CHAPTER

3
FUNCTIONS, LIMITS,
AND SERIES

In physics we will often describe physical processes or quantities

in terms of mathematical functions. Understanding the behavior of
functions is therefore an important part of understanding the phys-
ics. In this chapter we will look at curve sketching, at the symmetry
of functions, at approximations to functions and, importantly, at
the asymptotic behavior of a function as some variable tends to a
limit. We will also introduce the ideas of convergent and divergent
series.

3.1. CURVE SKETCHING: QUADRATICS

It is often very useful to visualize a function to get an overview of

its behavior. This is particularly the case when a function f(x) is used
to describe a physical quantity. One simple way to visualize f(x) is to
sketch a graph of f(x) against x.
To sketch a quadratic function we need to find its maximum or
minimum, where it crosses the axes and how it goes to infinity.
78 • Mathematical Physics

Example 3.1 Find the stationary point and zeros of the

quadratic y = x2 – 4x + 3 and sketch its graph.
We could find the stationary points by setting dy/dx = 0, and
find the zeros from the formula x =  − b ± ( b2 − 4 ac )  / 2 a .
 
Alternatively we can use the following procedure which begins
by “completing the square”:

y = x2 – 4x + 3 = (x – 2)2 – 1.
This has its smallest value (of −1) at x = 2 (since the smallest
value of the squared term is 0). So x = 2 gives a minimum. Next
determine the axis crossings – first the x-axis:

y
4
3

(x − 2)2 − 1 = 0,
2

⇒ (x − 2)2 = 1,
1

⇒ x − 2 = ±1.
x
1 2 3 4
−1

Hence x = 3 or 1. The graph crosses the y axis when x = 0,

which gives y = 3. Finally, y → +∞ (where “→” means “tends
to”) for both large positive and large negative values of x. The
graph is therefore as shown in the figure.

Exercise 3.1 By following the indicated procedure, sketch the

graphs of the following, labeling the maximum or minimum and
axes crossings.
(i) y = −4x2 + 12x − 9
(ii) y = 4x2 − 12x + 10
 Functions, Limits, and Series • 79

3.2. CURVE SKETCHING: GENERAL

POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

y = anxn + an−1xn−1 + · · · + a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0,

where an, an−1, . . ., a1, a0 are constant coefficients. An nth degree

polynomial has at most n roots (values of x where y = 0). Finding
these can be difficult for n = 3, 4, and there is no general method for
finding the roots of higher degree polynomials.
Nevertheless, in sketching graphs of any function we usually
look for:
•• behavior at + ∞ and −∞ (this gives us the asymptotes),
•• crossing of axes (y = 0, x = 0),
•• maxima and minima (dy/dx = 0; d2y/dx2 < 0 or > 0),
•• points of inflection (d2y/dx2 = 0).

Example 3.2 Sketch the graph of the cubic polynomial

y = 4x3 − 3x.
First, the asymptotes: when |x| is large 4x3 >> 3x so we can
neglect the 3x in comparison with 4x3. Then, for large |x|, y
varies like 4x3. This means as x → +∞ , y also tends to +∞, and
as x → −∞ , y also tends to − ∞ .
Now for the x-axis crossing. We see y = 0 when x = 0 or
x= ± 3/2 .
Next to find the maxima and minima:

dy/dx = 12x2 − 3 = 0
80 • Mathematical Physics

when x = ±1/2.
To join smoothly onto the curve for x → ±∞, x = −1/2 must
give a maximum and x = 1/2 a minimum. This can also be
determined from the sign of d2y/dx2.
Also,

d2y/dx2 = 24x = 0

when x = 0, hence when y = 0. So the origin is a point of

inflection. Approaching the origin from x < 0 the curve is
getting steeper; beyond the origin it becomes less steep, i.e. the
slope gets less negative.

y
3
2
1

x
−1.5 −0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
−1
−2
−3

Exercise 3.2 Sketch the graphs of the cubic polynomials

(i) y = x3 − 3x2,
(ii) y = x3 − 3x2 + 2.

Note that a quadratic has at most two zeros, while a cubic has at
most three and at least one zero. In general, a polynomial of degree
n (i.e. having highest order term xn) has at most n zeros; if n is odd
 Functions, Limits, and Series • 81

it has at least one zero (because a polynomial of odd degree must

range between −∞ and +∞ and hence must cross zero).

3.3. CURVE SKETCHING: RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A rational function is a polynomial divided by another polyno-

mial, i.e. a fraction with polynomials as numerator and denominator.
See Section A.6.

Example 3.3 Sketch the graph of y = 1/x.

First, the behavior at infinity. For large |x|, y tends to zero. For
small positive x, y → + ∞ , and for small negative x, y → −∞.
Also, y ≠ 0 for any finite x.
Next, stationary points.

dy/dx = −1/x2 ≠ 0,
for any finite x. And
d2y/dx2 = 2/x3 ≠ 0,

meaning there are no points of inflection. So the graph is as

shown below.
y
2
1

x
−1 1 2 3
−1
82 • Mathematical Physics

Example 3.4 Sketch the graph of y = x/(x – 2).

Asymptotes: since we want to look at large x, write y in a form
that involves 1/x for large x (which we can then neglect).

−1
1  2
=
y = 1 − 
1−2 / x  x
2 4
y =1 + + 2 +...
x x

(using the binomial series; see section 2.1). So y → 1 as |x| → ∞.

If x is near to 2 then |y| will get very large. But the sign of y
depends on whether x > 2 or < 2. For x – 2 small and positive,
y → + ∞; for x – 2 small and negative, y → –∞.
We can see that y = 0 for x = 0, and dy/dx ≠ 0 for any finite x. We
can also find that d2y/dx2 ≠ 0. So the graph is as shown below.

y
5
1

x
−1 2 3 4 5
−5

Exercise 3.3 Sketch the graphs of

(i) y = (x – 3)–1,
(ii) y = x + (2/x).
 3.4 Graphing with y' and y" 209

31. g(x) = x 2 - 4x + 4, 1 S x < oo 42. h(8)=5sm2,

. e osesn, at8=0and8=n
32. g(x) = -x 2 - 6x - 9, -4 S x < oo
33. f(t) = 12t - t3, -3 st< 00
43. Sketch the graph of a differentiable function y = f (x) through
the point (1, 1) if f'(l) = 0 and
34. f (t) =t 3
- 3t 2
, -00 < t s 3
a) f' (x) > 0 for x < 1 and f' (x) < 0 for x > 1;
x3
35. h(x) =3 - 2x 2 + 4x, 0 S x < oo b) f'(x) < 0 for x < 1 and j'(x) > 0 for x > l;
c) f'(x) > 0 for xi= l;
36. k(x) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1, -oo < x S 0 d) f'(x) < 0 for xi= I.
44. Sketch the graph of a differentiable function y = f (x) that has
Graphing Calculator or Computer Grapher a) a local minimum at (1, 1) and a local maximum at (3, 3);
In Exercises 37-40: b) a local maximum at (1, 1) and a local minimum at (3, 3);
a) Find the local extrema of each function on the given interval, c) local maxima at (1, 1) and (3, 3);
and say where they are assumed. d) local minima at (1, 1) and (3, 3).
II b) GRAPH ER Graph the function and its derivative together. Com- 45. Sketch the graph of a continuous function y = g(x) such that
ment on the behavior off in relation to the signs and values a) g(2)=2, 0<g'<lforx<2,g'(x)-+1-asx-+2-,
off'. -1 < g' < 0 for x > 2, and g'(x)--+ -1+ as x--+ 2+;
x . x b) g(2) = 2, g' < 0 for x < 2, g'(x)--+ -oo as x--+ 2-,
37. f(x)=--2sm-, O<x<2n
2 2 - - g' > 0 for x > 2, and g'(x)--+ oo as x--+ 2+.
38. f(x) = -2cosx - cos 2 x, -n S x Sn 46. Sketch the graph of a continuous function y = h(x) such that
39. f (x) = csc x - 2cotx, 0 < x < n
2
a) h(O) = 0, -2 S h(x) S 2 for all x, h'(x)--+ oo as x--+ o-,
-n n and h'(x) --+ -00 as x --+ o+;
40. f (x) = sec 2
x - 2 tan x, - <X<- b) h(O) = 0, -2 S h(x) S 0 for all x, h'(x)--+ oo as x--+ o-,
2 2
and h'(x)--+ -00 as x--+ o+.
Theory and Examples 47. As x moves from left to right through the point c = 2, is the graph
Show that the functions in Exercises 41 and 42 have local extreme of f (x) = x 3 - 3x + 2 rising, or is it falling? Give reasons for
values at the given values of e, and say which kind of local extreme your answer.
the function has. 48. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = ax 2 +bx+ c,
e a i= 0, is increasing and decreasing. Describe the reasoning be-
41. h(8)=3cos2, oses2n, at8=0and8=2n
hind your answer.

I Graphing with Y' and Y"

In Section 3.1, we saw the role played by the first derivative in locating a function's
extreme values. A function can have extreme values only at the endpoints of its
domain and at its critical points. We also saw that critical points do not necessarily
yield extreme values. In Section 3.2, we saw that almost all the information about
a differentiable function is contained in its derivative. To recover the function
completely, the only additional information we need is the value of the function at
any one single point. If a function's derivative is 2x and the graph passes through
the origin, the function must be x 2 • If a function's derivative is 2x and the graph
passes through the point (0, 4), the function must be x 2 + 4.
In Section 3.3, we extended our ability to recover information from a function's
first derivative by showing how to use it to tell exactly what happens at a critical
point. We can tell whether there really is an extreme value there or whether the
graph just continues to rise or fall.
In the present section, we show how to determine the way the graph of a
210 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

function y = f (x) bends or turns. We know that the information must be contained
in y', but how do we find it? The answer, for functions that are twice differentiable
except perhaps at isolated points, is to differentiate y'. Together y' and y" tell us
the shape of the function's graph. We will see in Chapter 4 how this enables us to
sketch solutions of differential equations and initial value problems.

Concavity
As you can see in Fig. 3.27, the curve y = x 3 rises as x increases, but the portions
defined on the intervals (-oo, 0) and (0, oo) tum in different ways. As we come
in from the left toward the origin along the curve, the curve turns to our right and
falls below its tangents. As we leave the origin, the curve turns to our left and rises
above its tangents.
To µut it another wa'j, the sloµes of the tangents decrease as the curve aµ-
proaches the origin from the left and increase as the curve moves from the origin
into the first quadrant.

Definition
The graph of a differentiable function y = f(x) is concave up on an in-
terval where y' is increasing and concave down on aJ1 interval where y' is
decreasing.

If y = f (x) has a second derivative, we can apply Corollary 3 of the Mean Value
Theorem to conclude that y' increases if y" > 0 and decreases if y" < 0.

The Second Derivative Test for Concavity

Let y = f (x) be twice differentiable on an interval /.
1. If y" > 0 on /, the graph off over I is concave up.
2. If y" < 0 on /, the graph off over I is concave down.

EXAMPLE 1
a) The curve y = x 3 (Fig. 3.27) is concave down on ( -oo, 0) where y" = 6x < 0
and concave up on (0, oo) where y" = 6x > 0.
y

y =x3 ,0,,
:y-
(,!/ / /

y/
y' increases

3.27 The graph of f(x) = x 3 is concave

down on {-oo, 0) and concave up on
(0, oo).
 3.4 Graphing with y' and y" 211

b) The parabola y = x 2 (Fig. 3.28) is concave up on every interval because y" =

2 > 0.
y

3.28 The graph of f(x) = x 2 on any interval is concave up. D

s = 2 +cost
3 Points of Inflection
To study the motion of a body moving along a line, we often graph the body's
position as a function of time. One reason for doing so is to reveal where the body's
2 acceleration, given by the second derivative, changes sign. On the graph, these are
the points where the concavity changes.

Definition
A point where the graph of a function has a tangent line and where the
concavity changes is called a point of inflection.
0 Tr 3Tr
2 2

3.29 The motion in Example 2.

Thus a point of inflection on a curve is a point where y" is positive on one side
and negative on the other. At such a point, y" is either zero (because derivatives
have the intermediate value property) or undefined.
y

On the graph of a twice-differentiable function, y" = 0 at a point of inflec-

Cost function y = c(x) tion.

EXAMPLE 2 Simple harmonic motion

The graph of s = 2 +cost, t '.'.: 0 (Fig. 3.29), changes concavity at t = n /2, 3n /2,
... , where the acceleration s" = - cos t is zero. D
0

EXAMPLE 3 Marginal cost

3.30 The point of inflection on a typical
cost curve separates the interval of Inflection points have applications in some areas of economics. Suppose that y =
decreasing marginal cost from the interval
c (x) is the total cost of producing x units of something (Fig. 3.30). The point of
of increasing marginal cost. This is the
point where the marginal cost is smallest inflection at P is then the point at which the marginal cost (the approximate cost
(Example 3). of producing one more unit) changes from decreasing to increasing. D
212 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

EXAMPLE4 An inflection point where y" does not exist

The curve y = x 113 has a point of inflection at x = 0 (Fig. 3.31), but y" does not
exist there.
2
y " -- -d ( 1 -2/3) -- --x
x 1/3) -- -d ( -x 2 -5/3
dx2 dx 3 9 D

EXAMPLE 5 No inflection where y"= 0

The curve y = x 4 has no inflection point at x = 0 (Fig. 3.32). Even though y" =
3.31 A point where y" fails to exist can 12x 2 is zero there, it does not change sign.
be a point of inflection.

-1 0

3.32 The graph of y = x4 has no inflection point at the origin, even

though y'' = 0 there. 0

-•a- Technology Graphing a Function with Its Derivatives When we graph a

function y = f (x), it may be difficult to identify the inflection points exactly by
zooming in. Try it on the curve y = 2cosx - ,,/ix, -TC:=: x :=: 3rr /2. Adding
the graph of J' to the display can help to identify inflection points more closely,
but the strongest visual evidence comes from graphing f and f" together.
The graph of y = 2 cos x --12 x and its It is interesting to watch all three functions, f, f', and f", being graphed
first derivative. simultaneously.

The Second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values

Instead of examining y' for sign changes at a critical point, we can sometimes use
the following test to determine the presence of a local extremum.

The Second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values

If J'(c) = 0 and J"(c) < 0, thenf has a local maximum at x = c.
y' = O,y"< 0 y' = O,y"> 0
~local max ~local min If J'(c) = 0 and f"(c) > 0, thenf has a local minimum at x = c.
 3.4 Graphing with y' and y" 213

Notice that the test requires us to know y" only at c itself, and not in an interval
about c. This makes the test easy to apply. That's the good news. The bad news is
that the test is inconclusive if y" = 0 or if y" does not exist. When this happens,
use the first derivative test for local extreme values.

Graphing with y' and y"

We now apply what we have learned to sketch the graphs of functions.

Testing the critical points in EXAMPLE6 Graph the function

Example 6
y = x
4
- 4x 3 + 10.
As a quick test to see if any of the critical
points are local extreme values, we could
Solution
try the second derivative test.
At x = 3, y" > 0: Step 1: Find y' and y".
We now know that this point is y = x4 - 4x
3
+ 10
definitely a local minimum.
Critical points: x = 0,
y' = 4x 3 - 12x 2 = 4x 2 (x - 3) x=3
At x = 0, y" = 0:
Test fails, and so we will need to check Possible inflection
y" = I2x 2 - 24x = I2x(x - 2) points: x = 0, x = 2
the signs of y' to know whether this
point gives a local extreme value.
Step 2: Rise and fall. Sketch the sign pattern for y' and use it to describe the
behavior of y.

4x 2 : + + +
(x - 3): +
4x 2(x - 3): +
x

~ 9I ~3/
I
I I
no local
extreme min

Step 3: Concavity. Sketch the sign pattern for y" and use it to describe the way
the graph bends.

12x: + +
(x-2): +
12x(x - 2): + +
x
cone 0 cone 2 cone
up down : up

inf! inf!
point point
214 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

Step 4: Summary and general shape. Summarize the information from steps 2 and
3. Show the shape over each interval. Then combine the shapes to show the curve's
general form.

cone cone cone cone

up down up up

inf!
l~ ~
inf! local
_)
point point min

Step 5: Specific points and curve. Plot the curve's intercepts (if convenient) and the
points where y' and y" are zero. Indicate any local extreme values and inflection
points. Use the general shape in step 4 as a guide to sketch the curve. (Plot additional
points as needed.)

y
y = x4 - 4x 3 + IO
20

x
-1 0
-5

-10

-15
(3, -17)
-20
local
minimum 0

The steps in Example 6 give a general procedure for graphing by hand.

Strategy for Graphing y = f(x)

1. Find y' and y".
2. Find the rise and fall of the curve.
3. Determine the concavity of the curve.
4. Make a summary and show the curve's general shape.
5. Plot specific points and sketch the curve.

EXAMPLE 7 Graph y = x5f3 - 5x2f3.

 3.4 Graphing with y' and y" 215

Solution
Step 1: Find y' and y".
The x-intercepts
y = x5f3 _ Sx2f3 = x2f3 (x _ 5) are at x = 0 and
x = 5.
5 10 5
y' = -x2f3 _ -x-113 = -x-'13(x _ 2) Critical poinb:
3 3 3 x = 0, x = 2
Possible inflection
10 10 10
y" = -x-If3 + -x-4/3 = -x-4f3(x + l) points: x = 0,
9 9 9 x = -1

Step 2: Rise and fall.

2-x-113.
3 . + +
(x-2): +
y' = ~x- \x -
11
2): + +

Cusps
The graph of a continuous function y = f (x) /f"~ I
7 /
I
I I
has a cusp at a point x = c if the concavity is y' do~sn't) (y' = 0)
( exist
the same on both sides of c and either I
1
I
local max local min
1. lim f'(x) = oo and Jim f'(x) = -oo
x-+c- x--+c+
Step 3: Concavity.
y
IO x-413.
9 . + + +
y =f(x)
(x +I): + +
y" = ~O x- 413 (x + I): + +
Jim f'(x) = oo
x~c-
-I 0
cone 1 cone cone
down I up up
I
inf! point
0 c
or From the sign pattern for y", we see that there is an inflection point at x = -1, but
not at x = 0. However, knowing that
2. Jim f'(x) = -oo and lim f'(x) = oo.
x-+c- x--+c+
1. the function y = x 513 - 5x 213 is continuous,
2. y' -+ 00 as x -+ o- and y' -+ -oo as x -+ o+ (see the formula for y' in step
2), and
3. the concavity does not change at x = 0 (step 3) tells us that the graph has a
cusp at x = 0.
Step 4: Summary. General shape.

/ / ~ /
cone cone cone cone
down up up up
x
0 c -I 0 2

A cusp can be either a local maximum (I) or ( i __)

I
!
I
~ i __)
I
a local minimum (2). inf! cusp local
point local max min
216 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

y Step 5: Specific points and curve. See the figure to the left.
y = x513 - 5x213 = x2'3cx - 5)
D
2

local Learning About Functions from Derivatives

max
Pause for a moment to see how remarkable the conclusions in Examples 6 and 7
-1
really are. In each case, we have been able to recover almost everything we need
to know about a differentiable function y = f (x) by examining y'. We can find
where the graph rises and falls and where the local extremes are assumed. We can
in fl differentiate y' to learn how the graph bends as it passes over the intervals of rise
and fall. We can determine the shape of the function's graph. The only information
we cannot get from the derivative is how to place the graph in the .xy-plane. That
requires evaluating the formula for fat various points. Or so it seems. But as we
saw in Section 3.2, even that is nearly superfluous. All we really need, in addition
to y', is the value off at a single point.

What Derivatives Tell Us About Graphs

a) b) c)

~ 7 ~
Differentiable => y' > 0 => rises from y' < 0 => falls from
smooth, connected; left to right; left to right;
may rise and fall may be wavy may be wavy

d) e) f)

/ ~ ( \ ~nge~
or or

y" > 0 =>concave up y" < 0 =>concave down =>Inflection point (ifj
throughout; no waves; throughout; no waves; is twice differentiable)
may rise or fall may rise or fall

g) h) i)

/+\ or
v 11\
y' =0 and y" < 0
at a point
v
y' = 0 and y" > 0
at a point

y' changes sign =>

local maximum or
local minimum => Local maximum => Local minimum
 Exercises 3.4 217

Exercises 3.4
Analyzing Graphed Functions 7. 8.
Identify the inflection points and local maxima and minima of the
functions graphed in Exercises 1-8. Identify the intervals on which
y = sinlxl, -27T :s; x
y
:s; 27T
y = 2cosx - ..f2x, -7T:5 x:s; 3
y
r
the functions are concave up and concave down.
1. 2.
x3 x2 I x4
y=3-2- 2x+3 y = - - 2x 2 +4
4
y y

NOTTO SCALE

(Generated by Mathematica)

Graphing Equations
Use the steps of the graphing procedure on page 214 to graph the
equations in Exercises 9-40. Include the coordinates of any local
0 extreme points and inflection points.
(Generated by Mathematica)
9. y +3
= x2 - 4x 10. y = 6 - 2x - x 2
(Generated by Mathematica) 11. y = x 3 - 3x + 3 12. y = x(6 - 2x) 2
13. y = -2x 3 + 6x 2 - 3 14. y = 1 - 9x - 6x 2 - x 3
15. y = (x - 2) 3 + I 16. y =I- (x + 1) 3
3. 4.
17. y = x 4 - 2x 2 = x 2 (x 2 - 2)
y = 1(x2 _ 1)2/3 y = _2_ xl/3(x2 - 7)
14
= -x + 6x

\fl,,
y 18. y 4 2
- 4 =x 2
(6 - x 2 ) - 4
19. y = 4x 3 - x 4 = x 3 (4 - x)
20. y=x 4 +2x 3 =x 3 (x+2)
21. y = x 5 - 5x 4 = x 4 (x - 5)

22. y=xG-5)4
23. y = x + sin x, 0 S x S 2n
24. y = x - sin x, 0 S x S 2n
25. y =x 15
1 26. y = x 315
27. y = x2f5 28. y = x4f5
5. 6.
29. y = 2x - 3x 2 3
1 30. y = 5x 215 - 2x
y = x .
+ sm 2x, - 27T
3 :s; x :s; 27T
3 y = tan x - 4x, -¥ < x < ¥ 31. y = x2 3
1 ~ x) 32. y = x 213 (x - 5)
y y ( -

33. y = xJS - x2 34. y = (2 - x 2 ) 312

2
x -3 x3
35. y =- -,
x-2
x #2 36. y = 3x2 +I
37. y = Jx 2 - 11 38. y = lx 2 - 2x I

39. y=JIXT= {'!//' x:s;O

x>O
(Generated by Mathematica) 40. y = JJX=4T
218 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

Sketching the General Shape Knowing y' 65. y

Each of Exercises 41-62 gives the first derivative of a continuous p

y = J'(x)
function y = f (x). Find y" and then use steps 2-4 of the graphing
procedure on page 214 to sketch the general shape of the graph off.
41. y' = 2+x - x2 42. y' = x 2 - x - 6
43. y' = x(x - 3) 2 2
44. y' = x (2 - x)
45. y' = x(x 2 - 12) 46. y' = (x - 1) 2 (2x + 3)
47. y' = (8x 2
- 5x )(4 - x)2 48. y' = (x 2
- 2x)(x - 5) 2
7f 7f
66. y
49. y' = sec 2 x, --<X<-
2 2
7f 7f
50. y' = tanx, --<x<-
2 2

51. y' =cot "2'

e 0<8<2lf

52. y' = csc 2 -

e 0<8<2lf
2' p
7f 7f
53. y' = tan 2 e - 1, --<8<-
2 2
54. y' = 1 - cot 2
e, 0< e< n
Theory and Examples
67. The accompanying figure shows a portion of the graph of a
55. y' = cos t, 0S t s 2n
twice-differentiable function y = f (x). At each of the five la-
56. y' = sin t, 0 S t S 2n beled points, classify y' and y" as positive, negative, or zero.
57. y' = (x + 1)- 213
y
58. y' = (x - 2)- 113
59. y' = x- 213 (x - 1)
60. y' = x- l5(x4
+ 1)
61. y' = 21xl = { -~~: xso
x>O
2
62• '={-x , xsO
y x 2, x > 0
68. Sketch a smooth connected curve y = f (x) with
f(-2) = 8, f'(2) = j'(-2) = 0,
Sketching y from Graphs of y' and y"
f (0) = 4, f'(x) < 0 for lxl < 2,
f (2) = 0, f"(x) < 0 for x < 0,
Each of Exercises 63-66 shows the graphs of the first and second f'(x) > 0 for lxl > 2, f"(x) > 0 for x > 0.
derivatives of a function y = j(x). Copy the picture and add to it
69. Sketch the graph of a twice-differentiable function y = f (x) with
a sketch of the approximate graph of f, given that the graph passes
the following properties. Label coordinates where possible.
through the point P.

63. 64.
y y x y Derivatives

x < 2 y' < 0, y" > 0

2 y' = 0, y" > 0
2<x<4 y' > 0, y" > 0
4 4 y' > 0, y" =0
4<x<6 y' > 0, y" < 0
6 7 y' = 0, y" < 0
y = f"(x) x>6 y' < 0, y" < 0
 Exercises 3.4 219

70. Sketch the graph of a twice-differentiable function y = f (x) that 74. The accompanying graph shows the monthly revenue of the
passes through the points (-2, 2), (-1 , 1), (0, 0), (I, 1) and (2, 2) Widget Corporation for the last twelve years. During approx-
and whose first two derivatives have the following sign patterns: imately what time intervals was the marginal revenue increasing?
decreasing?
+ + y
y':
-2 0 2

+
y":
-1

Velocity and acceleration. The graphs in Exercises 71 and 72 show 0 5

the position s = f (t) of a body moving back and forth on a coordinate 75. Suppose the derivative of the function y = f (x) is
line. (a) When is the body moving away from the origin? toward the
origin? At approximately what times is the (b) velocity equal to zero? y' = (x - 2
1) (x - 2).
(c) acceleration equal to zero? (d) When is the acceleration positive? At what points, if any, does the graph of f have a local minimum,
negative? local maximum, or point of inflection? (Hint: Draw the sign
71. pattern for y'.)
s 76. Suppose the derivative of the function y =f (x) is

c y' = (x - 2
1) (x - 2)(x - 4).
a"' At what points, if any, does the graph of f have a local mini-
"'
u
mum, local maximum, or point of inflection?
"'
°'i:S"' 77. For x > 0, sketch a curve y = f (x) that has f (l) = 0 and f'(x) =
1/x. Can anything be said about the concavity of such a curve?
0 5 10 15 Give reasons for your answer.
Time (sec)
78. Can anything be said about the graph of a function y = f (x)
that has a continuous second derivative that is never zero? Give
72. reasons for your answer.
s
79. If b, e, and d are constants, for what value of b will the curve
c y = x 3 + bx 2 + ex + d have a point of inflection at x = 1? Give
a"' s =f(t) reasons for your answer.
"'
u
"' 80. Horizontal tangents. True, or false? Explain.
°'i:S"' a) The graph of every polynomial of even degree (largest ex-
ponent even) has at least one horizontal tangent.
0 5 15
b) The graph of every polynomial of odd degree (largest ex-
Time (sec) ponent odd) has at least one horizontal tangent.
81. Parabolas

73. Marginal cost. The accompanying graph shows the hypothetical a) Find the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola y = ax 2 +
cost e = f (x) of manufacturing x items. At approximately what bx +e, a =fa 0.
production level does the marginal cost change from decreasing b) When is the parabola concave up? concave down? Give
to increasing? reasons for your answers.
82. Is it true that the concavity of the graph of a twice-differentiable
c
function y = f (x) changes every time f" (x) = O? Give reasons
for your answer.

;;; 83. Quadratic curves. What can you say about the inflection points
0
u of a quadratic curve y = ax 2 + bx + e, a =fa 0? Give reasons for
your answer.

,__,_....__.--'-....__..--'--..._._-L-,__,_~X
84. Cubic curves. What can you say about the inflection points of
20 40 60 80 100120 a cubic curve y = ax 3 + bx 2 +ex+ d, a =fa O? Give reasons for
Thousands of units produced your answer.
 220 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

II Grapher Explorations k does f' have two zeros? one or no zeros? Now explain
what the value of k has to do with the shape of the graph
In Exercises 85-88, find the inflection points (if any) on the graph
off.
of the function and the coordinates of the points on the graph where
c) Experiment with other values of k. What appears to happen
the function has a local maximum or local minimum value. Then
as k --+ - oo? as k --+ oo?
graph the function in a region large enough to show all these points
simultaneously. Add to your picture the graphs of the function's first 92. a) On a common screen, graph f (x) = x 4 + kx 3 + 6x 2 , -1 :s
and second derivatives. How are the values at which these graphs x :S 4 for k = -4, and some nearby values of k. How does
intersect the x-axis related to the graph of the function? In what other the value of k seem to affect the shape of the graph?
ways are the graphs of the derivatives related to the graph of the b) Find J"(x). As you will see, f"(x) is a quadratic function of
function? x. What is the discriminant of this quadratic (see Exercise
85. y = x 5 - 5x 4 - 240 9lb)? For what values of k is the discriminant positive?
zero? negative? For what values of k does f"(x) have two
3 2
86. y = x - 12x zeros? one or no zeros? Now explain what the value of k
4 has to do with the shape of the graph of f.
87. y = -x 5 + 16x 2 - 25
5 93. a) Graph y = x 2f3(x 2 - 2) for -3 ::S x :S 3. Then use calculus
x4 x3 to confirm what the screen shows about concavity, rise, and
88. y =- - - -4x 2 + 12x + 20 fall. (Depending on your grapher, you may have to enter
4 3
x 213 as (x 2 ) 113 to obtain a plot for negative values of x.)
89. Graph f (x) = 2x 4 - 4x 2 + 1 and its first two derivatives to-
b) Does the curve have a cusp at x = 0, or does it just have a
gether. Comment on the behavior of f in relation to the signs
comer with different right-hand and left-hand derivatives?
and values of f' and f".
94. a) Graph y = 9x 213 (x - 1) for -0.5 :S x ::S 1.5. Then use cal-
90. Graph f (x) = x cos x and its second derivative together for
culus to confirm what the screen shows about concavity,
0 :S x :S 2n. Comment on the behavior of the graph of f in
rise, and fall. What concavity does the curve have to the
relation to the signs and values off".
left of the origin? (Depending on your grapher, you may
91. a) On a common screen, graph f (x) = x 3 + kx for k = 0 and have to enter x 213 as (x 2 ) 113 to obtain a plot for negative
nearby positive and negative values of k. How does the value values of x.)
of k seem to affect the shape of the graph? b) Does the curve have a cusp at x = 0, or does it just have a
b) Find f'(x). As you will see, f' (x) is a quadratic function of corner with different right-hand and left-hand derivatives?
x. Find the discriminant of the quadratic (the discriminant
95. Does the curve y = x 2 + 3 sin 2x have a horizontal tangent near
of ax 2 +bx+ c is b 2 - 4ac). For what values of k is the
x = -3? Give reasons for your answer.
discriminant positive? zero? negative? For what values of

Limits as x ---+ ± oo, Asymptotes, and Dominant

Terms
In this section, we analyze the graphs of rational functions (quotients of polynomial
functions), as well as other functions with interesting limit behavior as x ---+ ± oo.
Among the tools we use are asymptotes and dominant terms.

Limits as x ---+ ± oo
The function f (x) = 1/ x is defined for all x
=f. 0 (Fig. 3.33). When xis positive and
becomes increasingly large, 1/ x becomes increasingly small. When x is negative and
its magnitude becomes increasingly large, 1/ x again becomes small. We summarize
these observations by saying that f(x) = l/x has limit 0 as x---+ ± oo.
 3.5 Limits as x--+ ± oo, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 221

y
Definitions
4 the• limit L as x approaches infinity and write
3
lim f(x) = L
X-+00
2 y=-xI
number'E ·> 0, there exists a corresponding number M such

x>M lf(x) - LI < E.

2. We say that f (x) has the limit L as x approaches minus infinity and

lim f(x) = L
X-+-00

every number E >. 0, there exists a corresponding number N such

3.33 The graph of y = 1/x.
that for all x
X<N lf(x) - LI < E.

The symbol infinity (oo)

The strategy for calculating limits of functions as x ---+ ± oo is similar to the
As always, the symbol oo does not represent
a real number and we cannot use it in
one for finite limits in Section 1.2. There, we first found the limits of the constant
arithmetic in the usual way. and identity functions y = k and y = x. We then extended these results to other
functions by applying a theorem about limits of algebraic combinations. Here we
do the same thing, except that the starting functions are y = k and y = 1/ x instead
of y = k and y = x.
The basic facts to be verified by applying the formal definition are
1
Jim k = k and Jim - = 0. (1)
x-+±oo x--+±oo x
We prove the latter and leave the former to Exercises 87 and 88.

y No matter what
EXAMPLE 1 Show that
positive number E is, . 1 1
the graph enters a) hm - =0 b) lim - = 0.
1 X X-+-00 X
y=lx this band at x = € X-+00

and stays.

__ J_y_~: Solution
a) Let E > 0 be given. We must find a number M such that for all x

x >M
M=lE

----r---
y = -E

No matter what
The implication will hold if M = 1/ E or any larger positive number (Fig. 3.34 ).
This proves JimX--+ 00 ( 1/ x) = 0.
positive number E is, b) Let E > 0 be given. We must find a number N such that for all x
the graph enters
this band at x = - €1
and stays.
x<N l~- 0 1 = l~I <E.
3.34 The geometry behind the argument The implication will hold if N = -1 / E or any number less than -1 / E (Fig.
in Example 1. 3.34). This proves limX--+-oo (l/x) = 0. 0
222 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

The following theorem enables us to build on Eqs. (1) to calculate other limits.

Theorem 6
Properties of Limits as x --+ ± oo
The following rules hold if limx--->±oo f(x) =L and limx--+±oo g(x) =M
(Land M real numbers).
1. Sum Rule: lim [f(x)
X----+±00
+ g(x)] = L +M
2. Difference Rule: lim [f(x) - g(x)] =L - M
x--+±oo
3. Product Rule: Jim f(x) • g(x) = L · M
x--->±oo
4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim kf(x) = kL (any number k)
x--+±oo

5. Quotient Rule: Jim f(x) = !:..., if Mi= 0

x--->±oog(x) M
6. Power Rule: If m and n are integers, then lim [f (x) 1n
x--+±oo
r
= Lmfn provided Lmfn is a real number.

These properties are just like the properties in Theorem 1, Section 1.2, and we
use them the same way.

y EXAMPLE 2
5x 2 +8x-3
3x 2 + 2
2 a) Jim
x--+oo
(5 + 2-)
X
= Jim
x--+oo
5+ lim 2_
x-+oo X
Sum Rule

Liney = ~ =5+0=5 Known values

b)
. n-/3 = hm
hm - -
. n ,J3 · -1 · -1
X2
X--->---00 X
X--+---00X
5 10
1
= Jim
X--+-00
n-/3 · Jim
X--+-00
- ·
X
Jim
X--+-00 X
Product Rule

Known values D
--- 2 NOT TO SCALE

3.35 The function in Example 3.

Limits of Rational Functions as x --+ ± oo
To determine the limit of a rational function as x ----+ ± oo, we can divide the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. What
happens then depends on the degrees of the polynomials involved.

EXAMPLE 3 Numerator and denominator of same degree

The degree of the polynomial
2 2 Divide numera-
Jim _5x__+_8x_-_3 = Jim 5 + (8/x) - (3/x )
tor and denomi-
x--+oo 3x 2 + 2 x-+oo 3 + (2/x 2 ) nator by x 2 .
an =/= 0, is n, the largest exponent.
5+0-0 5
- See Fig. 3.35.
3+0 3
D
 3.5 Limits as x--+ ± oo, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 223

y Degree of numerator less than degree of denominator

EXAMPLE4
8
11x+2 . llx+2 . (ll/x 2 )+(2/x 3 ) Divide numcra1or
y=2x 3 -1 hm = hm and denominator
6 x-+- 00 2x3 - 1 X-+- 00 2 - (1 I x )
3
by.\'.

----0
o+o See Fig. J.36. O
- 2-0 -

-4 -2 0 2 4 6
EXAMPLE 5 Degree of numerator greater than degree of
-2 denominator

-4 . 2x 2
3 - . 2x - (3/x) Divide numerator and
a) hm = hm
x-+-oo 7x + 4 x-+-oo 7 + (4/x) denominator by .r.
-6 The numerator now ap-
proache;, - x while the
-8 =-00 denominator approache;, 7,
;,o the ratio --+ - x. Sec
Fig. 3.37.
3.36 The graph of the function in
Example 4. The graph approaches the -4x 3 + 7x . -4x+(7/x) Divide numerator and
b) Jim hm denominator by x'.
x-axis as 1x1 increases. x-+-oo2x 2 - 3x - 10 x-+-002 - (3/x) - (10/x 2 )
Numerator --+ x. Denom-
= 00 inator -----,;.. 2. Ratio ---+ oc.

0
y
Examples 3-5 reveal a pattern for finding limits of rational functions as
4 x---+ ± 00.
1. If the numerator and the denominator have the same degree, the limit is the
ratio of the polynomials' leading coefficients (Example 3).
2
2. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the
limit is zero (Example 4).
3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
the limit is + oo or - oo, depending on the signs assumed by the numerator
and denominator as lxl becomes large (Example 5).

4
Summary for Rational Functions

1. If deg (f) = deg (g), .

11m f (x)
- - = -an , the · of t he 1ead'mg
rat10
3.37 The function in Example S(a). x-+±oo g(x) bn
coefficients off and g.

2. If deg (f) < deg (g), Jim f (x) = 0.

x-+±oo g(x)

The leading coefficient of the polynomial . f(x) ± oo, depend'mg on the signs
·
3. If deg (f) >deg (g), 11m - -=
anxn + an-1 xn-l + · · · + alx + ao, an =/= 0, is x-+±oo g(x)
an, the coefficient of the highest-powered
of numerator and denominator.
term.
224 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

y
Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes
If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line approaches
zero as the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph
approaches the line asymptotically and that the line is an asymptote of the graph.

Horizontal EXAMPLE 6 The coordinate axes are asymptotes of the curve y = l/x (Fig.
~a~sy~m~p;to;te:::.,--~-oi~+--=;:;::=:~;;;:o..x 3.38). The x-axis is an asymptote of the curve on the right because
Horizontal
asymptote, 1
Jim - = 0
y=O X---+00 X

and on the left because

1
Jim - = 0.
X---+-00 X

The y-axis is an asymptote of the curve both above and below because
3.38 The coordinate axes are asymptotes
of both branches of the hyperbola 1 1
y = 1/x.
lim - = oo and Jim - = - oo.
x-->O+ X x-->o- X

Notice that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is undefined. 0

Definitions
A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x)
if either
lim f(x) ::::= b or lim /(x) = b.
X-HlO X---+-00

A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph if either

lim f (x) = ± oo or lim_ /(x) = ±oo.
x---+a+ x--+a

EXAMPLE 7 The curves

1 sinx
y = secx = -- and y = tanx = - -
cosx cosx
both have vertical asymptotes at odd-integer multiples of IT /2, where cos x = 0
(Fig. 3.39).

y y
y = secx y=tanx

3.39 The graphs of sec x and tan x

(Example 7).
 3.5 Limits as x ~ ± oo, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 225

The graphs of
1 cosx
y = cscx = -.- and y = cotx = -.-
smx smx
have vertical asymptotes at integer multiples of n, where sin x = 0 (Fig. 3.40).

y y = csc x y y = cotx

y
Vertical
asymptote, 6
x = -2 5 y = x+3
x+2
4
=l+-l-
Horizontal 3 x+2 3.40 The graphs of csc x and cot x (Example 7). D
asymptote,
y= I
EXAMPLE 8 Find the asymptotes of the curve
x+3
2 3 y=--.
x+2
-2
Solution We are interested in the behavior as x ~ ± oo and as x ~ -2, where
-3
the denominator is zero.
-4 The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast the rational function as a
polynomial with a remainder, by dividing (x + 2) into (x + 3).
3.41 The lines y = 1 and x = -2 are 1
asymptotes of the curve y = (x + 3)/(x + 2) x+2)x+3
(Example 8).
x+2
--1

This enables us to rewrite y:

y
1
8 y=l+--
7 8-
x+2
y=--
6 x2-4 From this we see that the curve in question is the graph of y = 1/ x shifted 1 unit
Vertical 5 Vertical up and 2 units left (Fig. 3.41). The asymptotes, instead of being the coordinate
asymptote, asymptote, x =2 axes, are now the lines y = 1 and x = - 2. D
x=-2
Horizontal
asymptote, y = 0
EXAMPLE 9 Find the asymptotes of the graph of
8
f(x) = - - 2
-.
x -4

Solution We are interested in the behavior as x ~ ± oo and as x ~ ±2, where

the denominator is zero. Notice that f is an even function of x, so its graph is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
3.42 The graph of y = -8/(x2 - 4)
(Example 9). Notice that the curve
The behavior as x ~ ± oo. Since limx~oo f (x) = 0, the line y = 0 is an
approaches the x-axis from only one side. asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry it is an asymptote to the left as
Asymptotes do not have to be two-sided. well (Fig. 3.42).
226 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

The behavior as x --+ ±2. Since

lim f(x) = - oo and lim f(x) = oo,
x~2+ x~2-

the line x = 2 is an asymptote both from the right and from the left. By symmetry,
the same holds for the line x = - 2.
There are no other asymptotes because f has a finite limit at every other point.
D
We might be tempted at this point to say that rational functions have ver-
tical asymptotes where their denominators are zero. That is nearly true, but not
quite. What is true is that rational functions reduced to lowest terms have vertical
asymptotes where their denominators are zero.

y EXAMPLE 10 A removable discontinuity at a zero of the denominator

x3 - I
5 y= x 2 - l The graph of
x3 - I
f(x) = -2-1
x -
has a vertical asymptote at x = -1 but not at x = 1. Since
-4 -3 -2 -I 0
-I
2 3 x3 - 1 (x - l)(x 2 + x + 1) x2 +x + 1
x2 - 1 (x - 1) (x + 1) x+1
-3 the function has a finite limit (3 /2) as x --+ 1 and the discontinuity is removable
(Fig. 3.43). 0
-5
The Sandwich Theorem (Section 1.2, Theorem 4) also holds for limits as
-7 x --+± oo. Here is a typical application.

3.43 The graph of f(x) = (x 3 - 1)/(x2 - 1) EXAMPLE 11 Using the Sandwich Theorem, find the asymptotes of the curve
has one vertical asymptote, not two. The
discontinuity at x = 1 is removable. smx
y=2+-.
x

Solution We are interested in the behavior as x --+ ± oo and as x --+ 0, where the
denominator is zero.

The behavior as x--+ 0. We know that limx__, 0 (sinx)/x = 1, so there is no

asymptote at the origin.
y
The behavior as x --+ ± oo. Since
y= 2 +sinx
x sinx I
O~--~-, 111
I x x

and limX-->±oo II/xi= 0, we have limx-->±oo (sinx)/x = 0 by the Sandwich The-

orem. Hence,

sinx)
lim ( 2 + - - = 2 + 0 = 2,
-31T -21T -1T 0 X-->± 00 X

3.44 A curve may cross one of its and the line y = 2 is an asymptote of the curve on both left and right (Fig. 3.44).
asymptotes infinitely often (Example 11 ). D
 3.5 Limits as x---+ ± oo, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 227

Oblique Asymptotes
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater than the degree
of the denominator, the graph has an oblique asymptote, that is, a linear asymptote
that is neither vertical nor horizontal.

EXAMPLE 12 Find the asymptotes of the graph of

x2 - 3
f(x) = 2x -4·

x2 - 3 x I Solution We are interested in the behavior as x ---+ ± oo and also as x ---+ 2, where
y y = 2x-4 = 2 + 1 + 2x-4 the denominator is zero. We divide (2x - 4) into (x 2 - 3):
The vertical distance
between curve and x
6 line goes to zero as x ..__, co - +1
2
2x-4)x 2 -3
x2 - 2x
2x -3
2x -4
--1

This tells us that

-I 0 3 4 x x2 - 3 x 1
(2)
-1 f(x) = 2x - 4 = 2 + 1 + 2x - 4·
Vertical ~~
-2 asymptote, linear remainder
x=2
-3
Since limx-+ 2+ f (x) = oo and limx---* 2 - f (x) = - oo, the line x = 2 is a two-sided
asymptote. As x---+ ± oo, the remainder approaches 0 and f(x)---+ (x/2) + 1. The
3.45 The graph of f(x) = (x 2 - 3)/(2x - 4) line y = (x /2) + 1 is an asymptote both to the right and to the left (Fig. 3.45). D
(Example 12).
Graphing with Asymptotes and Dominant Terms
Of all the observations we can make quickly about the function
- 3 x2
f(x) = 2x-4

in Example 12, probably the most useful is that

x 1
f(x) = 2 + 1 + 2x - 4 ·

This tells us immediately that

x
f(x) ~ - +1 for x numerically large
2
1
f(x) ~ -- for x near 2
2x -4
If we want to know how f behaves, this is the way to find out. It behaves like
y = (x/2) + 1 when xis numerically large and the contribution of l/(2x - 4) to
the total value off is insignificant. It behaves like 1/ (2x - 4) when x is so close
to 2 that l/(2x - 4) makes the dominant contribution.
We say that (x /2) + 1 dominates when x is numerically large, and we say that
l/(2x - 4) dominates when xis near 2. Dominant terms like these are the key to
predicting a function's behavior.
228 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

EXAMPLE 13 Graph the function

x3 + 1
- --.
Y-
x
Solution We investigate symmetry, dominant terms, asymptotes, rise, fall, extreme
values, and concavity.
Step 1: Symmetry. There is none.
Step 2: Find any dominant terms and asymptotes. We write the rational function
as a polynomial plus remainder:
1
y = x2 + -. (3)
x
For lxl
large, y::::; x 2 • For x near zero, y::::; I/x.
Equation (3) reveals a vertical asymptote at x = 0, where the denominator of
the remainder is zero.
Step 3: Find y' and analyze the function's critical points. Where does the curve
rise and fall?
The first derivative
, 1 2x 3 - 1
y =2x--=--- From Eq. (3)
x2 x2

is undefined at x = 0 and zero when

1 2x 3 - I: +
2x--=0
x2
x2: + + +
3
2x - 1= 0 , 2x 3 - 1 .
Y = -x-2-· +
3 1 x
x = -
2
1 ~ 0 ~ 0.8
I
I
I
I /
x = -Vi::::; 0.8. I I
no local
extreme min
value

Step 4: Find y" and determine the curve's concavity. The second derivative
2 2x 3 + 2
y 11 = 2 + - = - - -
x3 x3

is undefined at x = 0 and zero when

2 2x 3 + 2: + +
2+- =0
x3
x3: +
2x 3
+2 = 0 ,, 2x 3 +2.
+ +
y = -x-3-·
x3 = -1 ---+---1---~X

cone - I cone o cone

x = -1. up I down up
I
infl
point
 3.5 Limits as x---+ ± oo, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 229

Step 5: Summarize the information from the preceding steps and sketch the curve's
general shape.

~ ~ ~ /
cone cone cone cone
up down up up
x

~ Oi8 _,)
-1
~
0
I
I
inf!
\ vert local
point as mt min

Step 6: Plot the curve's intercepts, mark any horizantal tangents, and graph the
dominant terms. See Fig. 3.46. This provides a framework for graphing the curve.
y
y = x2

-3
y=lx

-5
-6
-7

3.46 The dominant terms and horizontal tangent provide a framework for
graphing the function.

Step 7: Now add the final curve to your figure, using the framework and the curve's
general shape as guides. See Fig. 3.47. 0

-3

Graph close -2
toy= llx ~ -3
for x near 0 -4
-5
-6

3.47 The function, graphed with the aid of the framework in Fig. 3.46.
230 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

Hidden Behavior Checklist for Graphing a Function y = /(x)

Sometimes graphing f' or f" will suggest
where to zoom in on a computer generated
1. Look for symmetry.
graph of f to reveal behavior hidden in the Is the function even? odd?
grapher's original picture. 2. Is the function a shift of a known function?
3. Analyze dominant terms.
Divide rational functions into polynomial + remainder.
4. Check for asymptotes and removable discontinuities.
Is there a zero denominator at any point?
What happens as x ~ ± oo?
5. Compute f' and solve f' = 0. Identify critical points and determine
intervals of rise and fall.
6. Compute f" to determine concavity and inflection points.
7. Sketch the graph's general shape.
8. Evaluate fat special values (endpoints, critical points, intercepts).
9. Graph f, using dominant terms, general shape, and special points for
guidance.

Exercises 3.5
Calculating Limits as x ____, ± oo 1 - 12x 3 1
15. f (x) = - -- 16. g (x) = -x3___4_x_+_I
In Exercises 1-6, find the limit of each function (a) as x -7 oo and 4x 2 + 12
(b) as x -7 - oo. (You may wish to visualize your answer with a 7x 3 3x 2 - 6x
17. h(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 6x 18. g(x) = ---
grapher.) 4x -8
2 2 2x + 3
5
10x + x + 31
5 4
1. f(x) = - - 3 2. f(x) = n - -
x2 19. f (x) = 20. g(x) =- -- --
x -x 2 +x x6
1 1 x4 9x 4 +x
3. g(x) = 2 + (1/x) 4. g(x) = 8 - (5/x2) 21. g(x) = x3 +1 22. h(x) = - - - 2- - -
2x4 + 5x - x + 6
5. h(x) = -5 + (7 /x) 6. h(x) = 3 - (2/x) -x4
23. h(x) = -2x3 - 2x + 3 24. h(x) = - - - - - -
3 - (1/x 2 ) 4 + ( v'2;x2) 3x 3 + 3x 2 - 5x x4 - 7x3+7x2+9
Find the limits in Exercises 7-10.
sin2x cose
7. Jim - - 8. lim - -
x---+oo X 8-+-oo 3e
2 - t + sint lO. Jim r + sinr Limits with Noninteger or Negative Powers
9. lim - - - -
t-+-oo t+cost r-+oo 2r +7 - 5 sin r The process by which we determine limits of rational functions applies
equally well to ratios containing noninteger or negative powers of x:
Limits of Rational Functions divide numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
In Exercises 11-24, find the limit of each rational function (a) as denominator and proceed from there. Find the limits in Exercises
25-30.
x -7 oo and (b) as x -7 -oo.
2 r;; + -1 2
2x +3 2x 3 +7 25. Jim yX X 26. Jim + VX
11. f(x) = -- 12. f (x) = - 3- -
2
-- X-+00 3X - 7 X-+00 2 - yX
5x +7 x -x +x +7

f
x+l 3x +7 27. Jim ffe - ,ft 28. Jim x-1 + x-4
13. (x) = - - 14. f (x) = -x2- _ -
,.yx +,ft x-+oo x-2 - x-3
x 2 +3 2 X---+-00
 Exercises 3.5 231

2x5f3 _ x'f3 +7 . ffe - 5x + 3 1 x2

29. Jim 30. hm = 52. y = x2 - 1
x--.oo x8/5 + 3x + ,JX x->-oo 2x + x 2/3 - 4 51. y x2 - 1

x2 - 2 x 2 -4
53. y = - - - 54. y = x2 - 2
Inventing Graphs from Values and Limits x2 - 1
In Exercises 31-34, sketch the graph of a function y = f (x) that x2 x2
55. y= - - 56. y = - - -
satisfies the given conditions. No formulas are required-just label x-1 x+l
the coordinate axes and sketch an appropriate graph. (The answers
x 2 -4 x 2 -4
are not unique, so your graphs may not be exactly like those in the 57. y = - - 58. y = - - -
answer section.) x-1 x+l
x 2 - x +I x 2 -x + 1
31. f(O) = 0, f(l) = 2, f(-1) = -2, Jim f(x) = -1, and 59. y= - - - - 60. y = - - - - -
X-+- DC x-1 x-1
Jim f(x) = 1
X->00 x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 1 x 3 +x - 2
32. f (0) = 0, lim f (x) = 0, Jim f (x) = 2, and
61. y =- -x2-+x-- --
- 2
62. y = - - -2 -
x-+±oo x-+O+
x -x
Jim f (x) = -2 x x-1
x-+o- 63. y = -2-- 64. y = - - -
x - 1 x2(x - 2)
33. f (0) = 0, Jim f (x) = 0, Jim f (x) = lim f (x) = oo,
x-+±oo x-+J- x-+-l+ 8
Jim f (x) = - oo, and Jim f (x) = - oo 65. y = - 2 - - (Agnesi's witch)
X-+I+ x-+-1- x +4
34. f(2) = 1, f(-1) = 0, Jim f(x) = 0, lim f(x) = oo, 4x
x-+oo x-+O+ 66. y = - 2- - (Newton's serpentine)
Jim f (x) = - oo, and Jim f (x) = 1 x +4
x-+o- x-+ - oo

II Grapher Explorations
Inventing Functions
Graph the curves in Exercises 67-72 and explain the relation between
In Exercises 35-38, find a function that satisfies the given conditions the curve's formula and what you see.
and sketch its graph. (The answers here are not unique. Any function
x -1
that satisfies the conditions is acceptable. Feel free to use formulas 67. y= ~ 68. y= ~
defined in pieces if that will help.) -v4-x 2 -v4-x 2
_I_ 2
35. Jim f (x) = 0, Jim f (x) = oo, and lim f (x) = oo 69. y - x
_ 2/3
+ xI/3 70. y = 2,,/X + ,JX - 3
x-+± oo x-+2- x-+2+

36.

37.
Jim g(x) = 0, lim g(x) = - oo, and Jim g(x) = oo
x-+±oo x-+3-

Jim h(x) = -1, Jim h(x) = 1, Jim h(x) = -1, and

X-+ - 00 X-+00 x-+0-
x-+J+
71. y = sin (x 2: 1
) 72. y =-cos c 2: 1
)

lim h(x) = 1
x-+O+
Graphing Terms
38. Jim k(x) = 1, Jim k(x) = oo, and lim k(x) = - oo
x-+±oo x-+l- x-+l+ Each of the functions in Exercises 73-76 is given as the sum or
difference of two terms. First graph the terms (with the same set of
Graphing Rational Functions axes). Then, using these graphs as guides, sketch in the graph of the
Graph the rational functions in Exercises 39-66. Include the graphs function.
and equations of the asymptotes and dominant terms. 1 Jr Jr
73. y = secx + -, -- < x < -
1 1 x 2 2
39. y = - - 40. y = - -
x - 1 x+l Jr Jr
74. y = secx - x 2 , -- < x < -
1 -3 2 2
41. y = -- 42. y = --
2x + 4 x-3 1 Jr Jr
75. y=tanx+ 2 , -- < x < -
_x+3 2x x 2 2
43· Y- 44. y = -- 1
x +2 x+ 1 Jr Jr
76. y = - - tanx, -- < x < -
2x 2 +x - 1 x -49 2 x 2 2
45. y = x2 - 1 46. y = - - - - -
x2 + 5x - 14
x2 - 1 x 2 +4 Theory and Examples
47. y = - - 48. y = - -
x 2x 77. Let f (x) = (x 3 + x 2)/(x 2 + 1). Show that there is a value of c
x4 +1 x3 + 1 for which f (c) equals
49. y = --2- 50. y= - -
x x2 a) -2 b) cos 3 c) 5,000,000.