COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

LAFIA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLY

LECTURE NOTE

ON

CEC 107: INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

1. Fluids Mechanics and Fluid Properties

What is fluid mechanics? As its name suggests it is the branch of applied
mechanics concerned with the statics and dynamics of fluids – both
liquids and gases. The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based on the
fundamental laws of mechanics which relate continuity of mass and
energy with force and momentum together with the familiar solid
mechanics properties.
1.1 Fluids
There are two aspects of fluid mechanics which make it different to solid
mechanics:
1. The nature of a fluid is much different to that of a solid
2. In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of fluid without a
beginning or end. In solids we only consider individual elements.
We normally recognise three states of matter: solid; liquid and gas.
However, liquid and gas are both fluids: in contrast to solids they lack
the ability to resist deformation. Because a fluid cannot resist the
deformation force, it moves, it flows under the action of the force. Its
shape will change continuously as long as the force is applied. A solid
can resist a deformation force while at rest, this force may cause some
displacement but the solid does not continue to move indefinitely.
The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a
surface. Referring to the figure below, we see the force F acting
tangentially on a rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC. This is a
shearing force and produces the (dashed lined) rhombus element
A’B’DC.

Shearing force, F, acting on a fluid element.

We can then say:

A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when
subjected to shearing forces.
And conversely this definition implies the very important point that If a
fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting. All forces must be
perpendicular to the planes which they are acting. When a fluid is in
motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move
relative to one another. When this happens adjacent particles have
different velocities. If fluid velocity is the same at every point then there
is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.

1.2 Properties of Fluids

The properties outlines below are general properties of fluids which are
of interest in engineering. The symbol usually used to represent the
property is specified together with some typical values in SI units for
common fluids. Values under specific conditions (temperature, pressure
etc.) can be readily found in many reference books. The dimensions of
each unit is also give in the MLT system.
1.2.1 Density
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit
volume of the substance. It can be expressed in three different ways.
1.2.1.1 Mass Density
Mass Density, r, is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume.
Units: Kilograms per cubic metre, kg / m3 (or kgm-3)
Dimensions: ML-3
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kgm-3, Mercury = 13546 kgm-3 Air = 1.23 kgm-3, Paraffin
Oil = 800 kgm-3 .
(at pressure =1.013 ´ 10-5 N m-2 and Temperature = 288.15 K.)
1.2.1.2 Specific Weight
Specific Weight , (sometimes , and sometimes known as specific
gravity) is defined as the weight per unit volume.
or
The force exerted by gravity, g, upon a unit volume of the substance.
The Relationship between g and  can be determined by Newton’s 2nd
Law, since weight per unit volume = mass per unit volume  g
 = g
Units: Newton’s per cubic metre, N / m3 (or N m-3)
Dimensions: ML-2T -2.
Typical values:
Water =9814 N m-3, Mercury = 132943 N m-3, Air =12.07 N m-3, Paraffin
Oil =7851 N m-3
1.2.2 Viscosity
Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction
between molecules, which offers resistance to sheer deformation.
Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress.
Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup, deforms more slowly than
fluid with a low viscosity such as water.
All fluids are viscous, “Newtonian Fluids” obey the linear relationship
given by Newton’s law of viscosity.  =  du/ dy, which we saw earlier.
where  is the shear stress,
Units N m-2; kg m-1s-2
Dimensions ML-1T -2.
du/dy is the velocity gradient or rate of shear strain, and has
Units: radians s-1,
Dimensions t -1
 is the “coefficient of dynamic viscosity”.
EXAMPLES
1. If 2.5m tube of Pa has a mass of 20tonnes, find its mass density?
Solution
Mass density = mass/volume
ρ=m/v
Given data
V=2.5m3, m= 20tonnes = 20 x 1000 =20, 000kg
ρ = 20,000/2.5 =8000kg/m3
2. In an experiment, the weight of 2.5m 3 of a setting liquid was found
to be 18.75KN. Find the specific weight of the liquid, and also find
it density?
Solution
Given data
V = 2.5m3, w = 18.75kN, (constant, g = 9.81m/s2)
W = weight of fluid/ volume
W = 18.75/2.5 = 7.5kN/m3
Also, w = F/v, w = (m/v) x g
W = ρg
ρ = w/g =7500/9.81 = 764.5kg/m3

1.3 Types of Fluids

We have five (5) different types of fluid Namely;
1) Newtonian Fluid
2) Non- Newtonian Fluid
3) Real Fluid
4) Ideal Fluid
5) Ideal Plastic Fluid

Shear stress vs. Rate of shear strain u/y

 An Ideal Fluid: Is any fluid that is incompressible and has no
positive.
 A Real Fluid: Is any fluid that processes viscosity. All fluid that is
actual practices are real fluid.
 Newtonian Fluid: Is a real fluid in which the shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain.
  Non-Newtonian: Is a real fluid in which the shear stress is
indirectly proportional to shear strain.
 Ideal Plastic Fluid: Is a fluid in which the shear stress is more than
yield value and the shear stress is directly proportional to shear
strain.

2.1 Fluids statics

The general rules of statics (as applied in solid mechanics) apply to
fluids at rest. From earlier we know that:
 a static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and that
 any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at
right angles to the boundary.

Pressure force normal to the boundary

Note that this statement is also true for curved surfaces, in this case the
force acting at any point is normal to the surface at that point. The
statement is also true for any imaginary plane in a static fluid. We use
this
fact in our analysis by considering elements of fluid bounded by
imaginary planes. We also know that:
 For an element of fluid at rest, the element will be in equilibrium -
the sum of the components of forces in any direction will be zero.
 The sum of the moments of forces on the element about any point
must also be zero.
It is common to test equilibrium by resolving forces along three
mutually perpendicular axes and also by taking moments in three
mutually perpendicular planes and to equate these to zero.
2.1.1 PROPERTIES OF FLUID AT REST
 Water at rest is the water exist a uniform direction at rest, pressure
of water is equal to it weight.
 Water at rest kept the surface level
 The viscosity of water is proportional to the slope of the channeled
bed.
 The velocity of water in a channel depend upon the roughness of
the bed and the size than smoother the bed and size of the greater
the velocity.
2.1.2 PROPERTIES OF WATER
1) The water extreme uniform pressure in all direction
2) The pressure of water is equal to each weight
3) The velocity of water is proportional to the slope of the channel
bed
4) The velocity of water in a channel depend on the roughness of bed
and size. The smoother the bed and sides the greater the velocity.
5) The velocity of water in a channel is more at the center than at the
side.
2.2 Pressure
As mentioned above a fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it
is in contact with. Since these boundaries may be large and the force
may differ from place to place it is convenient to work in terms of
pressure, p, which is the force per unit area.
If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the
pressure is said to be uniform.
Pressure  Force /Area over which the force is applied
p =F/A
Units: Newton’s per square metre, N m-2, kgm-1 s-2.
Dimensions: ML-1T-2.

2.3 Pressure Measurement By Manometer

The relationship between pressure and head is used to measure pressure
with a manometer (also known as liquid gauge).
2.3.1 The Piezometer Tube Manometer
The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to
the top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. An example can be seen in the figure
below. This simple device is known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is
open to the atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to atmospheric
so is gauge pressure.

A simple piezometer tube manometer

pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid above A
pA = gh1
pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid above B
pB = gh2
This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only
when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small
or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.
2.3.2 Manometer Tube
Is an an improved form of piezometer tube for measuring high as well as
negative pressure.
 Simple manometer
 Micro manometer
  Differential manometer
 Inverted differential manometer

Simple Manometer: Is a slight improve form of piezometer tube for

measuring high as well as negative pressure. It consist of a tube bent in
“U’’ shape one of which is attached to the gauge point and the other is
open to the atmosphere.

When you connect it to the simple manometer, the high pressure will
force it to a heavy liquid.
The down ward move to a light liquid will cause a corresponding move
of a heavy liquid. This Datum line the height of the light liquid above
the pressure in the left hand side and the right hand side is equal. The
pressure of the pipe line is h + s1h1 = left limb
While the other side.
The pressure in the right hand is above the common surface is S 2h2m of
water.
h + S1h1 = S2h2
h = S2h2 - S1h1m of H2O
EXAMPLES
1. A simple manometer containing mercury is used to measure the
pressure of water flowing in the pipe line. The mercury level in the
 open tube is 60mm higher than that of the left tube. If the height of
water in the left tube is 50mm, determine the pressure in the pipe
in terms of head of water.
Solution
(constant, S2 = 13.6 times)
h + S1h1 = h + 50 of water
S2h2 = 13.6 x 60 = 816 of H2O
h + 50 = 816
h = 816 – 50 = 766mm of water = 0.766m of H2O

2. A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of an oil

( specific gravity 0.8) flowing in a pipe line. Its right limb is open
to the atmosphere and the left limb is connected to the pipe. The
centre of the pipe is 90mm below the level of mercury (Specific
gravity = 13.6) in the right limb. If the difference of mercury levels
in two limb is 150mm, find the pressure of an oil in the pipe.

Solution
Given data
S1 = 0.8
S2 = 13.6
h2 = 150mm
h1 = 150 – 90 = 60mm, h = ?
h + S1h1 = S2h2
h + 0.8 x 60 = 13.6 x 150
h = 2040 – 48 = 1992
h = 1992 of oil
h = 1.992 of water
Pressure of the oil
P = wh
= 9.81 x 1.992
= 19.54kN/m2

3.1 Types of Flow Lines

  Stream lines: Are imaginaries lines drawn in the fluid in such a
way that the target to any point gives the direction of motion at the
point. It shows the direction of motion of any particles.
 Filament Lines or Steak Lines: This particular line they are
instantaneous picture of all the fluid at a particular, which has pass
through a given point at the same time.
 Potential line or Equipotential Line: They are always a gradually
loss of head of fluid particles as it proceed along the flow line.
 Path line: A pathline is a path which a fluid particle traces. One
example of a pathline is the path defined by a balloon floating in
the air.

3.2 Types of Flow in a Pipe

1) Lamina Flow
2) Turbulent Flow
3) Steady Flow
4) Non- Steady Flow
5) Uniform Flow
6) Non – Uniform Flow
7) Rational Flow
8) Irrational Flow
9) Compressible Flow
10) Incompressible Flow

1. Lamina Flow: A flow is said to be laminar when each liquid

particles have a definite path and the individual path does not cross
each other.
2. Tuburlent Flow: A flow in which liquid particles does not have a
definite path and the path of individual crosses each other.
3. Steady Flow: A flow is said to be steady when the quantity of
liquid flowing per second in constant.
4. Unsteady Flow: A Flow is said to be unsteady when the quantity
of liquid does not flow per second in constant.
5. Uniform Flow: A flow is said to be uniform when the velocity of
flow at any section of the pipe is equal.
6. Non – Uniform Flow: A flow is said to be non – uniform when
the velocity of flow at any section of the pipe is not equal.
7. Rotational Flow: A flow in which the fluid particles rotates about
their own axis while flowing.
8. Irrotational Flow: A flow in which the particles does not rotates
about their own axis while flowing and take their own.
9. Compressible Flow: A flow in which the volume of the flowing
fluid and its density changes during the flow.
10. Incompressible Flow: A flow in which the volume of the
flowing fluid does not changes during the flow.