Introduction to Proofs

A proof is a valid argument that establishes the

truth of a mathematical statement.
Terminology:
Theorem: A statement proven to be true, often significant in nature.
Proposition: A less important theorem; can also be called a fact or result.
Proof: A valid argument confirming the truth of a theorem, using:

• Axioms/Postulates: Assumed true statements (e.g., axioms of real numbers

or geometry).
• Premises: Assumptions specific to the theorem.
• Previously Proven Theorems.
• Rules of Inference and Definitions: Used to logically connect proof steps.
Lemma: A minor theorem useful for proving more complex theorems; often used
in steps for clarity.
Corollary: A theorem that follows directly from an already proven theorem.
Here are examples for each mathematical term:

1. Theorem

• Example: Pythagorean Theorem: For any right triangle with legs a and b
and hypotenuse c, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 .
• Proof Outline: Using the properties of similar triangles and the relationship
between areas, we can establish that the square of the hypotenuse equals the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
2. Proposition

• Example: Proposition: If n is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd.

• Proof Outline: Assume n is odd, so n=2k+1 for some integer k. Then 𝑛2 =
(2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1, which is odd.

3. Lemma

• Example: Lemma: If a and b are integers and a divides b, then for any
integer c, a divides bc.
• Proof Outline: If a divides b, then b=ak for some integer k. Thus,
bc=(ak)c=a(kc), showing that a divides bc.
• Usage in Larger Proofs: This lemma might be used to simplify proofs in
number theory, where you need to show divisibility properties across
equations.

4. Corollary

• Example: Corollary to the Pythagorean Theorem: In a right triangle, the

hypotenuse is the longest side.
• Proof Outline: From the Pythagorean Theorem, we know 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
2 2 2
Since 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 > 𝑎2 and a ⬚+𝑏 > 𝑏 , c must be larger than either a or b,

hence it is the longest side.

5. Axiom
 • Example: Axiom of Addition for Real Numbers: For all real numbers a, b,
and c, a+(b+c) = (a+b) + c.
• Usage in Proofs: Axioms are assumed without proof and serve as
fundamental building blocks. This associative property of addition is often
used in arithmetic proofs and algebraic manipulations.
Proof Methods:

• There are different types of proofs (direct, contrapositive, contradiction,

etc.) are tools for building valid arguments. Each method is appropriate for
specific types of mathematical statements.
• Choosing the right proof method depends on the form of the theorem (e.g.,
conditional, universal, or existential statements).

Direct Proof:

A direct proof of a conditional statement p → q is constructed when the first step is

the assumption that p is true; subsequent steps are constructed using rules of
inference, with the final step showing that q must also be true. A direct proof shows
that a conditional statement p → q is true by showing that if p is true, then q must
also be true, so that the combination p true and q false never occurs.
Important mathematical axioms
• The integer number 𝑛 is odd if it can be expressed as 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1.
• The integer number 𝑛 is even if it can be expressed as 𝑛 = 2𝑘.
• All the integer numbers are odd or even not both.
• The real number 𝑟 is rational if there exist integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 with 𝑏 ≠ 0 such that
𝒂
𝒓 =
𝒃

• The real number that is not rational is called irrational.

We use the following steps to prove 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True using the direct proof:
• First step: Assume p is true (hypothesis)
• Middle steps: Apply rules of inference
• Final step: Show q must be true (conclusion)

Example (4.1):
Give a direct proof of the theorem “If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd”
Solution:
We want to prove the statement “If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is odd” is True.
𝑝: 𝑛 is an odd integer.
𝑞: 𝑛2 is odd
• Step 1:
Let 𝑝 is True means 𝑛 is an odd integer so, we can express 𝑛 as following:
𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1
• Step 2:
We try to prove that 𝑞 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = 2(2𝑘 2 + 2 𝑘) + 1
∴ 𝑛2 is odd ≡ 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
• Step 3:
Then 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

Example (4.2):
Show that the statement “if 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are rational number, then the sum 𝑟 + 𝑠 is
rational” is True.
Solution:
𝑝: 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are rational number. 𝑞: 𝑟 + 𝑠 is rational.
• Step 1:
Let 𝑝 is True means 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 are rational number so, we can express 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 as
following
𝑎 𝑐
𝑟 = ,𝑠 =
𝑏 𝑑
where 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0.
• Step 2:
We try to prove that 𝑞 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑐𝑏
𝑟 + 𝑆 = + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
∴ 𝑟 + 𝑆 is also rational
• Step 3:Then 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

2. Contraposition (Indirect proof)

We will prove the statement 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True by proving its equivalent is True
where 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 by the following steps:
• Step 1:We assume that ¬𝑞 is True.
Step 2:We try to prove that ¬𝑝 is True using step 1 and axioms of
•
Mathematics.
• Step 3:Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is True which means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

Example (4.3):
Show that the statement “if 𝑛 is an integer number and 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, then 𝑛 is
an odd number” is True.
Solution:
𝑝: 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. ¬𝑝: 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ≡ 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
𝑞: 𝑛 is odd number. ¬𝑞: 𝑛 is not odd number ≡ 𝑛 is even. The new equivalent
statement Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is “if 𝑛 is even integer number, then 3𝑛 + 2 is even
number”
• Step 1:
Let ¬𝑞 is True means 𝑛 is even integer so, we can express 𝑛 as following: 𝑛 = 2𝑘
• Step 2:
We try to prove that ¬𝑝 is True using step 1 and axioms of Mathematics. 3𝑛 + 2
= 3(2𝑘) + 2 = 2(3𝑘 + 1)
∴ 3𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
• Step 3:
Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is True which means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

Example (4.4):
Show that the statement “if 𝑛 is an integer number and 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, then 𝑛 is an
odd number” is True.
Solution:
𝑝: 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. ¬𝑝: 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ≡ 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
𝑞: 𝑛 is odd number. ¬𝑞: 𝑛 is not odd number ≡ 𝑛 is even. The new equivalent
statement Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is “if 𝑛 is even integer number, then 𝑛^2 is even
number”
• Step 1:
Let ¬𝑞 is True means 𝑛 is even integer so, we can express 𝑛 as following: 𝑛 = 2𝑘
• Step 2:
We try to prove that ¬𝑝 is True using step
1 and axioms of Mathematics.
 𝑛2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2(2𝑘 2 )
∴ 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.

• Step 3:Then ¬𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝 is True which means 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 is True.

3. Contradiction (Indirect proof)
• If 𝑝 is True means ¬𝑝 is False.
• If ¬𝑝 is False, therefore 𝑝 is True.

• Goal: Prove p by showing that assuming ¬p leads to a logical

contradiction.
• Structure:
• Step1 :Assume ¬p (the opposite of p) is true.
• Step2: Show that this assumption leads to an impossible situation (a
contradiction).
• Step3: Conclude that ¬p must be false, and therefore p is true.

Example (4.5):
Prove that √2 is irrational number.
Solution:
𝑝: √2 is irrational number.
¬𝑝: √2 is not irrational number. ∴ ¬𝑝: √2 is rational number
We need to prove that ¬𝑝: √2 is rational number is False.
We start the proof by assumption √2 is rational number so, we can express it
by following:
𝑎
√2 =
𝑏
(In the simplest form means no common factor between 𝑎 and 𝑏)
∴ 𝑎 = √2𝑏 square both sides∴ 𝑎^2 is even number ∴ 𝑎 is even. So, we can
∴ 𝑎^2 = 2 𝑏^2 express 𝑎 = 2𝑘
∴ (2𝑘)2 = 2 𝑏 2 ∴ 4𝑘 2 = 2 𝑏 2
∴ 2𝑘 2 = 𝑏 2
∴ 𝑏 2 is even number
∵ 𝑎, 𝑏 are even numbers
∴ 𝑏 is even. So, we can express 𝑏 = 2𝑘
∴ 𝑎, 𝑏 have common factor and that contradict the first step (√2 = 𝑎𝑏
form means no common factor between 𝑎 and 𝑏)
That means the first step is false ≡ √2 is rational number is false ≡ √2 is
irrational number is True.
• Example (4.6):
• Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem “If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is
odd.
• Solution:
Let p be “3n + 2 is odd” and q be “n is odd.”
To construct a proof by contradiction, assume that both p and ¬q are true.
That is, assume that 3n + 2 is odd and that n is not odd.
Because n is not odd, we know that it is even. Because n is even, there is an
integer k such
that n = 2k.
This implies that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1).
Because 3n + 2 = 2t, where t = 3k + 1, 3n + 2 is even. Note that the statement
“3n + 2 is even” is equivalent to the statement ¬p, because an integer is even if
and only if it is not odd. Because both p and ¬p are true, we have a
contradiction. This completes the proof by contradiction, proving that if
3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.