SCIENCE 10 - 2ND QUARTER

Light – It is dual in nature, it is a particle and a wave.

As a particle: It carries a bundle of energy called photons that travels and interacts with electric fields
that produces electromagnetic radiation.

As a wave: It shows properties such as reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, and polarization.

Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

EM waves – Transverse oscillating waves composed of electric and magnetic fields.

– EM waves travel in a vacuum at the speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s.

– EM waves can travel even without a medium (i.e., vacuum).
– In an EM wave, the electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

EM Spectrum – This shows the different types of EM waves. EM Waves are classified according to their
frequencies. They are also described according to their wavelengths and energies.

– Looking at the EM spectrum from left to right, the frequencies increase as the
wavelengths decrease.

Radio Waves – It has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency in the EM spectrum. Radio
waves' frequency range are different bands of waves.

• Extremely low frequency (ELF) waves – They are naturally generated in the
atmosphere.
• Very low frequency (VLF) waves – known as the myriameter band. This is used
for military communications because it has the ability to penetrate saltwater up
to certain depths.
• Low frequency (LF) waves – used for long distance communications.
• Medium frequency (MF) waves – commonly used for amplitude broadcasting
and air traffic control.
• High frequency (HF) waves – used in international broadcasting stations.
• Very high frequency (VHF) waves – used in digital audio broadcasting and
mobile radio systems.
• Ultra high frequency (UHF) waves – commonly used in TV broadcasting, global
positioning system (GPS), wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi), and Bluetooth technologies.

Microwaves – have frequencies higher than those of radio waves. Microwaves also have sub-bands with
different wavelengths and uses, such as L-bands which is used in our GPS. Other bands are used for
active remote sensing and also radio detecting or ranging (RADAR) systems. Many bluetooth and Wifi
connections also operate using microwaves.

Infrared – Infrared (IR) waves are found between microwaves and visible light. They are invisible to the
unaided eye but can be detected in the form of heat. Infrared is used in remote sensing. The remote
controls of our TV sets use IR to send signals to change channels. IR is also used in thermal imaging.
In 1800, William Herschel first recorded the thermal measurement at the far end of the red spectrum,
hence the name infrared (from the prefix “infra–“ which means “below”).

Visible light — the only part of the EM spectrum that can be seen by the unaided eye.

– The different colors of light are caused by differences in their wavelengths.

– ROYGBIV

Ultraviolet Waves – UV radiation extends from violet spectrum of the visible light through X-rays. Most
of the UV radiation that we receive comes from the sun.

SUN’S UV CLASSIFICATION:

• UVA – least harmful of the three.

• UVC – It is the most harmful one, however, it is absorbed by the ozone layer.
• UVB – This can cause sunburn because, unlike IR, it causes chemical
reactions on the human skin. Prolonged or too much exposure to UVB
radiation can cause cellular damage in an organism and may cause the
production of free radicals in the body or even DNA damage.

In 1801, John Ritter successfully proved the existence of energy beyond the violet spectra of visible light,
naming it Ultraviolet.

X-rays – these were first discovered and documented by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1896.

– Their wavelengths are so small, which is why the energies carried X-ray and the gamma
ray regions are described in electron volts (eV). The higher the frequency, the higher the
energy carried by a wave.

Gamma Rays – these are found at the end of the EM spectrum. Gamma rays contain the highest energy
of all. These are produced by objects with very high energy.

– It can be produced by pulsars, supernova explosions, neutron stars, and also by decay of
some radioactive elements.

Ionization – amount of energy released by atoms that travels in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Non-ionizing: Radio waves, microwaves, IR waves, visible light, and UV.

– Low energy, cannot penetrate the cells of organism, effectively produce vibrations and
electric current.
– It may cause photochemical reactions such as sunburn and thermal heating. It can affect
an organism if an object is intentionally or accidentally ingested.

Ionizing: UV, x-rays, and gamma rays.

– High energy, can penetrate the cells of organism, and can alter one’s DNA.
– It can cause biological damage, dying of cells or have a cellular mutations such as cancer
cells.
– It can affect fast-growing cells such as hair and skin.
The effects of radiation depend on how much time a person was exposed to it, the distance from the
source, and the kind of protection or shield used.

Acute exposure – high amounts of radiation exposure over a very short period of time, such as a person
undergoing cancer treatment.

Chronic exposure – exposed to a small amount of radiation over a long period of time.

Background radiation – radiation from natural sources such as Earth materials and the food we eat.

Curie (Ci) or Becquerel (Bq) – for radioactivity.

Roentgen (R) or Coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) – radiation exposure (radiation in air).

Absorbed dose (rad) or gray (Gy) – used to measure the among of radiation absorbed by an object.

Roentgen Equivalent (rem) or sievert (Sv) – used to measure the totality of amount of radiation actually
absorbed (along with its medical effects)

Reflection – bouncing of light rays when it hits a surface.

Regular/Specular – Reflection of smooth surface.

Irregular/Diffuse – Reflection of rough surface.

Law of Reflection – it states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Mirrors – reflective surfaces made up of Glass. These can be either Plane mirrors or curved mirrors.

Plane Mirrors – flat surfaces that reflect light and form an image of an object brought in front of it.

Ray Diagramming Technique – uses at least two rays to locate and describe the image.

Virtual Images – image appearing at the back of the mirror. It is also formed by rays behind the mirror.

Lateral Inversion – Refers to the left-to-right reversal in Plane Mirrors.

Curved mirrors – can be either concave or convex.

Convex mirrors – have their reflective surfaces bent outward.

Concave mirrors – have their reflective surfaces bent inward.

Principal Axis – the line cutting through the center.

Vertex – the actual physical center of the mirror.

Center of Curvature – center of the sphere from which the mirror is taken or the geometrical center of
the mirror.

Radius of Curvature – the distance from the center of the curvature to the vertex of the mirror.

Focus – mid-point of the radius of the curvature.

Focal length – the distance from the vertex.

Real Images – Formed when rays converge.

– It can be formed by a concave mirror.

Virtual Images – Formed when rays diverge

– It can be formed by a convex mirror.

Upright Orientation – right side up

Inverted Orientation – upside down

Magnification – ratio of the image dimensions to the object dimensions

>1 – Larger <1 – Smaller 1 – Same

 A plane mirror will always result to the same image characteristics regardless of the object’s
location.
 Image characteristics in concave mirrors depend on the object’s location. On the other hand,
convex mirrors will always produce the same image characteristics.

Mirror Equation:

Magnification Equation:

Example:
Refraction – bending of light waves as they enter or cross the boundary between two media with
different densities.

Angle of refraction – the angle at which the ray is bent from the normal line.

When light is refracted, the light changes the direction of its motion and its velocity at the same time.

Willebrord Snellius (Snell) – He was a Danish physicist, who was the first one to observe the law of
refraction.

Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law) – Light is only refracted when it crosses a boundary between two
different media having two different properties. It explains the relationship of the angle of incidence to
the angle of refraction.

Lenses – transparent materials made of either glass or plastic. Examples: Magnifying Glass, Camera,
Eyeglasses or Contact Lenses, Microscope, Binoculars and Telescope.

Convex Lens – converges rays of light; thick in the middle, thin at the edges.

– In a convex lens, the produced image is bigger than the original one.

Concave Lens – diverges rays of light; thin across the middle and thick at the edges.

– In a concave lens, the produced image is smaller than the original one.

Real Images – there’s no reflection produced at the back of the lens.

Virtual Images – there’s a reflection produced at the back of the lens.

Vertical Axis – separates the insides of the lens.

Focal Point – point where light converge.

2F – twice as far from the vertical axis as where the focal point is.

Magnets were first to have come from Iodestones. The word Iodestone comes from the Anglo-Saxon
word that means “leading stone.”

Chinese in the Middle Ages – uses magnets as compass.

Magnetic Materials – iron, cobalt. Nickel, and alloys.

Permanent Magnet – do not easily lose their magnetic properties; naturally occurring.

Ferromagnets – lose their magnetic properties after some time; nails and iron objects.

Electromagnets – produced by the electric current flowing through a wire.

Magnetic Field – region of space where magnetic force is felt.

Magnetic Field Lines – used to indicate the magnetic field.

1. The lines always originate from the magnetic north pole.
2. The file lines do not cross one another.
3. The closer the magnetic field lines to one another, the stronger the magnetic field is.

Basic Magnetic Rule: “like poles repel, opposite poles attract.”

Electric fields – produced by positive and negative charges. Magnetic field is similar to that of an electric
field. The only difference is that in electricity, the positive and negative charges can exist separately,
whereas in magnetism, the north and south poles of a magnet always come together.

In 1820, A Danish scientist named Hans Christian Orsted tried to prove that electricity is entirely
different from magnetism. He once believed that both electricity and magnetism were forces radiated by
all substances, and that they may interfere with each other, using the compass and several experiments
he finally confirmed that electricity can cause magnetism. Orsted accidentally discovered
Electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic Induction – current produced because of voltage production (electromotive force) due
to a changing magnetic field. This either happens when a conductor is placed in a moving magnetic field
(when using an AC power source) or when a conductor is constantly moving in a stationary magnetic
field.

Electromotive Force (EMF) – voltage induced during the change of magnetic field, causing the current to
flow through the wire.

Hard drives – devices used to store information, the drives stores this information using magnetism,
where they need the basic parts such as the magnetic disc or platter.

Electric Motor – works is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Generator – works in reverse, because the generator uses mechanical energy to produce electrical
energy.

Michael Faraday – he discovered that a moving wire through a magnetic field could produce an electric
current

– When a wire is moved through a magnetic field, current is generated in the wire
– Discovered electromagnetic Induction by introducing a magnet into a coil of copper
wire, producing a deflection in the galvanometer needle.

Joseph Henry – current produced by magnetic field is an induced current

Lenz’s Law of electromagnetic Induction – formulated in 1834 by Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz, states
that the direction of the current is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field, such that the
magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field that produced
it.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule – thumb; direction of force, index; direction of the direction of the field, and
middle finger; location of the current.

PARTS OF A GENERATOR:
 1. Force: moving water, pressurized steam, forceful.
2. Spins Turbine
3. Spins Shaft
4. Spins generator
5. Electrical Output

Generator – operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction

A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Direct Current – the direction of the current does not change; it produces a smaller voltage because of
the rotating armature.

Alternating Current – moves to change; produces high amount of voltage when connected to a
transformer.

Difference – the direction of the AC changes, whereas, it does not change in DC generators.