B39SE

Semiconductor Electronics
DOPING
AND
CARRIER TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
Course Outlines:
1) Doped Semiconductors
a. Ionization energy
b. Distribution of electrons and holes
c. Statistics of donors and acceptors
d. Fermi energy level
2) Carrier transport phenomena
a. Drift current in E field
 Velocity and mobility of carriers
 Bulk conductivity
b. Diffusion current
 Induced electric field
DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS
 Intrinsic

Semiconductors
P-type

Extrinsic

N-type
 Intrinsic semiconductor

Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs…

 Extrinsic semiconductor

- Different number of electron and hole concentrations

- Created by “doping” (add impurities)
- It can be “n” or “p” type
- By far, the most used in industry

- Very small amounts produce a large effect:

- Silicon: 5*1022 atoms/cm3
- Typical Si dopant concentration: 1017 atoms/cm3
- About 1:1,000,000 ratio!!!
 n-type semiconductor
It has larger electron concentration than hole concentration
We obtain it by introducing impurities that are donors of electrons

If the unpaired electron obtains enough thermal energy, it will leave its
position and be conducted, but the hole will stay in the phosphorous atom
 p-type semiconductor
It has larger hole concentration than electron concentration
We obtain it by introducing impurities that are acceptors of electrons
Doping ions for IV Semiconductors
Doping ions for III-V Semiconductors
Energy band representation
 Ionization Energy
Energy required to elevate the donor electron into the conduction band

From Bohr model:

Coulomb force = Centripetal force Radius of donor orbital:

Angular momentum quantized

Bohr radius defined as:

Radius of donor orbital/Bohr radius =

 Ionization Energy
Radius of donor orbital/Bohr radius =

For the lowest state (n=1) in silicon (εr = 11.7), m*/m0=0.26 :

𝑟𝑟1 The radius of the orbital of the electron is

= 45 r1 = 23.9 Å
𝑎𝑎0 4 times larger than the Si lattice constant

Energy of the electron = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy = T + V

 Ionization Energy
Energy required to elevate the donor electron into the conduction band
For H atom: ε = ε 0 ; m* = m0 E = -13.6 eV
Compare with the Si
For silicon: E = -25.8 meV
bandgap of 1.14 eV
Test Your Understanding 
Calculate the ionization energy and the radius
(normalized to the Bohr radius) of a donor
electron in its lowest energy state in GaAs.
 Solution

Ionization energy of the donor electron:

𝑚𝑚∗
−𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑒𝑒 4 − 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 4 − 0.067 (9.11 × 10−31 )(1.6 × 10−19 )4
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜
𝐸𝐸 = = =
2 𝑛𝑛ℏ 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝑛ℏ 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 2 1)(1.054 × 10−34 2 4𝜋𝜋(8.85 × 10−12 ) 2

−8.4823 × 10 −34
𝐸𝐸 = −8.4823 × 10−34 J = = −5.30meV
1.6 × 10−19

𝑟𝑟1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜 1

=∈𝑟𝑟 = ∈𝑜𝑜 ∈𝑠𝑠 = 1 13.1 = 195.5
𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑚𝑚∗ 0.067
Distribution of electrons and holes
n-type semiconductor

Electron concentration higher

than hole concentration

Fermi level (EF) above the

intrinsic Fermi level (EFi)

EFi : intrinsic Fermi level: Fermi level

of an intrinsic semiconductor. It will
be near the centre of the bandgap,
and sometimes in the centre.
Distribution of electrons and holes
p-type semiconductor

Hole concentration higher

than electron concentration

Fermi level below the

intrinsic Fermi level
 Distribution of electrons and holes

In doped material, there is always more of one type of carrier than the other and
the type of carrier with the higher concentration is called a "majority carrier", while
the lower concentration carrier is called a "minority carrier."

In a typical semiconductor there might be 1017cm-3 majority carriers and 106cm-

3 minority carriers. The ratio of minority to majority carriers is less than one person

to the entire population of the planet.

 Distribution of electrons and holes
Nd : donor concentration
Na : acceptor concentration
n0 : electron concentration
p0 : hole concentration
Charge neutrality condition

Constant for each semiconductor at a

given temperature, in thermal
equilibrium (Boltzmann approximation)
 Distribution of electrons and holes
It can be derived that:

Different situations:

(4) If (Na - Nd)2 >> 4ni2, then:

(4.a) If Nd > Na, then no = Nd and p0 = ni2/Nd
(4.b) If Nd < Na, then po = Na and n0 = ni2/Na
 Statistics of donors and acceptors
Probability of electrons to be in the donor state:

This is equivalent to:

Nd+: concentration of ionized donors (with e- in the CB)

In the case of acceptors:

Na-: concentration of ionized acceptors

Na : concentration of acceptor atoms
Ea : acceptor energy level
pa : concentration of holes in the acceptor states
g : degeneracy factor
Carrier dependence with Temperature
Complete ionization (all the
impurities are ionized at
relatively low temperature)
 Intrinsic Fermi energy Level

Intrinsic Energy of Fermi level:

The Fermi level can be calculated from the statistics of

electron-holes. If the SC is doped, the Fermi level will move.
Test Your Understanding 
Calculate the third term for Si and Ge at 300 K.
(useful values in next slide)
K = 1.38064852×10−23 J/K
For a full solution refer to the tutorial Problem 3.4.b
Note: In different books you will find different notation for the effective masses. Sometimes
the values are a little bit different from one author to another, mainly because they differ at
different temperatures. They can also differ for different directions.
For example, Green (Green M A, 1990, J. Appl. Phys. 67, 2944) reports:
me*/m0 = 1.06 (at 4.2 K)
me*/m0 = 1.09 (at 300 K)

me*= mn* = electron effective mass

mh*= mp* = hole effective mass
m0= me = 9.11×10−31 kg; rest mass of electron, or free-
electron mass (in vacuum)
 Fermi energy Level

In a n-type SC: Nd >> ni, then n0 ≈ Nd

In the same way:

 Fermi energy Level

In a p-type SC:

In the same way:

Doping dependence
Temperature dependence
 Fermi Energy Level and Interfaces
Material A Material B

Material A
Material A Material B
Material B

In the moment of contact After a short time

When two materials get into close contact, the Fermi energy levels will align
Test Your Understanding 
Solution
Test Your Understanding 
Solution
CARRIER TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
 Carrier transport in Semiconductors

“transport”  net flow of carriers  generate a current

Main mechanisms:
- Drift current: due to an electric field
- Diffusion: due to the diffusive motion of carriers by gradient
in carrier concentration
- Thermal gradients: less important than the other two

drift current diffusion current

 Movement of a charge in free space

• Force on a charged particle (Coulombs Law):

q 1q 2 Newtons
F= 2
4πεr
• Electric field:
F qsource
E= = V/m
qbody 4πεr 2
 Movement of a charge in a crystal

Scattering mechanisms:
Main mechanisms:
- Lattice vibrations: the compressions and dilations of the lattice
scatter the carriers
- Ionised impurities: ionised impurity scattering due to Coulomb
force.
Less important mechanisms:
- Neutral impurities: difference of sizes of a neutral atom impurity
and the host lattice atoms. Produces an electric field that scatters
the carrier
- Carrier-carrier scattering: the carriers deflect each other.
Consequence: the carrier is constantly being scattered and
accelerated / deaccelerated
 Carrier thermal velocity

The random thermal velocity of a carrier in a SC is:

me : conductivity effective mass

Vth : thermal velocity

Vth is on the order of 107 cm/s at

room temperature (=100 Km/s !!!!)
 Drift current in an electric field

Path of an electron in a Path of an electron in a

crystal without E field in crystal with Electric field:
thermal equilibrium there is a net
displacement
 Drift current in an electric field
Drift current density:

J = ρ Vd C/cm2

Vd: Averaged drift velocity

ρ : volume charge density

Drift velocity of electrons in an electric field (E):

With “mobility of the electron” defined as:

: Relaxation time (mean time between collisions)

 Drift velocity of electrons and holes

Drift velocity of electrons in an electric field (E):

Drift velocity of holes in an electric field (E):

Common values at room temperature:

Hole mobility in silicon
Silicon
(300 K)

GaAs
(300 K)
Terminal velocity
 Drift current in an electric field

Consider only the electrons:

Je = ρe Vd Je = ρe Vd= e n µn E
ρe = e n
ρe = density of charge due to electrons

Consider both electrons and holes:

J = e (n µn + p µp) E
Test Your Understanding 
Solution
 Bulk Conductivity
Drift
current
J = Je + Jp = e (n µn + p µp) E = σ E
density: σ : conductivity, in Ω cm-1 , S/m, µS/cm,…

S = Siemens

Due to the contribution of electrons and holes:

ρ = 1 / σ = 1 / e(n µn + p µp)
ρ : resistivity
 Bulk Conductivity

Bar of material with applied E field

Resistance:

A: cross-section area
Material ρ (Ω•m) at 20 °C σ (S/m) at 20 °C
Resistivity Conductivity
−8 7
Silver 1.59×10 6.30×10
−8 7
Copper 1.68×10 5.96×10
−8 7
Aluminium 2.82×10 3.5×10
−8 7
Tungsten 5.60×10 1.79×10
−8 7
Zinc 5.90×10 1.69×10
−7 6
Stainless steel 6.9×10 1.45×10
−6 5
Nichrome 1.10×10 9.09×10
−7 −3 −8 3
GaAs 5×10 to 10×10 5×10 to 10
−4 −4 3
Carbon (amorphous) 5×10 to 8×10 1.25 to 2×10
−6 5
Carbon (graphite) 2.5×10 to 2 to 3×10 //basal plane
−6 2
5.0×10 //basal plane 3.3×10 ⊥basal plane
−3
3.0×10 ⊥basal plane
12 −13
Carbon (diamond) 1×10 ~10
−1
Germanium 4.6×10 2.17
−1
Sea water 2×10 4.8
1 3 −4 −2
Drinking water 2×10 to 2×10 5×10 to 5×10
2 −3
Silicon 6.40×10 1.56×10
5 −6
Deionized water 1.8×10 5.5×10
10 14 −11 −15
Glass 10×10 to 10×10 10 to 10
16 16 −15 −15
Air 1.3×10 to 3.3×10 3×10 to 8×10
17 −18
Paraffin wax 1×10 10
17 −18
Fused quartz 7.5×10 1.3×10
20 −21
PET 10×10 10
22 24 −25 −23
Teflon 10×10 to 10×10 10 to 10
 Test Your Understanding 
Calculate the drift current density in a GaAs slab at T = 300 K when an electric field
E=10 V/cm is applied. Assume doping concentrations of Na = 0, and Nd = 1016 cm-3.
 Solution
Na << Nd (n-type), then the majority carrier concentration is:

The minority carrier concentration is:

The drift current density for an extrinsic n-type semiconductor is:

Comment: high currents are obtained with small voltages

 Diffusion
A current is generated form a heavily concentrated region to
a neighbouring region of lower concentration through
thermal motion

Distribution of particles over time

 Diffusion current density

For electrons:
Dn > 0

Dn : electron diffusion coefficient (cm2/sec)

For holes:
Dp > 0

Dp : hole diffusion coefficient (cm2/sec)

Diffusion current density
 Graded impurity distribution and
induced electric field
High Low
doping doping
donors donors

Diffusion of electrons

Electrons will accumulate at the right, and positive ions at the left: an
Electric field will be stablished
Equivalent to stack many slices of material with When the slices are put together,
different doping concentration. they align at the Fermi level (like
Fermi level different for each doping concentration the example of glasses with water)
 Induced electric field
Electric potential:

Electric field:

If the intrinsic Fermi level changes along the sample, there will be an electric field.

If the electron density is nearly the same than the donor density:

Its derivative is:

Test Your Understanding 
 Solution

Comment: a small doping gradient can generate a high current

Test Your Understanding 
Solution
References
• Semiconductor Physics and Devices by Donald
A. Neaman, McGrawHill, 2003.