MATERIALS SCEINCE & ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MAIN CAMPUS -P.O.BOX 82

Materials Science

(GE 207)

Common to all Departments

B.sc (Semester IV), 2nd yr.

(2021-22)

Prepared by: Eng. Gai Bol

Course Code Hours/a week CH Maximum Marks

T C AM FEM Total
GE 207
2 hrs. 3 25 75 100

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Objectives:
The course objectives should enable the students to:
➢ To understand the main classifications of materials.
➢ To understand various mechanical properties of metals.
➢ To understand how and why the properties of materials are measured by its structure at the
microscopic and macroscopic levels.
➢ To understand how and why the structure and composition of a material may be controlled by
processing.
➢ To remember polymer, ceramics, composites material structures, properties and their
applications.
Unit 1: Introduction:
Historical Perspective-materials science and Engineering. Classification of materials
Modern materials’ needs. Atomic structure and Inter-atomic Bonding.
Unit 2: The structure of crystalline: Solids-crystalline and non-crystalline materials.
Imperfection in Solids: Point defects-microscopic examination.
Mechanical properties of metals: Dislocation and strengthening mechanisms.
Recovery-Re-crystallization and Grain Growth.
Unit 3: Failure & Phase diagrams:
Failure: Fracture-Fatigue-Creep.
Phase diagrams: Iron-carbon systems-phase. Transformation-micro-structural and property.
Unit 4: Ceramics, Polymers, composites & Material properties:
Ceramics: structure-mechanical properties. Applications & processing.
Polymers: structure-characteristics, Applications & processing.
Composite materials: structure & Applications.
Unit 5: Material properties, Thermal processes of Materials & Laboratory theory:
Material properties: Electrical-thermal-magnetic-Optical
Thermal processes of metals: Ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Laboratory: Metallography
Reference text books:
1. William D. Callister, Jr, Materials Science and Engineering – An introduction, sixth edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2004.
2. V. Raghavan, Materials Science and Engineering, third edition, Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited, New Delhi, 1990.
3. Material Science by Dr. Kodgire, Everest publications, Pune.

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Unit 1: Introduction

1.1 Historical Perspective

Materials science & Engineering is defined as a branch of science that deals with study of structures,
properties, and applications of the material so that properties of the existing materials can be enhanced and
new materials can be developed to fulfil all our engineering requirements. The main engineering
requirements of engineering materials mainly fall under three categories:

a. Fabrication requirements

b. Service requirements

c. Economic requirements

Materials are so important in the development of human civilization that the historians have identified early
periods of civilization by the name of most significantly used material, e.g.: Stone Age, Bronze Age. This
is just an observation made to showcase the importance of materials and their impact on human civilization.
It is obvious that materials have affected and controlling a broad range of human activities through
thousands of decades.

From the historical point of view, it can be said that human civilization started with Stone Age where people
used only natural materials, like stone, clay, skin, and wood for the purposes like to make weapons,
instruments, shelter, etc. Thus the sites of deposits for better quality stones became early colonies of human
civilization. However, the increasing need for better quality tools brought forth exploration that led to
Bronze Age, followed by Iron Age. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the
Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in
wars started at about 1200 BC. Iron was abundant and thus availability is not limited to the affluent. This
commonness of the material affected every person in many aspects, gaining the name democratic material.
The next big step in human civilization was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around 1850
AD, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world. One
of the most significant features of the democratic material is that number of users just exploded. Thus there
has been a need for human and material resources for centuries, which still going strong. It’s being said and
agreed that we are presently in Space Age marked by many technological developments towards
development materials resulting in stronger and light materials like composites, electronic materials like
semiconductors, materials for space voyage like high temperature ceramics, biomaterials etc.

In summary, materials constitute foundation of technology. The history of human civilization evolved from
the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the Steel Age, and to the Space Age (contemporaneous
with the Electronic Age). Each age is marked by the advent of certain materials. The Iron Age brought tools

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and utensils. The Steel Age brought railroads, instruments, and the Industrial Revolution. The Space Age
brought the materials for stronger and light structures (e.g., composite materials). The Electronic Age
brought semiconductors, and thus many varieties of electronic gadgets.

1.2 Materials Science & Engineering (MSE)

As engineering materials constitute foundation of technology, it’s not only necessary but a must to
understand how materials behave like they do and why they differ in properties. This is only possible with
the atomistic understanding allowed by quantum mechanics that first explained atoms and then solids
starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus on the relationship between the
properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of Materials Science. The development of this
science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge base for the engineering applications or
Materials Engineering.
Important components of the subject Materials Science are structure, properties, processing, performance,
and environment. A schematic interrelation between these four main components is shown in figure 1.1
below.

Figure 1.1

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Why do we Study Materials Science and Engineering?

All engineers need to know about materials. Even the most "immaterial", like software or system
engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the economics, like software-
hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are in materials manufacturing
(industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems.

Innovation in engineering often means the clever use of a new material for a specific application. For
example: plastic containers in place of age-old metallic containers. It is well learnt lesion that engineering
disasters are frequently caused by the misuse of materials. So it is vital that the professional engineer should
know how to select materials which best fit the demands of the design - economic and aesthetic demands,
as well as demands of strength and durability. Beforehand the designer must understand the properties of
materials, and their limitations. Thus it is very important that every engineer must study and understand the
concepts of Materials Science and Engineering. This enables the engineer

To select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and performance.
To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
To be able to use the material for different application.

1.3 Classification of Materials

Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the complexity. One
can classify them based on many criteria, for example crystal structure (arrangement of atoms and bonds
between them), or properties, or use. Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, Composites, Semiconductors, and
Biomaterials constitute the main classes of present engineering materials.

1. Metals:

Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements such as iron, copper, nickel, magnesium, and gold
and also non-metallic elements (Nitrogen, Oxygen, and carbon) in small amounts. These characteristics are
due to valence electrons that are detached from atoms, and spread in an electron sea that glues the ions
together, i.e. atoms are bound together by metallic bonds and weaker van der Waalls forces. Pure metals
are not good enough for many applications, especially structural applications. Thus metals which are used
in alloy form i.e. a metal mixed with another metal to improve the desired qualities. E.g.: aluminum, steel,
brass, gold.

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➢ Atoms are arranged in orderly manner.

➢ These materials are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity.
➢ With regard to mechanical properties, these materials are stiff, strong, ductile, and resistant to
fracture.
➢ They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
➢ They are not transparent to visible light.
➢ Metallic materials have large number of non-localized electrons. These electrons are not bond to
particular atoms.
➢ Metals like (Fe, Co, Ni) have magnetic properties or behaviors.

2. Ceramics:
➢ These are inorganic compounds, and usually made either of oxides, carbides, nitrides, or silicates
of metals. Ceramics are typically partly crystalline and partly amorphous. Atoms (ions often) in
ceramic materials behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by very strong
Coulomb forces between them.
➢ These materials are characterized by very high strength under compression, low ductility; usually
insulators to heat and electricity. Examples: glass, porcelain, cements, many minerals.
➢ Common ceramic materials are aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), Silicon carbide
(Sic) etc.
➢ Ceramic materials are stiff, strong and highly brittle.
➢ They are low conductors of electricity and more resistant to high temperature.
➢ Ceramics may be transparent, translucent, and opaque.
➢ Oxide ceramics such as (Fe3O4) have magnetic properties.

3. Polymers:
➢ Polymers in the form of thermo-plastics (nylon, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, rubber,
etc.) consist of molecules that have covalent bonding within each molecule and van der
Waals forces between them. Polymers in the form of thermo-sets (e.g., epoxy, phenolic,
etc.) consist of a network of covalent bonds. They are based on H, C and other non-metallic
elements.
➢ Polymers are amorphous, except for a minority of thermoplastics.
➢ They have a long chain and a backbone of carbon atoms.
➢ Many of them are organic compounds.

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➢ These are not stiff, strong and are highly ductile and can easily be formed in complex
shapes.
➢ These materials have low density and low conduction of electricity and non-magnetic.
➢ It decomposes and soften at moderate temperature.

4. Composite materials:
Composite materials are composed of two or more individual materials such as metal-ceramic
composites, metal-polymer composites, and polymer-ceramic composites as shown in the Venn
diagram figure below.

Figure 1.2
➢ The main classes of composites are metal-matrix, polymer-matrix, and ceramic-matrix.
➢ The aim to design composite materials is to achieve a desire quality or strength of the
material by combining two or more materials.
➢ Common composite material is fiberglass, small fiber are embedded in polymer materials.
➢ They are stiff, strong, flexible and ductile.
➢ Carbon fiber reinforced polymer are more strong, flexible and more expensive than glass
fiber.
➢ They are used in aircraft and aerospace applications.
➢ An example is a lightweight brake disc obtained by embedding Sic particles in Al-alloy
matrix. Another example is reinforced cement concrete, a structural composite obtained by
combining cement (the matrix, i.e., the binder, obtained by a reaction known as hydration,
between cement and water), sand (fine aggregate), gravel (coarse aggregate), and, thick
steel fibers.

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5. Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are covalent in nature. Their atomic structure is characterized by the highest
occupied energy band (the valence band, where the valence electrons reside energetically) full such
that the energy gap between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the empty energy band
(the conduction band) is small enough for some fraction of the valence electrons to be excited from
the valence band to the conduction band by thermal, optical, or other forms of energy.
➢ In semiconductors, their electrical properties depend extremely on minute proportions of
contaminants.
➢ They are usually doped in order to enhance electrical conductivity.
➢ Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin.
➢ On increasing the temperature, it works as a conductor.
➢ Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping
to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
➢ Lesser power losses.
➢ Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
➢ Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
➢ The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and
vice-versa.
➢ They are opaque to visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), and gallium arsenide (GaAs, a compound semiconductor).
6. Biomaterials:
These are any type of material that can be used for replacement of damaged or diseased human
body parts. Primary requirement of these materials is that they must be biocompatible, bio-
functional, bioactive, bio-inert, and sterilizable with body tissues, and must not produce toxic
substances.
Other important material factors are: ability to support forces; low friction, wear, density, and cost;
reproducibility. Typical applications involve heart valves, hip joints, dental implants, intraocular
lenses. Examples: Stainless steel, ultra-high molecular weight poly-ethylene, high purity dense Al-
oxide, etc.

1.4 Advance materials, Future materials and modern materials’ needs:

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1.4.1 Advanced Materials

These are materials used in High-Tech devices those operate based on relatively intricate and sophisticated
principles (e.g. computers, air/space-crafts, electronic gadgets, etc.). These materials are either traditional
materials with enhanced properties or newly developed materials with high-performance capabilities.
Hence these are relatively expensive. Typical applications: integrated circuits, lasers, LCDs, fiber optics,
thermal protection for space shuttle, etc. Examples: Metallic foams, inter-metallic compounds, multi-
component alloys, magnetic alloys, special ceramics and high temperature materials, etc.

1.4.2 Future Materials

Group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed, and expected to have significant
influence on present-day technologies, especially in the fields of medicine, manufacturing and defense.
Smart/Intelligent material system consists some type of sensor (detects an input) and an actuator (performs
responsive and adaptive function). Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position, natural
frequency, mechanical characteristics in response to changes in temperature, electric/magnetic fields,
moisture, pH, etc.

Four types of materials used as actuators: Shape memory alloys, Piezo-electric ceramics, Magnetostrictive
materials, Electro-/Magneto-rheological fluids. Materials / Devices used as sensors: Optical fibers, Piezo-
electric materials, Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), etc.

Typical applications: By incorporating sensors, actuators and chip processors into system, researchers are
able to stimulate biological human-like behavior; Fibers for bridges, buildings, and wood utility poles; They
also help in fast moving and accurate robot parts, high speed helicopter rotor blades; Actuators that control
chatter in precision machine tools; Small microelectronic circuits in machines ranging from computers to
photolithography prints; Health monitoring detecting the success or failure of a product.

1.4.3 Modern Materials’ needs

Though there has been tremendous progress over the decades in the field of materials science and
engineering, innovation of new technologies, and need for better performances of existing technologies
demands much more from the materials field. Moreover it is evident that new materials/technologies are
needed to be environmental friendly. Some typical needs, thus, of modern materials needs are listed in the
following:

➢ Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural materials.

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➢ Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste
processing.
➢ Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist to high temperatures.
➢ Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
➢ Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
➢ Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.

1.5 Atomic structure and Inter-atomic Bonding.

1.5.1 Atomic Structure

a. Fundamental concepts
A material that constitute of one atom is called a pure element, e.g. C, H, Al, Fe etc. Each material is made
up of tiny particles called atoms.
A material which constitutes of many atoms is called as molecule i. e H2O molecule may be defined as a
group of atoms that are bonded together by strong primary bonds. Each chemical element is characterized
by the number of protons in the nucleus or the atomic number. For an electrically neutral or complete atom,
the atomic number also equals to the number electrons.
Atom consists of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons that move in their orbits.
e: 1.6 X 10-19 C
Mp = mn = 1.67 X 10-27 kg
Me = 9.11 X 10-31 kg
A chemical element has
Atomic number (Z): the number of proton in the nucleus,
Atomic mass (A): the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons in the nucleus,
Neutron number (N): the number of neutron may vary for a given elements.
Isotopes: elements with two or more different atomic masses
Atomic weight (amu)
A=Z+N

Why do we study atomic structure and inter-atomic bonding?

➢ For instances, bonding allows us to explain a material’s properties. E.g. consider carbon element,
which may exist both graphite and diamond. Graphite is relatively soft and reasonably a good

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conductor unlike the diamond which is the hardest known material. It is a poor conductor of
electricity.
➢ Some of the important properties of solid materials depend on geometrical atomic arrangements,
and also the interactions that exist among constituent atoms or molecules.
➢ For polymer fibres electron configurations of the constituent elements affect the type of primary
bonding; bonding type has an influence on the structures of polymer molecules.

b. Electrons in atoms
Bohr atomic model
➢ Electrons revolve around an atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals
➢ An electron is an particle.
➢ Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy.
➢ The energy of the orbit is related to its size. The lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit.
➢ Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to another.

Wave-mechanical model
➢ Electrons are considered as both wave-like and particle-like.
➢ Every electron in an atom is characterized by four parameters called quantum numbers.
a. Principal quantum number, n
n = 1 → K; n = 2 →L; and so on
b. Second quantum number, l
s, p, d, f
c. Third quantum number, ml (number of energy states)
s → ml = 1; p → ml = 3; d → ml = 5; f → ml = 7
d. Fourth quantum number, ms (spin orientation when a magnetic field is applied)
ms = + ½ and – ½

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The schematic of the relative energies of the electrons for various shells and subshells

1.5.1 The Number of available Electrons States in Some of the electron Shells and Subshells
Principal Shell Destination Subshells Number of states Number of electrons
Quantum Per subshell Per shell
number, n
1 K s 1 2 2
2 L s 1 2 8
p 3 6
3 M s 1 2 18
p 3 6
d 5 10
4 N s 1 2 32
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

Comparison between the two models

a. Bohr atomic model
Electrons are in fixed positions and energy (quantized energy levels).
b. Wave-mechanical model

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Electrons’ position is considered to be the probability of an electron’s being at various locations around the
nucleus.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Each electron state can hold no more than two electrons, which must have opposite spins.
Ground state is a level where electrons occupy the lowest possible energy according to Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
Electron configurations represent the manner in which these states are occupied
Examples:
Hydrogen (H): 1s1
Helium (He): 1s2
Sodium (Na): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Calcium (Ca):1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

c. The periodic table

The periodic table consists of all elements that have been classified according to electron configuration.
Groups IA and 2A (alkali and alkaline earth metals)
Elements with one and two electrons in excess of stable structures.
Groups 3A, 4A, and 5A
Elements between metals and nonmetals by virtue of their valence electron structures.
Groups 6A and 7A
Elements with two and one electron in deficient of stable structures.

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(Group 7A is called the halogens)

Group 8A (Inert gases)
Elements which have filled electron shells and stable configurations.

1.5.2 Inter-atomic bonding in solids

1. Bonding forces and energies
Interatomic forces determine the physical properties of materials.
There are two types of forces:
The attractive and the repulsive forces
Most of time, it is more convenient to work with potential energies, which are attractive and the repulsive
energies. Both terms depend on the distance between the centres of two atoms.
The equilibrium distance, ro
For many atoms, ro = 0.3 nm (3Å)
Bonding force
The net force, FN
FN = FA + FR
In equilibrium:
FA + FR = 0

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Bonding energy
The potential energy between two atoms
E = ∫ Fdr

The net energy, EN

EN = EA + ER

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2. Types of Bonding:
a. Primary Inter-atomic Bonds
1. Ionic Bonding
➢ This is the type of bonding which always found in compounds that are composed of both metallic
elements and nonmetallic elements.
➢ Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.
➢ This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has gain an electron) and another is positive
(has lost an electron).
➢ This bonding is a non-directional bonding in which the magnitude of the bond is equal in all
directions around an ion.
➢ Ionic bonding requires electron transfer between atoms.
➢ Large difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms required.
➢ An example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and less
around Na, forming Na+.
➢ Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds (100 kJ/mol). Therefore, both Cl and Na have valence of one
electron.

2. Covalent Bonding
➢ It is found in many nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2) and molecules containing
dissimilar atoms (CH4, H2O, HNO3, HF).
➢ In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules to saturate the valence atoms.
➢ Covalent bonding may be weak or strong.
➢ It occurs in most elemental solids such as diamond, silicon, and polymers etc.
➢ Bond energy is usually large.
➢ The simplest examples are H2, and H2O molecule, where the electrons spend more time in between
the nuclei than outside, thus producing covalent bonding.

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Hydrogen molecule

Water molecule

3. Metallic Bonding
➢ Primary bond for metals and their alloys.
➢ Arises from a sea of donated electron valence electrons.
➢ Good electric and thermal conductivities due to free electrons.
➢ In metallic bonding, bonding may be weak or strong.
➢ Metallic bonding is non-directional.
➢ In metals, the atoms are ionized, losing some electrons from the valence band. Those electrons
form an electron sea, which binds the charged nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in
between the H atoms in the H2 molecule bind the protons.

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b. Secondary or Physical Bonding (Van der Waals)

This type of bonding is found in most solids and arises from atomic or molecular dipoles.
This type of bonding is weak (10kJ/mol)
Examples: fluctuating induced dipole bonds, polar molecule- Induced dipole bonds, and permanent
dipole bonds

I. Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

An electric dipole exists whenever there is some separation of positive and negative portions of an atom or
molecule.
Therefore, the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed:
The + nucleus at the center and the electron outside moves, and the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in
atom produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom. Atom then
polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the side)
of the dipole in next atom. This type of bonding is called as van der Waals bonding.

II. Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

It causes by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively and negatively charged regions as shown
in hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule (dipole).
A polar molecule like H2O (Hs are partially +, and O is partially -), which will induce a dipole in a nearby
atom, leading to bonding.

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III. Permanent Dipole Bonds

This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the molecule is positively charged and can bond
to the negative side of another dipolar molecule, like the O side of the H2O dipole. It exist between adjacent
polar molecules. The hydrogen bond is the strongest secondary bonding type.

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