Carrier conduction

Drift current
Definition of Drift Mobility

vdx = μdEx
vdx = drift velocity, μd = drift mobility, Ex = applied field

Drift Mobility and Mean Free Time

e
d =
me
μd = drift mobility, e = electronic charge, τ = mean scattering
time (mean time between collisions) = relaxation time, me =
mass of an electron in free space.

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Drift of one electron in a field

The motion of a single electron in the presence of an electric field E. During a time
Interval ti, the electron traverses a distance si along x. After p collisions, it has drifted a
Distance s = Δx.
Fig 2.4

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Electron and Hole Drift Velocities
• vde = μeEx and vdh = μhEx

• vde = drift velocity of the electrons, μe = electron drift mobility, Ex = applied

electric field, vdh = drift velocity of the holes, μh = hole drift mobility

• Conductivity of a Semiconductor

• σ = enμe + epμh
• σ = conductivity, e = electronic charge, n = electron concentration in the
CB, μe = electron drift mobility, p = hole concentration in the VB, μh = hole
drift mobility

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General Conductivity

 = qi ni i
σ = conductivity
qi = charge carried by the charge carrier species i
(for electrons and holes qi = e)
ni = concentration of the charge carrier
μi = drift mobility of the charge carrier of species i

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Table 2.6 Examples of typical conduction mechanisms in a few selected materials involving cations and anions. Data compiled
from various sources.

Material T(°C) σ(Ω-1cm-1) Main Conducting Ion

(Approximate)

NaCl crystal 550 2 × 10−6 Cation, Na+

KCl crystal 550 3 × 10−7 Cation, K+
AgCl crystal 250 3 × 10−4 Cation, Ag+
RbAg4I5 crystal 25 2 × 10−1 Cation, Ag+
BaF2 crystal 500 1 × 10−5 Anion, F−
Silicate glass (a) with 26.5%Na2O 250 2 × 10−5 Cation, Na+
Borosilicate glass (b) with 20.4%Na2O 250 1 × 10−6 Cation, Na+
Borosilicate glass (c) with 19.1%K2O 250 5 × 10−8 Cation, K+

(a) SiO2(73.5%)-Na2O(26.5%)
(b) B2O3(26.1%)-SiO2(53.5%)-Na2O(20.4%)
(c) B2O3(25.8%)-SiO2(55.1%)-K2O(19.1%)

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Hall Effect 2

Illustration of the Hall effect.

The z direction is out of the plane of the paper. The externally applied
magnetic field is along the z direction.
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Lorentz Force 2
• F = qv × B
• F = force, q = charge, v = velocity of charged particle, B = magnetic field

• Definition of Hall Coefficient

Ey
RH =
J x Bz
• RH = Hall coefficient, Ey = electric field in the y-direction, Jx = current
density in the x-direction, Bz = magnetic field in the z-direction

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Hall Effect for Ambipolar Conduction 1
• (See Chapter 2 for derivation)
p h 2 − ne 2
RH =
e( ph + ne )2
• RH = Hall coefficient, p = concentration of the holes, μh = hole drift mobility,
n = concentration of the electrons, μe = electron drift mobility, e =
electronic charge

• OR
2
p − nb
RH =
e( p + nb) 2

• b = μe/μh
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n-Type Semiconductor (Electrons Only)

1
RH = −
en
• where n – electron concentration

𝐿 𝐼𝑥
𝜇𝑛 = −𝑅𝐻
𝑊𝐷 𝑉𝑥
• Negative
• Depends on the electron concentration
• RH • Increases with decreasing n
• Does not depend on the electron drift
mobility
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Hall Effect Si Sensor

• Honeywell's SS94 Hall-Effect

Linear Position Sensor. Noise
Shielded Ratiometric Linear
Sensor
• The whole device is on a ceramic
substrate. There are laser-trimmed
resistors on the ceramic substrate and
thin film resistors on the integrated
circuit that result in a more stable Hall
effect device and consistent sensitivity
from one device to another
• (Photo by SK)

• Sensitivity = (5.0 mV ± 0.1) mV / G

Sensitivity = (50 mV ± 0.01) mV / mT
Magnetic field range = −50 to +50 mT
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 Scattering of Electrons

A vibrating metal atom

Scattering of an electron from the thermal vibrations of the atoms. The electron travels
a mean distance l = uτ between collisions. Since the scattering cross-sectional area is
S, in the volume sl there must be at least one scatterer, Ns (Suτ) = 1.

Mean Free Time Between Collisions

1
=
SuNs 13
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Multiple scatterer types
• Most crystals have not only one type of
1 defects that scatter electrons
=
SuNs • Every scatterer has its own cross
section S and scattering time 𝜏
• Overall scattering time has to consider
simultaneous occurrence of events
with 𝜏
1 1
• = σ
𝜏𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜏
Effective or Overall Mobility

e
𝑤𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 d =
me
(Matthiessen's rule)

1 1 1
= +
e I L
μe = effective drift mobility
μI = ionized impurity scattering limited mobility
μL = lattice vibration scattering limited mobility 15
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Total mobility in Silicon
• Contribution of many
types
• Most important ones
are ionized impurities at
low temperature and
phonons at high
temperature
Charged Impurity scattering
• Attractive coulomb force is only
felt by electrons with low enough
kinetic energy
• At high temperatures, ionic
impurities are not important
 1
Impurity scattering scaling analysis =
SuNs

• assuming that the scattering cross section is comparable to the

interaction radius we expect a 1/T temperature dependence

• Still need electron velocity

Plot
• A given impurity concentration
NI gives a mobility that increases
with 𝑇 3/2
3
• log 𝜇 = log(𝑇)
2
• So in a log 𝜇 − log(𝑇) plot we
expect a slope of 3/2
Phonon scattering

• Electrons in a band have a specific k-

vector k1 (which we remember is
particle momentum)
• Scattering changes the k-vector to k2
• The momentum conservation law
requires that k2-k1 is either 0 or taken
up by something else
• Electrons are transferring momentum to
the crystal lattice through collisions
• This creates lattice oscillations (Phonons)

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Phonon scattering (easy way)
• Assume that phonons are particles with a radius that depends on
their oscillating amplitude a 1 𝑘𝑎2 = 3 𝑘𝑇
2 2
Plot
• Lattice (or phonon) scattering scales different from impurity
scattering and becomes important at high temperatures
Conclusion
GaAs

• Different scattering
events contribute to
mobility
• Temperature dependence
can tell us about their
importance
Problems with simple picture
• 1st problem: electron mass
• We assume thermal energy is translated into
kinetic energy
• but effective mass depends on energy
• So, velocity could decrease with energy
• This is mainly seen at high electric fields, which
introduce more energy than heating
• We see this in some semiconductors with
multiple dips in their band that have different
curvature 𝑑 2 𝐸/𝑑𝑘 2
• This leads to “negative differential resistance”
2nd problem with simple picture
• We calculated phonons in simple crystals
with one kind of mass representing the
unit cell
• All semiconductor crystals have two
atoms in a unit cell
• So phonons of the same wavelengths can
have two different energies
• Only unit cells move (acoustic)
• Atoms inside unit cell move without moving
unit cell (optical)
Sketch for making it correct
1. Would have to get proper phonon DOS that considers Acoustic and
optical phonons separately
2. Would have to figure out the amplitude vs temperature
3. Would have to calculate occupation of phonons per state
(Boltzmann)
4. Would have to integrate over all states

= math is too hard

Handwaving explanation
• Optical phonons are only
important at very high energies
• They have a very low curvature,
high mass, high density of states
• When electrons have enough Acoustic Optical
energy to excite optical phonons,
added energy will be completely
taken up by the generation
process
• This is saturation velocity
Figure 5.7

eEd~kT
Diffusion current
What it means
• More electrons in one side means Fermi
level is moved up in that side
Fick’s First Law 1
dn
e = − De
dx
• Γe = electron flux density, De = diffusion coefficient of
electrons, dn/dx = electron concentration gradient

• Electron Diffusion Current Density

dn
J D,e = −ee = eDe
dx
• JD, e = electric current density due to electron diffusion, Γe = electron flux, e =
electronic charge, De = diffusion coefficient of electrons, dn/dx = electron
concentration gradient

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What it means
• More electrons in one side means Fermi
level is moved up in that side
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝐷 = 𝑒𝐷𝑒
𝑑𝑥 • Diffusion current can be expressed as a
change in Fermi energy

• Change in (Fermi) energy with distance is

just an electric field

Inhomogeneous charge distribution

produces a local electric field
Fick’s First Law 2
dp
h = − Dh
dx
• Γh = hole flux density, Dh = diffusion coefficient of holes, dp/dx = hole
concentration gradient

• Hole Diffusion Current Density

dp
J D ,h = +eh = −eDh
dx
• JD, h = electric current density due to hole diffusion, Γh = hole flux density, e =
electronic charge, Dh = diffusion coefficient of holes, dp/dx = hole
concentration gradient

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Combining Drift and Diffusion
• In many devices both currents will
exist
• Drift induces more electrons which
causes diffusion
• Separation of charges will produce
electric field and diffusion
Total Electron Current Due to Drift and Diffusion

dn
J e = en eE x + eDe
dx
Je = electron current density due to drift and diffusion
n = electron concentration
μe = electron drift mobility
Ex = electric field in the x direction
De = diffusion coefficient of electrons
dn/dx = electron concentration gradient

dp
J h = ep hE x − eDh
dx
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Linking Drift and Diffusion

Nonuniform doping profile results in electron diffusion toward the less concentrated regions.
This exposes positively charged donors and sets up a built-in field Ex. In the steady state, the
diffusion of electrons toward the right is balanced by their drift toward the left.
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Equilibrium conditions
The net current = 0 at every point
dn
J e = en eE x + eDe =0
dx
dV
Ex = −
dx
dV dn
− ene + eDe =0
dx dx

kT
De = e
Einstein Relation

e
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 Built-In Potential and Concentration
kT dn V2 kT n2 dn
 dV =
e n
 V1
dV =
e n1 n

kT  n2 
V2 − V1 = ln 
e  n1 
V2 = potential at point 2, V1 = potential at point 1, k = Boltzmann constant, T =
temperature, e = electronic charge, n2 = electron concentration at point 2, n1 =
electron concentration at point 1
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