LECTURE NOTES

Mr. Jane Mabesa

September 28, 2020

M2403-CALCULUS IIA
ACADEMIC YEAR 2020/2021

1 Logic and Mathematical Proofs

• In this section you will be expected to read, understand and construct proofs. The
purpose of these section is to teach you language of Mathematics. Once you have
understood the language of Mathematics, you will be able to communicate your
ideas in a clear, coherent and comprehensible manner.
Logic:
Remind yourself of the following:
1) Conjunction (∧),
2) Disjunction (∨)
3) Implication ( =⇒ )
4) Biconditional (⇔)
5) Negation (q)
6) Converse, Contrapositive, Tautology, Contradictions and Equivalences Statements.
7) Open Sentences and Quantifiers
Recall: If n, p, q, k ∈ Z, then
• p = nq implies that n divides P.
• n = 2k means that n is an even integer.
• n = 2k + 1 means that n is an odd integer

1.1 Mathematical Proofs

A mathematical proof of a statement is a logical argument that establishes the Truth
Value of a statement based upon already accepted statement. Accepted statements are
axioms, laws, facts, and proved results.
Examples:
• Axioms: x + 0 = x, x + (−x) = 0
• Facts: when x = 2, x2 + 2x + 2 = 10
• Proved results: (p =⇒ q) ≡ (qq =⇒ qp)
An argument is a claim that if a given assumption (hypothesis) is true then the conclusion

1
is also true.

1.2 Showing that a statement is false

To show that a statement is false it is enough to give a counter example.
Examples: Disprove the following statements.
[1] ∀a, b ∈ R, if a < b then a2 < b2 .
n−1
[2] ∀n ∈ Z, if n is odd, then n
is odd.
Solutions:
[1] False, because if one takes a counter example, a = −3, b = 2 then −3 < 2 but

(−3)2 > 22 = 9 > 4

[2] False, because if one takes a counter example, n = 5, clearly 5 is odd, but
5−1 4
= is not odd.
5 5

1.3 Proving that the statements are true

To show that a mathematical statement is true is a bit more involving. There are several
ways of achieving this.

1.3.1 The direct proof

A. Constructive proof of Existence:

A statement of the form ∃x ∈ D such that p is true and if and only if q is true for at
least one x in D. One way to prove this is to find x in D that makes q true. Another
way is to give a set of directs of finding such an x.
Example
1 1
• Prove that there are integers m and n such that m, n > 1 and m
+ n
is an integer.
• Proof:
Let m = 2 and n = 2, then
1 1
+ = 1, which is an integer.
2 2
Therefore, we have proved our statement.

Observe that in this proof we have found such integers m and n which makes our
statement to be true.
B. Method of Exhaustion
In this method of direct proof we pick elements one by one in a set D and prove our
statement for such an x.
Example:
• Prove that ∀n ∈ Z, if n is even and 4 ≤ n ≤ 12, then n can be written as a sum of
two prime numbers.

2
 • Proof:
For all even elements of the set D = [4, 12], then
4 = 2 + 2, 6 = 3 + 3, 8 = 5 + 3, 10 = 5 + 5, 12 = 5 + 7
Thus, by method of exhaustion our statement is true.
C. Proving the statement
In this method of direct proof, we assume that p is true and proceed through a sequence
of logical steps to arrive at a conclusion that q is also true (this is if it’s difficult to
exhaust the elements of D)
Examples:
[1] Prove that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is also odd.
Proof:
We identify the assumption and conclusion as : p ≡ n is odd, q ≡ n2 is odd.
Required to prove p =⇒ q.
Now, assume that p is true, i.e n is odd, meaning n = 2k + 1, k ∈ Z.
So,
n2 = (2k + 1)2 , substitute n
2
= 4k + 4k + 1, expanding brackets
2
= 2(2k + 2k) + 1, factoring 2
= 2m + 1, where m = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ Z

Thus, n2 is odd.
Hence, if n is odd, then n2 is odd.
[2] Prove that if n is any even integer, then (−1)n = 1.
Proof:
Assume that n is any even integer, say, n = 2k, k ∈ Z.
Now,
(−1)n = (−1)2k , substitute n
2 k
= ((−1) ) , since (a)nm = (an )m
= (1)k = 1, since (−1)2 = 1 and 1 raised to anything is 1
Thus, if n is any even integer, then (−1)n = 1.

1.3.2 Indirect Proof

A. Contrapositive Method
In logic, p =⇒ q is equivalent to qq =⇒ qp as they have same truth values. So,
in this method of proof, we prove the contrapositive qq =⇒ qp using a direct proof
method if its difficult to prove p =⇒ q and then conclude that p =⇒ q is true if
qq =⇒ qp is true.
Example:
[1] Show that if 3n is an odd integer, then n is an odd integer.
Proof:
We shall show the contrapositive

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 • if n is even integer, then 3n is an even integer.
To that end, assume that n is even integer. Then n = 2k for some integer k.
Therefore,

3n = 3(2k), substitute n
= 2(3k), by commutative and associative properties of numbers
= 2p, where p = 3k ∈ Z

Thus, it follows that 3n is an even integer.

Hence, if 3n is an odd integer, then n is an odd integer.
[2] If n2 is an even integer, then n is also an even integer.
Proof:
We will show the contrapositive
• if n is an odd integer, then n2 is an odd integer.
To see the proof refer to Example [1] under the direct proof method C. Then,
conclude that indeed,
• if n2 is even integer, then n is also an even integer.
B. Contradiction Method
This one of the most powerful but harder to understand than the direct or contrapos-
itive methods.
Here if we are to prove that the statement, P, is true,
we contrarily assume that the negation, qP, is true. Then work on showing that our
assumption actually leads to a contradiction, impossibility, and absurdity. This would
mean that the assumption qP must have been fallacious, and therefore our original
statement P must be true.
Recall: q(p =⇒ q) ≡ p∧qq
Examples:
[1] Prove that ∀n ∈ Z, 3n + 2 is not divisible by 3.
Proof:
Suppose that the statement is false, i.e
• suppose there exists an integer n such that 3n + 2 is divisible by 3.
To that end, it follows that

3n + 2 = 3t, t ∈ Z since p = mq means m divides p for any q ∈ Z

2 = 3t − 3n, subtract 3n from both sides
2 = 3(t − n), (t − n) ∈ Z factor 3 out

So, by definition 3 divides 2 which implies 3 ≤ 2 which is absurd since 3 > 2.

Thus, ∀n ∈ Z, 3n + 2 is not divisible by 3.
√
[2] Show that 2 is irrational. That√ is, there do not exist integers p and q which are
p
relatively prime such that q = 2.
Proof:
p
√
Proceeding by contradiction, assume that q
= 2 (where q 6= 0 and p and q have

4
 no common factor other than 1). Then squaring both sides, we have that
p2
=2
q2
⇔ p2 = 2q 2
Hence, p2 is even. By example [2] under contrapositive method, we have that p is
even.
Hence, we can express p = 2k, k ∈ Z.
So,
2q 2 = p2
= (2k)2
= 4k 2
and, consequently,
q 2 = 2k
This implies q 2 is even and so, again q is even.
Hence, p and q are both even, contradicting the assumption that p and q have no
factors in common.
√
Therefore, 2 is not in the form pq , with p, q ∈ Z.
√
Hence, 2 is irrational.

1.3.3 Proof by Mathematical Induction

Another method of proof which is used to prove open statement S(n), when n is a natural
number is called mathematical induction which is outlined as follows:
1. Step 1: Prove that S(n) is true for smallest n, say m.
2. Step 2: Assume that the statement S(n) is true for another variable or number
n = k ≥ m.
3. Step 3: Then prove that the statement S(n) is true for n = k + 1.
4. Conclusion: If S(m) is true and S(k + 1) is true when S(k) is true, then S(n) is
true ∀n ∈ Z.
Examples:
n(n+1)
[1] Prove that the sum of the first n natural numbers is 2
.
n(n+1)
Proof: We are required to prove that 1 + 2 + · · · + n = 2
. Let the given statement
be S(n).
Step 1: Take n = 1. Then
LHS of S(1) : we have that n = 1
1(1 + 1) 2
RHS of S(1) : = =1
2 2
Thus, the statement S(1) is true since LHS = RHS.
Step 2 (Induction hypothesis):
Suppose that S(n) is true for n = k ≥ 1. That is
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + k = .
2
5
 Step 3:
We claim that S(n) is true for n = k + 1. That is

(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) =
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2

To that end, we have that

k(k + 1)
|1 + 2 +{z· · · + k} +(k + 1) = 2
+ (k + 1), by induction hypothesis
Inductive hypothesis
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
= , writing as 1 fraction
2
k 2 + k + 2k + 2
= , expanding brackets
2
k 2 + 3k + 2
= , collecting like terms
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= , factorising
2
Thus, we have proved that S(1) is true and S(k + 1) is true whenever S(k) is true.
Hence, S(n) is true ∀n ≥ 1.
[2] Show that ∀n ≥ 0, 22n − 1 is divisible by 3.
Proof:
Base case n = 0 gives that

22×0 − 1 = 1 − 1
= 0,

and it is trivial that 0 is divisible by 3, so the statement is true.

Suppose that for n = k ≥ 0, we have

22k − 1 = 3t, t ∈ Z (inductive hypothesis).

We claim that 22(k+1) − 1 = 3p.

To prove our claim, we do as follows,

22(k+1) − 1 = 22k+2 − 1, distribute 2 in the index

= 22k · 22 − 1, since an+m = an · am
= 4 · 22k − 1, simplify
= 3 · 22k + 22k − 1, 4x = 3x + x so take x = 22k
= 3 · 22k + 2| 2k{z− 1}
inductive hypothesis
2k
=3·2 + 3t, by inductive hypothesis
2k
= 3(2 + t), factor out 3
2k
= 3p, p=2 +t∈Z

Thus,we have proved our result.

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2 Formal definition of a limit ( − δ definition)
The statement

lim f (x) = L
x→c

means that ∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0, such that

∀x, 0 < |x − c| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < .

Note: In general, δ depends on  (i.e assume some  > 0 and then find δ > 0). It also
means ∀x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ), ∃f (x) ∈ (L − , L + ).
Examples:
(a) Show that lim 2x + 4 = 10
x→3

Solution:
Step 1: Preliminary analysis of the problem (guessing value of δ). Let  > 0 be
given. We want to find δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − 3| < δ =⇒ |(2x + 4) − 10| < .

Now, considering -inequality,

|(2x + 4) − 10| < 

=⇒ |2x − 6| < 
=⇒ |2(x − 3)| < 
=⇒ |2||x − 3| < 
=⇒ 2|x − 3| < 

=⇒ |x − 3| < .
2
This suggests that we should choose δ = 2 .
Step 2: proof (showing that this δ works).
Given  > 0, choose δ = 2 . If 0 < |x − 3| < δ, then

|(2x + 4) − 10| = |2x − 6|

= |2(x − 3)|
= |2||x − 3|
= 2|x − 3|

< 2δ = 2 = .
2
Thus,
|(2x + 4) − 10 <  whenever |x − 3| < δ.
Therefore, by definition of a limit

lim 2x + 4 = 10.
x→3

(b) Prove that lim x2 = 4

x→2

Proof:

7
Step 1: Preliminary analysis of the problem (guessing value of δ). Let  > 0 be
given. We want to find δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − 2| < δ =⇒ |x2 − 4| < .
Now, considering -inequality,
|(x2 − 4| < 
=⇒ |(x − 2)(x + 2)| < 
=⇒ |x + 2||x − 2| < 
Notice that if we can find a positive constant C such that |x + 2| < C, then
|x + 2||x − 2| < C|x − 2|

and we can make C|x − 2| <  by taking |x − 2| < C
= δ.

We can find such a number C if we restrict x to lie in some interval centered at

2. In fact, since we are interested only in values of x that are close to 2, it is
reasonable to assume that x is within a distance of 1 from 2, that is,
|x − 2| < 1
=⇒ −1 < x − 2 < 1
=⇒ 1 < x < 3
So,

1<x<3
=⇒ 2 < x + 2 < 5, add 2 throughout
=⇒ |x + 2| < 5.
Thus, C = 5 is a suitable choice for the constant.
But now there are two restrictions on |x − 2|, namely
 
|x − 2| < 1 and |x − 2| < = .
C 5

To make sure that both of these inequalities are satisfied, we take δ to be smaller
of the two numbers 1 and 5 . The notation for this is δ = min{1, 5 }.

Step 2: proof (showing that this δ works).

Given  > 0, let δ = min{1, 5 }. If 0 < |x − 2| < δ, then

|x − 2| < 1 =⇒ 1 < x < 3 =⇒ |x + 2| < 5 as in step 1.

We also have |x − 2| < 5 , so

|x2 − 4| = |x + 2||x − 2|
< 5|x − 2|, since |x + 2| < 5

<5 = .
5
This shows that
lim x2 = 4.
x→2

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2.1 Definition of Left-Hand limit
lim f (x) = L
x→c−

if for every number  > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that if

c − δ < x < c =⇒ |f (x) − L| < .

2.2 Definition of Right-Hand limit

lim f (x) = L
x→c+

if for every number  > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that if

c < x < c + δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < .

Notice that Definition 2.1 is the same as Definition 2 except that x is restricted
to lie in the left half (c − δ, c) of the interval (c − δ, c + δ). In Definition 2.2, x is
restricted to lie in the right half (c, c + δ) of the interval (c − δ, c + δ).

Exercise: Prove that

[1] If a, b ∈ Z, then a2 − 4b 6= 2
√
[2] lim+ x = 0 (Using  − δ definition)
x→0

[3] For every real number x ∈ [0, π2 ], we have sin(x) + cos(x) ≥ 1

[4] If a, b ∈ Z and a ≥ 2, then a does not divide both b and b + 1.
n
X 1
[5] r(r + 1) = n(n + 1)(n + 2)
r=1
3
[6] For a ∈ Z, if a2 − 2a + 7 is even, then a is odd.
1
[7] lim = 0 (Using  − δ definition)
x→−∞ x

[8] lim x2 + x − 11 = 9 (Using  − δ definition)

x→4

[9] a2 − 1 is divisible by 8 for all odd integers a.