GET 272 (Engineering Materials)

Compiled by Abdulhaleem Salaudeen

LECTURE 1
1Introduction to Materials Science and Materials Engineering
Materials Science and Engineering (MSE) is a field that deals with the study
of materials, its properties, and applications. MSE is essential in
understanding the properties of various materials and how materials can be
used in different applications. It involves the principles of physics, chemistry,
and engineering. It also involves the development of new materials, analysis
of materials, and application of materials in different industries.
Materials are the building blocks of everything around us. This field offers
various opportunities to improve the quality of life and safety of people. The
primary objective of Material Science and Engineering is to develop and
design new materials by understanding their atomic structure, chemical
properties, and physical properties. Materials are classified into various
categories based on their properties, structure and composition. Some of the
essential materials used in this field include metals, ceramics, polymers,
composites, and semiconductors. Understanding their fundamental
properties, composition, and structure is necessary to use these materials
effectively.
Materials scientists and engineers work together to develop new materials
with improved properties. They use various techniques like microscopy,
spectroscopy, and other analytical tools to understand the composition and
structure of materials. Materials engineers then use this information to
design, test, and manufacture new materials. In recent years, materials
science and engineering have been at the forefront of many technological
advancements. The development of new materials like nanomaterials,
biomaterials, and smart materials has revolutionized many fields like
medicine, electronics, and aerospace.
Materials Science and Engineering is an essential field that has a significant
impact on our everyday lives. Understanding the fundamentals of materials
science and engineering is the key to developing new materials and
improving existing materials. The scope of Materials Science and Engineering
is vast, and there are many opportunities available for those interested in
this field. The field requires individuals who are curious, creative, and have
strong problem-solving skills. Materials Science and Engineering is a
challenging and rewarding field that has a significant impact on the world
around us.
2. History of Materials Development
Materials development is a field that involves the creation and refinement of
new materials through scientific and engineering processes. Materials
development has been a key part of human development throughout history,
from the discovery of fire and the creation of ceramics to the invention of
modern alloys and polymers. This lecture note will provide an overview of
the history of materials development, including key discoveries and
inventions that have shaped the field over time.
Ancient Times:
Early humans developed an understanding of materials through trial and
error. Cave paintings from around 30,000 years ago depict the use of
charcoal for drawing and painting, and 25,000-year-old woven textiles have
been found in archaeological sites. The discovery of fire around 500,000
years ago led to the development of ceramics, as early humans began to
create cooking pots and other vessels out of clay. Metalworking also
emerged during this time, with early humans using copper to create tools
and weapons.
Middle Ages:
During the Middle Ages, alchemists and metallurgists began to experiment
with different metals and metal alloys to create new materials with specific
properties. This led to the development of steel, which is made by adding
carbon to iron. Steel soon became an important material for weapons and
other applications. Glassmaking also advanced during this time, with the
creation of early stained-glass windows and mirrors.
Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, brought
about a major shift in materials development. Large-scale manufacturing
processes allowed for the mass production of new materials, including
textiles, ceramics, and iron and steel products. The discovery of new
materials, such as rubber and plastic, also had a significant impact on
industry and daily life.
Modern Era:
In the 20th century, the development of new materials continued at a rapid
pace. Important discoveries included the creation of synthetic materials like
nylon and polyester and the development of high-strength alloys for use in
aerospace and defense applications. The discovery and development of
semiconductors and other electronic materials also led to the creation of the
modern technology industry.
Materials development has played a critical role in human progress and
innovation since ancient times. From the early creation of ceramics and
metalworking to the invention of modern synthetic materials and alloys,
materials development continues to shape the world around us today.
Ongoing research and development in this field promise to bring about new
breakthroughs and innovations in the years ahead.
3. Classifications of Materials
The fundamental requirement of any design process is the selection of
materials. It is essential to understand the characteristics of the materials
we use in engineering, to leverage their properties and avoid their
limitations. Engineers classify materials based on their composition,
structure, and properties. In this lecture note, we will discuss the different
classifications of materials.
Materials can be classified into four main categories: metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites.
Metals:
Metals are materials characterized by their good conductivity, ductility,
toughness, and strength. They are further classified into ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. Ferrous metals are materials that contain iron, such as steel
and cast iron, and have excellent strength and durability. Non-ferrous
metals, such as copper, aluminum, and lead, have good conductivity and
anti-corrosion properties.
Ceramics:
Ceramics are materials known for their hardness, excellent strength, and
high-temperature resistance. They are further classified into traditional
ceramics, advanced ceramics, and glass. Traditional ceramics include clay
products, such as pottery, while advanced ceramics encompass materials
such as silicon carbide and alumina. Glass is a ceramic material bound by
non-crystalline structure.
Polymers:
Polymers are materials composed of large molecules that are formed by
monomers. They are light weight, have good insulation, and can be molded
into different shapes. They are further classified into thermoplastics,
thermosets, and elastomers. Thermoplastics can be remolded when heated,
while thermosets cannot. An example of elastomers is the rubber family,
which is widely used for tires.
Composites:
Composites are materials that are composed of two or more constituent
materials that are distinct. They are widely used in the aerospace industry,
where weight reduction and high strength are crucial. Composites can be
further classified into fiber-reinforced composites, particulate composites,
and sandwich composites.
In summary, materials are classified based on their composition, structure,
and properties into metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. Each of
these materials has unique properties and applications. Understanding these
materials' properties and classifications is essential in engineering design,
where material selection plays a vital role in product development, safety,
and performance.
4. Properties of Materials
Materials are substances that have a definite chemical composition and
physical properties that can be observed and measured. The properties of a
material determine its behavior and performance in use. Materials can be
classified into metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites based on their
physical and chemical properties. Properties of materials are dependent on
their composition, structure, and the environment they are exposed to.
Physical Properties
Physical properties are those that can be observed without changing the
chemical composition of the material. These include:

1. Density: It is the measure of the mass per unit volume of a material. It

determines the weight and size of a material.
2. Melting and boiling points: Melting point is the temperature at which a
material changes from solid to liquid state, while boiling point is the
temperature at which a material changes from liquid to gas state.
3. Thermal conductivity: It is the ability of a material to conduct heat.
Materials with high thermal conductivity are good conductors of heat,
while those with low conductivity are good insulators.
4. Electrical conductivity: It is the ability of a material to conduct
electricity. Materials that can conduct electricity are called conductors,
while those that cannot are called insulators.
5. Hardness: It is a measure of a material's resistance to deformation or
scratching.
6. Ductility: It is the ability of a material to be deformed without breaking.
7. Tensile strength: It is the maximum stress that a material can withstand
before it breaks under tension.

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are those that determine how a material reacts with
other substances. These include:

1. Corrosion resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist corrosion or

degradation.
2. Reactivity: It is the ability of a material to undergo chemical change in
the presence of other substances.
3. Combustibility: It is the ability of a material to burn in the presence of
oxygen.
4. Stability: It is the resistance of a material to chemical change over time.

Environmental Properties
Environmental properties are those that determine how a material reacts to
environmental conditions. These include:

1. Weathering: It is the natural degradation of a material over time due to

exposure to weather and environmental conditions.
 2. UV stability: It is the resistance of a material to UV radiation.
3. Thermal stability: It is the ability of a material to maintain its properties
when exposed to high temperatures.

Properties of materials are essential in determining the suitability and

performance of a material for different applications. It is essential to
understand the properties of materials to select the right material for a
particular application. Material properties can be modified by changing its
composition, structure, or processing. Therefore, knowledge of material
properties is a vital tool for engineers and scientists in selecting and
designing materials for various applications.
LECTURE 2
INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic structure refers to the composition and arrangement of atoms, which
are the smallest building blocks of matter. Atoms consist of three primary
particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are
concentrated in the nucleus of the atom, while electrons orbit around the
nucleus.
The atomic number of an atom is determined by the number of protons in
the nucleus. The number of neutrons can vary, resulting in different isotopes
of the same element. The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus defines the atomic mass of the atom.
Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit around the nucleus in
shells or energy levels. The electrons closer to the nucleus have lower energy
levels, while those farther away have higher energy levels. Electrons can
move from one energy level to another, absorbing or releasing energy in the
process. This movement of electrons is responsible for the chemical reactions
and bonding between atoms.
The behavior of electrons can be described by their spin, which can be either
clockwise or counterclockwise. Electrons with opposite spin can occupy the
same energy level, while those with the same spin cannot.
Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that describes the behavior of
particles at the atomic and subatomic level. It is used to explain the behavior
of electrons and their interaction with each other and with the nucleus. A
key concept in quantum mechanics is the uncertainty principle, which states
that the position and velocity of a particle cannot be determined with
precision at the same time.
In summary, atomic structure is the composition and arrangement of atoms,
which consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The behavior of electrons
is described by their energy levels and spin and is explained by quantum
mechanics. Understanding atomic structure is important in a variety of fields,
including chemistry, physics, and materials science.
2. Electronic Configuration of an Atom
Electronic configuration refers to how the electrons are distributed among
the various atomic orbitals. The electronic configuration of an atom is one of
the factors that determine its chemical and physical properties. The
electronic configuration of an atom can be represented by a notation system,
in which the symbol of the element is followed by a series of numbers and
letters that describe the distribution of electrons in that atom.
The electronic configuration of an atom starts with the lowest energy level
and proceeds to higher levels. The number of electrons in each energy level
is determined by the position of the element in the periodic table. The first
energy level can hold a maximum of two electrons, the second energy level
can hold a maximum of eight electrons, and the third energy level can hold
a maximum of eighteen electrons.
The notation system used to describe the electronic configuration of an atom
is based on the following principles:
Pauli's Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the
same set of four quantum numbers. This means that each electron must
have a unique set of quantum numbers.
Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill atomic orbitals in order of increasing energy
level.
Hund's Rule: Electrons will occupy orbitals singly, with spins parallel, before
they pair up and occupy the same orbital.
The electronic configuration of an atom can be represented using either the
orbital diagram or the electron configuration notation. The electronic
configuration of Fe (Iron) is presented below:

1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s²3d⁶
This notation represents the distribution of electrons in an atom, with two
electrons in the 1s orbital, two electrons in the 2s orbital, and six electrons
in the 2p orbital. The notation also shows that there are two electrons in the
3s orbital, six electrons in the 3p orbital, and two electrons in the 4s orbital.

In summary, the electronic configuration of an atom provides critical

information about the number and arrangement of electrons in that atom.
This information is essential for understanding the reactivity and physical
properties of elements, as well as for predicting the formation of chemical
bonds between atoms.

3. Ionization potential, Electron affinity and Electronegativity

Ionization Potential, Electron Affinity, and Electronegativity are some of the
important concepts in chemistry that help in understanding the chemical
behavior of elements and their compounds. In this lecture note, we will
discuss these concepts in detail.
Ionization Potential:
The ionization potential (IP) of an atom or molecule is the amount of energy
required to remove the outermost electron from that atom or molecule. It is
measured in units of energy per mole. The ionization potential of an element
is dependent on various factors such as the number of protons in the
nucleus, the electron configuration, and the shielding effect.
The ionization potential of an element increases from left to right across a
period of the periodic table. This is due to the increasing nuclear charge and
decreasing atomic radius. As we move down a group, the ionization potential
decreases due to the increasing atomic radius and shielding effect.

Electron Affinity:
The electron affinity (EA) of an atom or molecule is the amount of energy
released when an electron is added to that atom or molecule. It is measured
in units of energy per mole. The electron affinity of an element is dependent
on various factors such as the number of protons in the nucleus, the electron
configuration, and the shielding effect.

The electron affinity of an element increases from left to right across a period
of the periodic table. This is due to the increasing nuclear charge and
decreasing atomic radius. As we move down a group, the electron affinity
decreases due to the increasing atomic radius and shielding effect.

Electronegativity:
Electronegativity (EN) is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract
electrons towards itself in a covalent bond. The most electronegative
element is fluorine, with an electronegativity of 4.0 on the Pauling scale.
Electronegativity is dependent on various factors such as the number of
protons in the nucleus, the electron configuration, and the shielding effect.
The electronegativity of an element increases from left to right across a
period of the periodic table. This is due to the increasing nuclear charge and
decreasing atomic radius. As we move down a group, the electronegativity
decreases due to the increasing atomic radius and shielding effect.
In conclusion, ionization potential, electron affinity, and electronegativity are
important concepts in chemistry that help in understanding the chemical
behavior of elements and their compounds. These properties are dependent
on various factors such as the number of protons in the nucleus, the electron
configuration, and the shielding effect.

4. Bonding
Chemical bonding refers to the process through which two or more atoms
interact with each other, resulting in the formation of a molecule or a
compound. Atoms can bond through different mechanisms like ionic
bonding, covalent bonding, and metallic bonding. Each of these mechanisms
depends on the atoms' valence electrons' arrangement and their relative
electro-negativities.
Ionic bonding is a type of bonding that occurs when an atom with low
electronegativity donates its valence electrons to an atom with high
electronegativity. The donating atom becomes positively charged, while the
receiving atom becomes negatively charged, forming an ionic bond. The
bond's strength depends on the magnitude of the charge difference between
the two ions and the distance between them.
In covalent bonding, atoms share their valence electrons to form a stable
compound. Here, the strength of the bond depends on the electronegativity
of the atoms involved and the distance between their nuclei. Covalent bonds
can be polar or nonpolar. Polar bonds occur when atoms with different
electronegativities share their valence electrons unequally. Nonpolar bonds
occur when atoms with similar electronegativities share their valence
electrons equally.
Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms, where valence electrons are
delocalized, leading to a sea of electrons. This delocalization results in the
metal's ductility and high electrical conductivity. The metallic bond's strength
depends on the number of valence electrons and the magnitude of the metal
ion's positive charge.
In conclusion, chemical bonding is the foundation of all chemical compounds.
It determines the properties of compounds, such as their physical state,
reactivity, and stability. Understanding chemical bonding is essential in many
fields like medicine, material science, and industry.

5. Secondary Bonds
Secondary bonding refers to the intermolecular forces that hold together
molecules. Unlike primary bonding, which involves the transfer or sharing of
electrons between atoms, secondary bonding results from the attraction or
repulsion between molecules' charges or dipoles.
The types of secondary bonding forces include van der Waals forces, dipole-
dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding. Van der Waals forces occur when
temporary dipoles (induced by nearby dipoles) attract each other, resulting
in weak intermolecular bonding. These forces are the weakest type of
secondary bonding and exist between all molecules.

Dipole-dipole interactions occur between molecules with permanent dipoles,

where the positive end of one molecule electrostatically interacts with the
negative end of another molecule. This type of interaction is stronger than
van der Waals forces.
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction where a
hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom (e.g., O, N, or
F) in one molecule interacts with an electronegative atom in another
molecule. Strong hydrogen bonds are responsible for the unique properties
of water, such as its high boiling point.
The strength of secondary bonding forces is proportional to the surface area
of the molecules and the number of atoms or dipoles within them. Stronger
bonding leads to higher melting and boiling points and greater solubility in
polar solvents.
LECTURE 3
1. Crystalline Materials
Crystalline materials are solids that are arranged in a well-defined, repeating
pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules. They are classified based on their
structure, which affects their properties. In this lecture note, we will discuss
the types of crystalline materials, their structure, and properties.

Types of Crystalline Materials:

Ionic crystals: These crystals are made up of a combination of positively
and negatively charged ions held together by electrostatic forces. Examples
include NaCl (sodium chloride) and CaF2 (calcium fluoride).
Covalent crystals: These crystals are made up of atoms that share
electrons and are held together by strong covalent bonds. Examples include
diamonds and silicon carbide.
Metallic crystals: These crystals are made up of metal atoms held together
by metallic bonds, which are a combination of the attraction between the
positively charged metal ions and the mobile electrons. Examples include
copper and gold.
Molecular crystals: These crystals are made up of molecules held together
by intermolecular forces. Examples include water and sucrose.
2. Crystalline Structure
Crystalline materials are characterized by their crystal structure, which
describes the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a repeating
pattern. The crystal lattice is the three-dimensional arrangement of a crystal
structure. The unit cell is the basic repeating unit of a crystal lattice.
There are seven crystal systems, based on the shape and symmetry of the
unit cell:
Cubic: The unit cell is a cube, with equal dimensions along the x, y, and z
axes.
Tetragonal: The unit cell is a rectangular prism, with two equal dimensions
and one different dimension.
Orthorhombic: The unit cell is a rectangular prism, with all three
dimensions different.
Rhombohedral: The unit cell is a parallelogram, with angles of 60 and 120
degrees.
Monoclinic: The unit cell is a rectangular prism, with two different
dimensions and one angle that is not 90 degrees.
Triclinic: The unit cell is a parallelogram, with all three different dimensions
and angles that are not 90 degrees.
Hexagonal: The unit cell is a hexagonal prism, with one dimension different
than the others.

3. Properties of Crystalline Materials

Crystalline materials have several properties that make them useful in
industry and technology:
Hardness: The covalent and metallic crystals are very hard and have high
melting points due to the strong bonds holding the atoms together.
Optical properties: Some crystals have unique optical properties due to
the way light interacts with their structure. For example, diamonds are
known for their high refractive index and brilliance.
Electrical conductivity: Metals are good conductors of electricity due to
the mobility of their electrons.
Magnetic properties: Some metals and metal alloys exhibit
ferromagnetism, which makes them useful in electronic devices.
Thermal conductivity: Some crystals are good conductors of heat, making
them useful in electronic devices where heat dissipation is important.
In conclusion, crystalline materials play a significant role in various industries
due to their unique structure and properties. Understanding their structure
and properties is essential in designing and developing new materials for
various applications.

4. Unit Cell (Bravais Lattice)

Bravais Lattice is a mathematical concept in crystallography used to describe
the periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure. A crystal lattice is
a three-dimensional grid that extends indefinitely in all directions. It
represents the symmetry of the crystal structure, and the type of Bravais
lattice it belongs to is determined by its symmetry and unit cell dimensions.
This lecture note focuses on the various types of Bravais lattices and their
characteristics.
Types of Bravais Lattices:
There are 14 different types of Bravais lattices, which can be further
classified into seven crystal systems based on the symmetry of the unit cell.
The seven crystal systems are Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic,
Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal, and Rhombohedral.

Cubic lattice: The cubic lattice has the highest degree of symmetry, and
its unit cell has equal edge lengths and angles of 90 degrees, forming a cube.
The face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) structures are
two types of cubic lattices.
Tetragonal lattice: The tetragonal lattice has a rectangular prism unit cell,
with two equal edges and angles of 90 degrees. The simple tetragonal and
body-centered tetragonal structures are two types of tetragonal lattices.
Orthorhombic lattice: The orthorhombic lattice has a rectangular prism
unit cell with three different edge lengths and angles of 90 degrees. The
simple orthorhombic, base-centered orthorhombic, body-centered
orthorhombic, and face-centered orthorhombic structures are four types of
orthorhombic lattices.
Monoclinic lattice: The monoclinic lattice has a rectangular prism unit cell,
one edge different from the other two, and angles of 90 degrees and some
other angle other than 90 degrees. The simple monoclinic, base-centered
monoclinic structures are two types of monoclinic lattices.
Triclinic lattice: The triclinic lattice has a parallelogram-shaped unit cell
with all three sides of different lengths and the angles of the crystal are not
necessarily equal. The simple triclinic structure is a single type of triclinic
lattice.
Hexagonal lattice: The hexagonal lattice has a hexagonal prism unit cell
with two equal sides and length, and angles of 90 and 120 degrees. The
simple hexagonal structure is a single type of hexagonal lattice.
Rhombohedral lattice: The rhombohedral lattice has a parallelogram-
shaped unit cell with all sides equal, and angles equal to each other but not
equal to 90 degrees. The primitive rhombohedral and the base-centered
rhombohedral structures are two types of rhombohedral lattices.

5. Characteristics of Bravais Lattices:

The characteristics of Bravais Lattices are:
 Each lattice type has a set of symmetry elements, such as rotational
and reflection symmetries, based on the unit cell structure and its
orientation.
 The lattice points are arranged in a regular, repetitive pattern, and can
be described by a set of coordinates.
 The Bravais lattice gives information on the crystal properties, such as
electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties.
 The lattice type plays a crucial role in understanding the
crystallographic symmetry, which can be used to predict the behavior
of the crystal.
In conclusion, Bravais Lattices are an essential theoretical concept used to
describe crystal structures and their properties. The different lattice types
have unique characteristics that can be used to predict various material
properties, and their study is vital to numerous fields, including material
science, condensed matter physics, and crystallography.

6. Atomic packing factor (APF)

Atomic Packing Factor (APF) is a concept used in materials science to
determine how efficiently atoms or ions are packed within a crystal lattice.
It is calculated by dividing the volume of atoms in a unit cell by the total
volume of that unit cell. The APF is an important factor in determining the
density of a material and its physical properties. This lecture note will discuss
the calculation of APF, factors that affect it, and its significance in materials
science.
Calculation of APF:
The Atomic Packing Factor is calculated by dividing the volume of atoms in
a unit cell by the total volume of that unit cell. The volume of atoms in a unit
cell is determined by calculating the volume of one atom or ion and then
multiplying it by the total number of atoms or ions in the unit cell.

APF = Volume of Atom(s) in a Unit Cell / Volume of Unit Cell

The volume of a sphere can be calculated using the formula:

Volume of Sphere = (4/3) × π × r^3

Factors that affect APF:

Atomic radius: The size of the atom or ion affects how efficiently it can be
packed in a crystal lattice. The smaller the atomic radius, the higher the APF
will be.
Coordination number: The coordination number is the number of nearest
neighbors around an atom or ion. The higher the coordination number, the
higher the APF will be.
Crystal structure: The crystal structure determines how the atoms or ions
are arranged in the lattice. Different crystal structures have different APF
values.
Significance of APF:
Density: The APF of a crystal lattice is directly related to its density. The
higher the APF, the denser the material.
Mechanical properties: The packing efficiency of atoms or ions affects the
mechanical properties of a material. For example, materials with high APF
values tend to be stronger and more rigid.
Conductivity: The packing efficiency of atoms or ions can impact their
ability to conduct electricity or heat.
In conclusion, Atomic Packing Factor (APF) is a crucial concept in materials
science used to determine the efficiency of packing atoms or ions within a
crystal lattice. The calculation of APF, as well as the factors that affect it, can
provide insight into the physical properties of a material, including its density,
strength, and thermal and electrical conductivity. Understanding APF is
therefore essential to the design and development of new materials for
various applications.

7. Atomic packing factor of Simple Cubic Crystal structure

The Simple Cubic Crystal structure is the most basic form of crystal lattice.
It has a single atom at each corner of the cube for a total of eight atoms per
unit cell. The Simple Cubic Crystal structure is the least efficient packing of
atoms, having an Atomic Packing Factor (APF) of only 0.52. In this lecture
note, we will discuss how to calculate the APF of the Simple Cubic Crystal
structure and its significance.
Calculation of APF:
The APF for the Simple Cubic Crystal structure is calculated as follows:

APF = Volume of Atom(s) in a Unit Cell / Volume of Unit Cell

Each corner atom in a Simple Cubic Crystal structure is shared by eight unit
cells. Therefore, the fraction of the volume of each atom that contributes to
the unit cell is 1/8.

Volume of Atom (Vatom) = (4/3) × π × r^3

Volume of Unit Cell (Vcell) = a^3
where 'a' is the edge length of the cube, and 'r' is the radius of the atom.

Using the above formulas, we can calculate the APF of a Simple Cubic Crystal
structure as:
APF = (1/8 × (4/3) × π × r^3)/(a^3)

Simplifying the above equation, we get:

APF = π/6 ≈ 0.52

Significance of APF:
The APF is a crucial parameter that determines the packing efficiency of
atoms in a crystal lattice. In the case of the Simple Cubic Crystal structure,
the low APF of 0.52 means that only 52% of the total volume of the unit cell
is occupied by the atoms. The remaining 48% of the volume is empty space
or voids between the atoms. This low packing efficiency makes the Simple
Cubic Crystal structure less dense than other crystal structures, which in turn
affects its physical properties.
Moreover, the low APF in the Simple Cubic Crystal structure leads to its low
melting and boiling points and poor mechanical strength. Substances with a
Simple Cubic Crystal structure are typically brittle and soft, and they are
often used as insulators due to their relatively low conductivity.
In conclusion, the Simple Cubic Crystal structure is the most basic form of
crystal lattice, which has an Atomic Packing Factor (APF) of 0.52. The simple
cubic structure is the least efficient packing of atoms as it has a high
percentage of empty space or voids between atoms. The low packing
efficiency in the Simple Cubic Crystal structure results in its low density, low
melting and boiling points, and poor mechanical strength.

8. Atomic packing factor of a Body Centered Cubic Crystal

Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal structure is a type of crystal lattice that
consists of a cube with one atom at each corner and one atom in the center
of the cube. BCC crystal structure has a higher packing efficiency than the
Simple Cubic Crystal structure, with an Atomic Packing Factor (APF) of 0.68.
In this lecture note, we will discuss how to calculate the APF of the BCC
crystal structure and its significance.

Calculation of APF:
The APF for the BCC crystal structure is calculated as follows:

APF = Volume of Atom(s) in a Unit Cell / Volume of Unit Cell

Each corner atom in BCC crystal structure is shared by eight unit cells and
contributes 1/8 of its volume to the unit cell. The central atom is entirely
contained within the unit cell and contributes its full volume.
Volume of Atom (Vatom) = (4/3) × π × r^3
Volume of Unit Cell (Vcell) = a^3

where 'a' is the edge length of the cube, and 'r' is the radius of the atom.

Using the above formulas, we can calculate the APF of a BCC crystal structure
as:
APF = (1/8 × (4/3) × π × r^3 + 1 × (4/3) × π × r^3)/(a^3)
Simplifying the above equation, we get:

APF = π/(3√3) ≈ 0.68

Significance of APF:
The higher APF value of the BCC crystal structure compared to the Simple
Cubic Crystal structure indicates a higher packing efficiency. The BCC crystal
structure has a lower percentage of empty space or voids between the
atoms, making it denser than the Simple Cubic Crystal structure. This higher
packing efficiency results in a higher melting and boiling point, better
mechanical strength, and greater thermal and electrical conductivity.

Examples of materials with a BCC crystal structure include iron, tungsten,

and molybdenum. These materials are strong and ductile and are used in a
range of applications due to their excellent mechanical properties and
thermal and electrical conductivity.

In conclusion, the Body Centered Cubic (BCC) crystal structure has an Atomic
Packing Factor (APF) of 0.68, indicating a higher packing efficiency than the
Simple Cubic Crystal structure. The higher packing efficiency leads to a
higher density, greater mechanical strength, higher melting and boiling
points, and better thermal and electrical conductivity. The BCC crystal
structure is commonly seen in metals, and it is a crucial part of understanding
the unique properties and applications of these materials.

9. Atomic packing factor of Face Centered Cubic Crystal

The Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal structure is a type of crystal lattice
that consists of a cube with one atom at each corner and one atom at the
center of each face. FCC crystal structure has the highest packing efficiency
of all the crystal structures, with an Atomic Packing Factor (APF) of 0.74. In
this lecture note, we will discuss how to calculate the APF of the FCC crystal
structure and its significance.

Calculation of APF:
The APF for the FCC crystal structure is calculated as follows:

APF = Volume of Atom(s) in a Unit Cell / Volume of Unit Cell

Each corner atom in FCC crystal structure is shared by eight unit cells and
contributes 1/8 of its volume to the unit cell. Each face atom is shared by
two adjacent unit cells and contributes 1/2 of its volume to the unit cell.

Volume of Atom (Vatom) = (4/3) × π × r^3

Volume of Unit Cell (Vcell) = a^3
where 'a' is the edge length of the cube, and 'r' is the radius of the atom.

Using the above formulas, we can calculate the APF of an FCC crystal
structure as:
APF = (8 × 1/8 × (4/3) × π × r^3 + 6 × 1/2 × (4/3) × π × r^3)/(a^3)

Simplifying the above equation, we get:

APF = π/2 ≈ 0.74

Significance of APF:
The high APF value of the FCC crystal structure indicates a high packing
efficiency. The FCC crystal structure has the lowest amount of empty space
or voids between the atoms, making it the most dense of all crystal
structures. This higher packing efficiency results in a higher melting and
boiling point, better mechanical strength, and greater thermal and electrical
conductivity.
Examples of materials with an FCC crystal structure include metals like
copper, aluminum, and silver. These materials are used in a range of
applications due to their excellent mechanical properties and thermal and
electrical conductivity.
In conclusion, the Face Centered Cubic (FCC) crystal structure has an Atomic
Packing Factor (APF) of 0.74, indicating the highest packing efficiency of all
crystal structures. The high packing efficiency leads to higher density,
greater mechanical strength, higher melting and boiling points, and better
thermal and electrical conductivity. The FCC crystal structure is commonly
seen in metals and is an essential part of understanding the unique
properties and applications of these materials.
LECTURE 3
METAL AND CERAMIC STRUCTURE
POINT COORDINATES
Point coordinates are used to describe the positions of atoms or ions within
the crystal lattice of metals and ceramics. The coordinates are represented
using a three-dimensional system, typically using Cartesian coordinates (x,
y, z). In this system, each atom or ion's position is defined relative to a
reference point within the unit cell of the crystal lattice.

1. Metals:
In metals, the crystal structure is commonly described using the Body
Centered Cubic (BCC), Face Centered Cubic (FCC), and Hexagonal Close-
Packed (HCP) systems. The point coordinates for these structures are as
follows:
a. Body Centered Cubic (BCC):
The BCC crystal structure has one atom at each corner of the cube and an
additional atom at the center of the cube. The point coordinates for BCC
metals are represented as (0, 0, 0) for the corner atoms and (½, ½, ½) for
the center atom.

b. Face Centered Cubic (FCC):

The FCC crystal structure has one atom at each corner of the cube and one
atom at the center of each face. The point coordinates for FCC metals are
represented as (0, 0, 0) for the corner atoms and (½, ½, 0), (0, ½, ½), and
(½, 0, ½) for the face-centered atoms.

c. Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP):

The HCP crystal structure has one atom at each corner of the hexagonal
prism and three additional atoms within the prism. The point coordinates for
HCP metals are more complex and depend on the specific lattice parameters.
Common coordinates include (0, 0, 0), (⅓, ⅔, ½), and (⅔, ⅓, ½).

2. Ceramics:
Ceramics typically have more complex crystal structures compared to metals.
Common ceramic crystal structures include Cubic (Simple Cubic and Body
Centered Cubic), Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Rhombohedral, Monoclinic, and
Triclinic. The point coordinates for ceramics are as follows:
a. Simple Cubic:
The Simple Cubic crystal structure has one atom at each corner of the cube.
The point coordinates for ceramics with a Simple Cubic structure are
represented as (0, 0, 0).
b. Body Centered Cubic (BCC):
The point coordinates for ceramics with a BCC structure have already been
discussed under metals.
c. Tetragonal:
The Tetragonal crystal structure has a rectangular prism shape. The point
coordinates depend on the specific lattice parameters.
d. Orthorhombic:
The Orthorhombic crystal structure also has a rectangular prism shape. The
point coordinates depend on the specific lattice parameters.
e. Rhombohedral:
The Rhombohedral crystal structure has a parallelogram shape. The point
coordinates depend on the specific lattice parameters.
f. Monoclinic:
The Monoclinic crystal structure has a rectangular prism shape with one
angle that is not 90 degrees. The point coordinates depend on the specific
lattice parameters.
g. Triclinic:
The Triclinic crystal structure has a parallelogram shape with all angles not
equal to 90 degrees. The point coordinates depend on the specific lattice
parameters.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS
Crystallographic directions are specific lines or vectors within a crystal lattice
that describe the orientation and arrangement of atoms or ions in a
crystalline material. These directions are essential in crystallography and
materials science for understanding the crystal structure's geometric
properties and predicting material behavior.
In a crystal lattice, the atoms or ions are arranged in a three-dimensional
repeating pattern, and crystallographic directions are used to specify the
path or orientation of a line passing through the lattice points. These
directions are typically described using Miller indices, which are a set of three
integers (h, k, l) representing the intercepts of the direction with the
crystallographic axes.

KEY POINTS ABOUT CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS:

 Miller Indices: Miller indices are used to represent crystallographic
directions. They are obtained by taking the reciprocals of the intercepts
made by the direction with the crystallographic axes (a, b, c). The
reciprocals are then multiplied by a common factor to obtain integers.
The Miller indices are written within square brackets [hkl], and the
direction is represented as <hkl>.

 Positive and Negative Directions: A positive direction (<hkl>)

corresponds to a line passing through lattice points in the same
 direction as the crystallographic axes, while a negative direction (<-h-
k-l>) represents a line parallel to the axes but in the opposite direction.
 Parallel Directions: Directions that are parallel to each other have the
same Miller indices, regardless of their length. For example, <100>
and <010> are parallel directions in a cubic crystal.
 Directions in Different Crystal Systems: The arrangement and
symmetry of atoms in a crystal lattice vary with the crystal system
(cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, etc.). As a result, the same Miller
indices may represent different directions in different crystal systems.
 Crystallographic Planes: Crystallographic directions are related to
crystallographic planes, which are two-dimensional surfaces defined by
rows of lattice points. Crystallographic planes are represented by their
Miller indices [hkl], which are the reciprocals of the intercepts with
the crystallographic axes.
 Importance in Material Behavior: Crystallographic directions influence
various material properties, such as mechanical behavior, thermal
expansion, and anisotropy. Materials may exhibit different properties
along different crystallographic directions due to the anisotropic nature
of crystal structures.
 Use in Material Processing: Knowledge of crystallographic directions is
crucial in materials processing, such as cutting, polishing, and
mechanical deformation. Engineers and scientists use this information
to optimize material properties and performance.

FAMILY AND SYMMETRY

Family and symmetry are important concepts in crystallography and
materials science that describe the repeating patterns and arrangement of
atoms in a crystal lattice.
Family in Crystallography:
In crystallography, the term "family" refers to a group of crystallographic
planes or directions that have similar atomic arrangements and lattice
spacing. Crystallographic planes belong to the same family if they have the
same Miller indices, while crystallographic directions belong to the same
family if they have the same direction vector. For example, in a cubic crystal
system, the {100}, {010}, and {001} planes all belong to the same family
since they are perpendicular to each other and have the same Miller indices
(hkl = 100). Similarly, the <100>, <010>, and <001> directions belong to
the same family as they have the same direction vector. The concept of
family is essential in understanding the symmetry and properties of crystal
structures.
Symmetry in Crystallography:
Symmetry is a fundamental property of crystal lattices, describing the way
in which the arrangement of atoms or ions repeats itself throughout the
crystal. Crystals are characterized by their symmetry elements, which are
specific operations that leave the crystal's appearance unchanged. The most
common symmetry elements in crystals include:
 Rotation axes: These are imaginary lines around which the crystal
can be rotated by a certain angle (e.g., 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold rotation
axes).
 Mirror planes: These are planes that divide the crystal into two
identical halves when reflected across the plane.
 Center of inversion: This is a point in the crystal where all points are
equidistant from the center, and the crystal is identical to its mirror
image with respect to this point.
 Glide planes: These are planes that combine a reflection and a
translation operation, resulting in a "glide" or "slip" symmetry.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES
Crystallographic planes in different crystal structures exhibit unique
orientations and characteristics. Let's explore the crystallographic planes in
Face Centered Cubic (FCC) and some other common crystal structures:
1. Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure:
In the FCC crystal structure, each unit cell has atoms at all eight corners and
one atom at the center of each face of the cube. The atomic arrangement
results in densely packed planes. Some of the important crystallographic
planes in the FCC structure are:
{100} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at the unit cell's
center. The Miller indices for this plane are (100), and it represents a simple
square.
{110} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at (1/2, 1/2, 0),
(1/2, 0, 1/2), and (0, 1/2, 1/2), respectively. The Miller indices for this
plane are (110), and it represents a diamond-shaped plane.
{111} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at (1/2, 1/2, 1/2).
The Miller indices for this plane are (111), and it represents an equilateral
triangle.

2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure:

In the BCC crystal structure, each unit cell has atoms at all eight corners of
the cube and one atom at the center of the cube. The packing efficiency is
lower than FCC, resulting in slightly less densely packed planes. Some of the
important crystallographic planes in the BCC structure are:
{100} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at the unit cell's
center. The Miller indices for this plane are (100), similar to the FCC
structure.
{110} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at (1/2, 1/2, 0),
(1/2, 0, 1/2), and (0, 1/2, 1/2), respectively. The Miller indices for this
plane are (110), similar to the FCC structure.
{111} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at (1/2, 1/2, 1/2),
similar to the FCC structure. The Miller indices for this plane are (111), and
it represents an equilateral triangle.
3. Simple Cubic Crystal Structure:
In the Simple Cubic crystal structure, each unit cell has atoms at all eight
corners of the cube. This results in the lowest packing efficiency among the
three common crystal structures. Some of the important crystallographic
planes in the Simple Cubic structure are:
{100} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at the unit cell's
center. The Miller indices for this plane are (100), and it represents a simple
square, similar to the FCC and BCC structures.
{110} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at (1/2, 1/2, 0),
(1/2, 0, 1/2), and (0, 1/2, 1/2), respectively. The Miller indices for this
plane are (110), similar to the FCC and BCC structures.
{111} Plane: This plane intersects the x, y, and z axes at (1/2, 1/2, 1/2),
similar to the FCC and BCC structures. The Miller indices for this plane are
(111), and it represents an equilateral triangle.
Important crystallographic planes in hexagonal crystals are denoted using
Miller-Bravais indices, which consist of three integers (hkl) representing the
plane's orientation with respect to the crystal axes. Let's explore some of the
key crystallographic planes in hexagonal crystals:

1. Basal Plane {0001}:

The basal plane is the hexagonal plane itself and is represented by the Miller-
Bravais indices {0001}. It is parallel to the hexagonal prism's base and
intersects the c-axis perpendicularly. The basal plane has the highest density
of atoms and is often the most densely packed plane in hexagonal crystals.
2. Prismatic Plane {10-10}:
The prismatic plane is parallel to the edges of the hexagonal prism and is
represented by the Miller-Bravais indices {10-10}. This plane intersects the
a1, a2, and c-axes at different fractional positions, resulting in a
parallelogram shape.
3. Pyramidal Plane {10-11}:
The pyramidal plane is represented by the Miller-Bravais indices {10-11}. It
intersects the a1, a2, and c-axes at different fractional positions, forming a
rhombus shape.
4. Basal Slip Plane {11-20}:
The basal slip plane is represented by the Miller-Bravais indices {11-20}. It
is important in hexagonal crystals as it is a common plane for dislocation
motion, affecting the material's mechanical properties.
5. Rhombohedral Plane {11-22}:
The rhombohedral plane is represented by the Miller-Bravais indices {11-
22}. It intersects the a1, a2, and c-axes at different fractional positions,
forming a rhombus shape.

DENSITIES
Densities in the context of crystallography refer to specific measures of how
atoms or ions are arranged within a crystal lattice. Three important density
concepts in crystallography are crystal density, linear density, and planar
density.

1. Crystal Density:
Crystal density, also known as atomic density or volumetric density, is a
measure of how closely packed the atoms or ions are within a crystal lattice.
It is expressed as the mass of atoms or ions per unit volume of the crystal.
Crystal density is typically measured in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³)
or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
The crystal density is calculated using the formula:

Crystal Density (ρ) = Mass of Atoms or Ions / Volume of Crystal

Crystal density provides valuable information about the overall compactness
and mass distribution within the crystal lattice. Different crystal structures,
such as Simple Cubic (SC), Body-Centered Cubic (BCC), Face-Centered Cubic
(FCC), and Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP), result in different crystal
densities due to variations in the packing efficiency of atoms or ions.

2. Linear Density:
Linear density, also known as linear atomic density, refers to the number of
atoms or ions per unit length of a specific crystallographic direction within
the crystal lattice. It gives insight into how many atoms are aligned along a
particular crystallographic direction. Linear density is commonly expressed
in atoms per unit length, such as atoms per angstrom (atoms/Å) or atoms
per nanometer (atoms/nm).
The linear density along a specific crystallographic direction is calculated
using the formula:

Linear Density = Number of Atoms or Ions along the Direction /

Length of the Direction
Linear density is essential for understanding the arrangement of atoms or
ions within the crystal and how it affects the material's properties along
specific directions.

3. Planar Density:
Planar density, also known as planar atomic density, refers to the number of
atoms or ions per unit area of a specific crystallographic plane within the
crystal lattice. It provides information about how many atoms or ions are
arranged in a particular plane. Planar density is typically expressed in atoms
per square centimeter (atoms/cm²) or atoms per square angstrom
(atoms/Ų).
The planar density on a specific crystallographic plane is calculated using the
formula:
Planar Density = Number of Atoms or Ions in the Plane / Area of
the Plane

Planar density is crucial for understanding the atomic arrangement and

surface properties of crystals. It is particularly important in materials science,
where surface reactivity and properties play a significant role in applications
such as catalysis and thin-film coatings.