Present
Participle:
- He must have been lying because his eyes looked funny.

29
 ● The Modal Passive is formed with a modal before be or have been plus a past participle:
- This problem must be solved right now.
- This problem should have been solved days ago!

Modals of Prediction
● Will: Predictions based on prior knowledge/opinion (it’s very likely to happen).
- You will get the job.
● Will + Perfect: Prediction about a prediction that has already happened at some future
time.
- When we get there, everyone will have gone home.
● Would: Hypothetical situations in the present.
- You would do it faster if you...
● Would + Perfect: Predictions about an imaginary past event.
- You would have loved the party.
● Be going to:
o Predictions based on present facts.
You are going to get sick if you.
o Decisions already made (plans or intentions).
I am going to study English next...
● Was/Were going to: Past plans.
- I was going to study English, but...
● Shall (with ‘I’ or ‘We’ in question): Offers and suggestions
- Shall we leave now?
● Shall (or will): Determination.
- I shall / will never surrender.

Modals of Willingness (2)

● Will / Won’t: Present willingness.
- Ok, I’ll forgive you.
● Would / Wouldn’t: Future willingness or conditional sentences.
- People would be good to you if you...

Modals of Habit & Preferences (4)

30
● Will: Typical/expected behaviour
- Babies will cry.
● Would: Habitual actions in the past.
- When I was a kid, we would go to the beach for summer holidays.
● Used to (not would): Past states.
- I used to have a dog.
● Would (not will):
o Preferences and offers:
I’d love to have a cup of coffee right now. Would you like one? (unless we
expect a ‘yes’ for an answer: would you marry me?).
o After the verb wish to express preferred actions:
I wish I would shut up!

Modals of Ability (4)

● Can / Can’t (cannot (not can not): Formal): General present ability.
- I can speak English fluently.
● Could / Couldn’t (could not: Formal): general past ability.
- When I was 8, I could speak English fluently.
● Be able to:
o Phrasal modal structures.
o General ability in the present (more formal)
I am able to speak English fluently.
o Specific past achievement:
When my house set on fire, I was able to go out.
● Could + Perfective: Past ability or opportunity not used (reproach).
- You could have done better in the exam!

Modals of Permission (20)

● Can / Could (more polite): Ask for permission.
- Can / Could I take your pencil, please?
● Can (not could): Give or refuse permission.
- Yes, you can. / No, you can’t.
● May (more formal): Ask, give or refuse permission.
- May I go to the toilet?
● Might: Ask (not give) permission.
- Might I go to the toilet.

31
● Can (not may): To talk about laws and rules.
- You can / can’t park here.
● May (not might): Sometimes used in formal rules.
- Pederastians may not enter this way.
● Be allowed to (not may/might):
o To emphasize getting permission on a specific occasion:
That day I wasn’t allowed to go out.
o Phrasal modal structures.

Modals of Possibility
● May / Might: Something is possible now or later.
- Give it a try, you may / might pass the exam.
● May / Might + Have + Perf. Form: It’s possible that sth. happened in the past.
- He may / might have got lost.
● May (not might):
o Usual or common possible situation.
Children may develop a fear to darkness.
o Reported speech after verbs in the past tense.
. “I may come to the party”
He said he might come to the party.
● Can (present) / Could (past): General possibility.
- Dogs can be dangerous.
- I could be quite naughty when I was a kid.
● Could (not can): Speculations (It’s possible that...).
- Don’t go out with this rain. You could get ill.

(Is it possible that...?):

- It’s very cloudy. Do you think it could rain?

● Could + Have + Perf. Form: Past speculation.
- You could have had an accident!
● May / Might / Could (not can):
o A specific event is possible:
. There may / might / could be a storm tonight.
o Before phrasal modals:
. It may / might / could be going to rain soon.
o Before the continuous or perfect form:
. He may / might / could be leaving now.

32
 . He may / might /could have phoned while we were out.
● Might / Could + Have + Perf. Form: Reproach
- You might / could have phoned earlier!
● May / Might (not could nor Can): Concession before a clause with but.
- I may / might go to the party, but I don’t think my parents will let me.
● Can / Could (not May nor Might)
o Suggestions about possible actions:

o Ask people to do sth.:

● May not / Might not: Impossibility (possible not):

● Can’t (Present) / Couldn’t (Past): Improbable (not possible):

Modals of Necessity (9)

● Must:
o Sth. is necessary:
o Orders and rules:
o Encourage sb. to do sth. we think is important:
o Emphasize a feeling or opinion:
● Mustn’t: Prohibitions.

● Have to (Present) / Had to (Past):

o External obligation (we are not in control):
o To replace MUST in phrasal modal structures.
● Don’t have to (not mustn’t):

● Have got to: More informal than have to, but it is only used in the present.

● Need to (Present) / Needed to (past): Sth. is necessary (=have to):

● Don’t need to (Present) / Didn’t need to (Past): no necessity.

● Needn’t / Need not: Sth. is not necessary on a particular situyation.

● Needn’t have + Past Part.: Sth. unnecessary was done.

33
 Modals of Deduction (6)
● Must:

● Must + be + -ing:

● Must + Have + Past Part.:

o

● Have to / Have got to (not Must):

● Can’t / Couldn’t (not Mustn’t):

● Can’t / Couldn’t + Have + Past Part.:

Modals of Obligation and Advise (5)

● Should / Shouldn’t:
o Obligation (the right thing to do):

o (sth. that is expected):

o To express sth. we think is a good idea:

o To give or ask for advise // To express a warning:

o To say sth. is likely because we have planned it or expect it:

● Should + Have + Past Part.:

● Ought to / Ought not to (Oughtn’t to): Same uses as should.

● Be supposed to (more informal): Same uses as should.

34
● Be supposed to (not should): To report what others think is true.

● Had better (‘d better) / Had better not: To express recommendations or warnings
(stronger than should)

35
 Substitution
One, Ones, So & Do so

One / Ones

⮚ Nominal substitution (countable nouns)

- I love all kinds of books but I prefer the old ones.

Some / Any

⮚ Nominal substitution (plural nouns & uncountable nouns)

- Let’s buy the eggs for the cake. I need some.
- Let’s buy some milk. We don’t have any.

One or It?

⮚ Can you lend me a pencil? I need one.

⮚ Have you seen my pencil? I need it.

So

⮚ Instead of a clause (after verbs of thinking, opinion and expectation).

- Are you coming to the party tonight?
I hope so. (I hope I’m coming to the party tonight).
⮚ After say and tell someone in reported speech.
- Tom has proposed to Lucy.
Yes. He said so / told me so.

Negatives:
So

⮚ After negative forms of: believe, expect, think and imagine.

- Do you think we will succeed?
I don’t think so.

Not

⮚ After positive forms of: be afraid, guess, hope, presume, suspect and assume.
- Do you think we will succeed?
I’m afraid not.

36
With the verbs: appear/seem/suppose we can use So or Not:

● I don’t suppose so.

● I suppose not.

If so

⮚ To substitute a conditional clause.

- They say it will rain. If so (it rains), we won’t be able to go...

Do so

⮚ Instead of repeating the same verb and object.

- Did so (formal): Mum told me to go to bed and I did so.
- Do it (informal): Please, tell me the secret. Just do it.
- Do that (informal): Solve this problem, Simon. You can do that.
- Do (formal): I think our plan will work.
It should do.

If we have the same verb but DIFFERENT SUBJECT, we use Do it, not do so.

- My brother studies Law and I do it, too.

More / Less

⮚ Instead of adjectives:
- Tom used to be very mean. But he’s been less so since he got a job.
⮚ Instead of adverbs:
- Tom is working hard, even more so than usual.

37
Ellipsis

leaving words out in order to avoid repetition

Noun Phrase:
- My brother moved to Italy and (he) started a new life there.
(he) Reference.
Nominal ellipsis.

Verb Phrase:
- I could also go to Italy, but I won’t (do so).
(do so) Verbal Substitution.
Verbal Ellipsis.

We usually use ellipsis instead of repeating words before nouns in phrases joined by...

- AND: Ashley’s aunt and (Ashley’s) uncle own a property in France and (in) Italy.
- BUT: This machine is cheaper but (it) stops working after some uses.
- OR: You will need a pen or (a) pencil.

And after a comma in a list:

- I’m afraid of bees, (of) wasps and (of) spiders.

⮚ Leaving out subjects and objects.

o Repeated subject in compound sentences.

He went to Italy and (he) never came back. [Nominal Ellipsis]
o Repeated subject and auxiliary in compound sentences.
He was shouting and (he was) throwing things. [Clausal Ellipsis]
o Repeated subject and verb in compound sentences.
I enjoy films and (I enjoy) going to the cinema. [Clausal Ellipsis]
o Repeated subject in later clauses with THEN and YET.
The bird looked up, then (the bird/it) suddenly flew away.[Nominal Ellipsis]

o Repeated subject and auxiliaries after subordinating conjunctions.

38
 He’s tired because he ’s ill (not usually done).
o Repeated objects.
He makes (jewellery) and sells jewellery.
He makes jewellery and sells it (object pronoun)
o Repeated prepositional phrases.
We gave food (to everyone) and water to everyone.

⮚ Leaving out verb phrases.

o Repeated verb phrase after an auxiliary verb in 2nd or later clause.

a) I’ve seen that film, but she hasn’t (seen that film).
b) They could have been delayed by the snow.
Yes, they could (have been) / Yes, they could have (been).
o Repeated adjectives and prepositional phrases after Be as a linking verb.
We thought they would be late, but they weren’t (late).
I’m afraid he’s in love but she isn’t (in love).
o Repeated verb phrase after TO.
The class stopped talking when I told them to. (stop talking)
o Repeated verb phrases after NOT TO.
Some boys kept talking after I told them not to (talk).
o After verb such as: agree, ask, want, begin, forget, refuse, start and try, we can
keep or leave out TO.
I told them we needed to start working, and they agreed (to start working).

o Simon was (BE as a main verb) frightened, or maybe he pretended to be.

o After verbs which need a complement such as mean, intend, advise, afford, be
able, choose, deserve, expect, fail, hate, hope, love, need, prefer we can’t leave
out TO.
I admit that I took her watch but I didn’t mean to.

o Repeated verb in 2nd clause when both clauses have the same structure.

39
 The girls go first and then the boys (go) after them.
We go 1st and they go after us. (Pronoun as a subject)
o Repeated words after question words in direct and indirect questions.
. We have to leave.
When (do we have to leave)?
. He told me we had to leave and I asked him when (we had to leave).

40
Conditional Sentences

Events 4 Types

- Condition clause - Real

- Result Clause - Unreal
- Mixed real
- Mixed unreal
Real Conditional

⮚ Factual Conditional: (zero conditional)

o Present: If you heat water, it boils.
If you think what you’re doing is right, you’re making a big mistake.

o Past: If we didn’t do our homework, we got a failing mark.

⮚ Predictive Conditional: (1st conditional)

o Present / Future: If you study, you’ll pass the exam.
- Can - Be Going To - Might - Will (How sure we are)
Will in -if clause:
- EMPHASIS: If you will talk, I can’t tell the story.
- POLITE REQUEST: If you lay the table, I’ll serve the food.

Unreal Conditional

⮚ Hypothetical Conditional: (2nd Conditional)

o Present / Future: If they had money, they would travel around the world.
- Would / Will - Could - Might (How sure we are)
Would in -if clause:
DESIRED OUTCOME: If you would shut up, I’d tell the story.
Was vs. Were: in formal contexts, we prefer were instead of was. But we
prefer were in the expression: ‘If I were you...’ (to give advise)
If + Were + To – infinitive: Imaginary future situations:
If the government were to ban zoos, it would put captive breeding...

⮚ Counterfactual Conditional: (3rd conditional)

41
 o Present / Future: If I’d listened to you, I wouldn’t have made this.
- Would - Could Have - Might Have

Mixed Real Conditionals:

Past and Present: Factual
- If you did your homework, you can answer this question.

⮚ Habits in the past:

- When I lived in ___ , If it was sunny, we would / used to get up early to
work.
⮚ Past simple or present perfect: Predictive
- If you did / have done your homework, you’ll be able to answer this
question.

Mixed Unreal Conditionals

⮚ Hypothetical Conditionals: Would - - - - Would Have

- If I had the money, I would have travelled around the world.

⮚ Counter - Factual Conditional: Would have - - - - Would

- If I had done my homework, I wouldn’t be in problems now.

Other Expressions:
o Only if: Special condition.

o If and only if: Emphasis.

o If only / Wish: Wishes or regrets (unreal conditions).

o If only / Wish + Would: To criticise someone.

o Even if: a possible present condition that won’t affect the future result.

o Even though: The existence of a condition that won’t affect the past or present
result (“despite the fact that”).

42
o Unless:
Except if:
If...not:

o Whether (or not):

2 or more possibilities:
1 option is the negative of the other:
o If so / If not: Refer back to sth. mentioned before:

o But for: This can replace if not in formal language, and must be followed by a noun
form.

o If + adj.: In expressions such as if it is necessary / possible it’s possible to omit the

verb be.

o ‘If’ can mean ‘although’, usually as ‘If + adj.’

o Provided (that) / Providing (that):

o So long as / As long as (= If)

o On condition that:

o In the event of:

o Supposing:

o In case of (prepositional ph.):

o Otherwise:

43
 The Uses of Conditionals

⮚ Factual Conditionals (What happens if...? What happened if...?)

- Typical patterns in the present:
- Typical patterns in the past:
- To express rules:
- To express habits:
- To express correlations. Scientific observation:
- Imperative forms in the main clause when we are explaining how to do
something:

⮚ Predictive Conditionals (What will happen if...?)

- Describe possibilities:
- For plans:
- For predictions:
- In the main clause to ask about future events:
- To make request:

⮚ Hypothetical Conditional (What would happen if...?)

- To describe imaginary or fictional situations:
- To talk about completely imaginary situations:
- To describe potential outcomes of a course of action:
- To express willingness, despite lack of ability:

⮚ Counterfactual Conditionals (What would have happened if...?)

- To imagine past events happening in a different way and having different
outcomes.
- To express regret.
- To assign blame.

44
Empty & Anticipatory Subjects
IT / THEN
TO

⮚ Empty / Dummy subject (Expletive or Pleonastic).

⮚ Used with the verb be in expressions of time, distance and weather:

- It’s rainy today / It’s half past three.
⮚ Used as a personal pronoun subject when we are referring to a thing or animal
(anaphoric, cataphoric and exophoric):
- I’ve got a dog. It’s called Bones.
⮚ Used with be before an adjective / noun + a gerund / to – infinitive / noun clause
(anticipatory subject):
- It was a pleasure meeting you.
- It’s great to see you again!

Other Patterns:
- It + Verb + To – infinitive clause: It might help to run through the...
(not do – help – hurt – pay)
- It + Verb + Object + To – infinitive clause: It shocked me to see how...
(amaze – annoy – frighten – hurt – scare – shock – surprise – worry – upset)

It + Take + Object + To – infinitive clause: What is /was needed in a

particular activity.
Ex: It took (them)a week to finish the job
- It + Verb + That – clause: It appears that they’re having trouble.
(appear – come about – emerge – follow – seem – transpire – turn out).
- It + Verb + Object + That – clause: It struck me that the place...
(down on – hit – strike = occur to) (amaze – annoy – frighten – hurt –
scare – shock – surprise – upset – worry).

45
 Empty Object IT

⮚ It can be used as an empty object...

- ...after linking / not liking verbs before a noun clause.
I love it when it rains in summer.
- ...after verbs such as find, make and think before an adjective and a
clause/inf.
- We thought it strange that you didn’t call.
- ...after some verb such as regard, accept, take, see and view used to
express an opinion. (it + as + noun/adjective + clause)
I see it as crazy that you want to practise parachuting at your age, dad!

Empty Subject THERE

(Existential there)
There + Be + * + Noun Phrase + (Adverbial Phrase)
There: Modals seem, appear, probably, certainly.
Be: Other verbs of existence: arise, result, emerge, exist, occur, remain, follow...
*: Quantifier.
Noun Phrase: (determines the verb: singular or plural)
(Informal situations: THERE IS + Plural Noun)
(Adverbial Phrase): (Preposition of place or time)

There could be many problems in the office after the news.

There + Be + Adjective + To Be + Noun Phrase: show how certain we are about the
information being reported.
- There’s (un)likely / certain / bound to be a nuclear war between...
There + Be + a/an indefinite pronoun + noun (new information)
- There is a problem we need to solve soon.
There + Be + the/demonstrative + Noun (familiar/given information)

46
 - Don’t forget there’s the / that problem of the parking lot.
There being... (Formal English – introduce a reason for something).
- There being no evidence against him, he was released.

Common Expressions...

47
Sentences:
A group of words with a subject and a verb in a single clause.

Syntax:

▪ A sentence is a group of words. (simple sentence)

▪ It contains a subject and also needs a verb. (compound sentence)

▪ Some sentences, which are complex, contain two clauses. (complex sentence)

▪ Some sentences, which are complex, contain 2 clauses and 1 of them is introduced
by a subordinator. (compound – complex sentence)

Contains:

● Object: I study English.

● Adverbial (may contain): I usually study English in the morning.

● Object Complement: This is driving me crazy.

● (sentences with a linking verb) subject complement:

I am quite busy right now.
● Action verb: I study English.

● State verb: I know it is difficult.

Some verbs can be used as a state verb or as an action verb. (have)
● Auxiliary verb: I am studying English.

● Modal auxiliary verb: I can speak English

Subjects & Verbs

The subject is usually a noun or a pronoun identifying who or what is performing an
action expressed by the verb.
- We are studying.

48
 ▪ We usually follow this pattern: S + V (you are a good student).

▪ But we can have different patterns in questions:

- V + S + Complement: Are you a good student?
- Aux. V + S + V: Are you studying?
▪ Or in sentences with inversion:
- Never have I seen such a fierce animal.

Transitive & Bi – Transitive

Transitive verbs need an object to complete their meaning.

⮚ Verbs with 2 objects are bi – transitive: (send, bring, lend, offer, pass, post, read,
sell, show, teach, tell, throw and write).
- I have sent the teacher (Indirect object) my assignment (direct object).
- I have sent my assignment (direct obj.) to the teacher (indirect obj.).
⮚ Other cases... (buy, build, cook, cut, draw, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, order, pick
and save)
- I’ve bought my mum (indirect obj.) a present (direct obj.).
- I’ve bought a present for my mum.
⮚ Verbs of speaking... (explain, describe, admit, announce, mention, murmur, report,
shout, suggest and whisper).
- The teacher explained the example (direct object) to us (indirect object).
⮚ However... (cost, deny, forgive, grudge and refuse).
- The house cost me (indirect object) a lot of money (direct object).
⮚ Some verbs of ‘thinking’ or reporting verbs have a that – clause as an object
- We thought (that) the class had been cancelled [direct object: nominal
that – clause].
⮚ Some verbs reporting questions have a direct object introduced by if or whether,
or a wh – word:
- She asked if everything was OK. [direct object: Whether/If nominal
clause].

49
 - She asked when I was going to finish my work. [direct object: nominal
relative clause].
⮚ Some reporting verbs must be used before an indirect object: (confess, admit,
boast, declare, hint, propose, mentioned and reveal).
- He mentioned to me [indirect object] (that) he had stolen the money
[direct object: nominal that – clause].

50
SENTENCES & SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS
Simple Sentence
- 1 dependent clause.
Basic Patterns:
1) S + IVCP: Time flies.
2) S + IVCP + (AA): The birds were singing (outside the window).
3) S + IVCP + AC: I live in Argentina.
4) S + IVIP + SC + (AA): He is happy (today).
IVIP + S + SC + (AA): Is he happy (today)?
5) S + IVIP + AC + (AA): We are at home (now)
6) S + TVCP + DO + (AA): He plays the guitar (very well).
7) S + TVCP + IO + DO + (AA): She gave me the money (yesterday).
8) S + TVCP + DO + IO + (AA): My father bought a car for me.
9) S + TVIP + DO + OC + (AA): You drive me crazy.
10) S + TVCP + DO + AC + (AA):
Susan put the new plant on the table (early today).
Aux. Verb + S + TVCP + DO + AC + (AA):
Did Susan put the new plant on the table (early today)?

Compound Sentence
- 2 or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or
parataxis ( , / ; ).
Peter went to the cinema and he met Mary there.
S + IVCP + AC + (CCCA) + S + TVCP + DO + AA

51
 Complex Sentence
- One independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
The man who was wearing a hat is my uncle.
(main clause) (dependent clause) (main clause)

He told me that he looked smart.

(main clause) (dependent clause)

If you work hard, you will have a lot of money.

(dependent clause) (main clause)

52
 Function:

SUBJECT

❖ It precedes the verb.

❖ It is the doer of the action.

Categories:
1. Noun phrase / Nominal phrase: My father works in a factory.
2. Pronominal phrase: He works in an office.
3. Gerundial phrase: Swimming is good for your health.
4. Infinitival clause / Non – Finite clause:
To have a test today makes me feel nervous.
5. Noun clause / Nominal clause: Whoever came was unknown.
6. Anticipatory IT / THERE: It is nice to see you. / There is a problem.

DIRECT OBJECT

❖ It usually follows the verb immediately.

❖ It might become the subject of the sentence in the passive voice.

❖ It answers the questions ‘What?’ or ‘Who?’

Categories:
1. Noun phrase / Nominal phrase: I speak English very well.
2. Pronominal phrase: I speak it very well.
3. Noun clause / Nominal clause: He said he spoke English very well.
4. Gerundial phrase: I love teaching.
5. Infinitival clause / Non – Finite clause: I forgot to study for the exam.

53
INDIRECT OBJECT

❖ It is a person or a thing.

❖ It goes with the prepositions TO or FOR.

❖ It comes between the verb and the direct object.

Categories:
1. Noun phrase / Nominal phrase: I teach my sister English.
2. Pronominal phrase: I teach her English.
3. Noun clause / Nominal clause: You must tell whoever turns up the news.
4. Gerundial phrase: Children don’t give saving importance.
5. Prepositional phrase: I teach English to my sister.

OBJECT / OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT (describe the object)

❖ It needs to have a transitive verb.

❖ It refers to the direct object of the sentence.

❖ If it’s not an adverb it is a OC.

Categories:
1. Adjective phrase / Adjectival phrase: I consider her beautiful.
2. Infinitival clause / Non – Finite clause:
(full infinitive): They didn’t allow me to go out.
(Bare – Infinitive): They didn’t let me go out.
(Present participle): I saw the boy crying.
(past participle): I had my hair cut yesterday.
3. Prepositional phrase: I saw her in the street.
4. Noun phrase / Nominal phrase: They elected Tom president.
5. Gerundial phrase: In my country, we call that stealing.

54
 6. Noun clause / Nominal clause: She made him what he is today.

SUBJECT / SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT (always come after a linking verb; verb to be)

❖ It predicates about the subject.

❖ It comes after linking / copulative verbs.

Categories:
1. Adjective phrase / Adjectival phrase: He is furious.
2. Noun phrase / Nominal phrase: He is my cousin.
3. Pronominal phrase: This house is mine.
4. Prepositional phrase: My favourite part of the day is during the afternoon.
5. Gerundial phrase: The prohibition here is smoking.
6. Noun clause / Nominal clause: That was what she said.
7. Adverbial phrase: This was yesterday.
8. Infinitival clause / Non – Finite clause: She is about to cry.

COPULATIVE / LINKING VERBS: describe ideas

⮚ The verb to be: He is furious.

⮚ Verbs of perception: The cake tastes delicious. / She looks gorgeous. /

It sounds great!
⮚ Seem /Appear: It seems a good idea.

⮚ Other verbs: Lie (quiet) / stand (still) / rest (assured) / remain (silent) / keep (fit).

⮚ Inchoative verbs (to become + adjective) [implies becoming]: drive (crazy) / turn
(red) / get (angry) / go (bad) / grow (old) / run (wild) / fall (ill) / become (mad).

55