Chapter 1- Atomic Structure

An atom is the smallest possible particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction
without being changed.

The Structure of the Atom

An atom consists mainly of 2 main parts:

1- The Nucleus

- Contains 2 types of subatomic particles called protons and neutrons.

- Is overall positively charged.

- Is the heavy part of the atom.

- Its volume is very small compared to the rest of the atom.

2- The electron shells (energy levels)

1-Electrons are arranged in shells (or ‘energy levels’) around the nucleus.

2- Overall negatively charged.

3- Electrons are fast moving and each shell can only contain a fixed number of electrons,
Once a shell is full, any remaining electrons must go into the next shell.

EMAD

Sub-atomic Symbol Relative

Relative Mass
particle Charge
Proton p +1 1
Neutron n 0 1
1/1840
Electron e- -1
or Zero

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 N.B
- Atoms have no overall charge, the atom is neutral because:

The number of positively charged protons is equal to the number of negative electrons.

- Mass of atom is concentrated in its nucleus as mass of electrons found outside the nucleus is very
small and can be neglected.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Each element in the Periodic Table has a chemical symbol and has two numbers associated with it e.g.

1- The ‘mass number’ or ‘nucleon number’: the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom of an element (the larger number).
2- The ‘atomic number’ or ‘proton number’: number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom of
an element.

N.B
- It can be seen that the elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of atomic
number. (the smaller no.)

- Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons. If two atoms have the same number
of protons then they must be atoms of the same element. (proton no. is a fingerprint for the atom).

- In the new periodic table, mass no. is at the bottom and the atomic no. is at the top.
N.B
The Questions might include the old system of the atomic and mass numbers, where the mass numbers
is at the top and the atomic number is at the bottom.

Looking again at the information for chlorine given above:

This tells us:
Symbol for chlorine = Cl
Atomic number of chlorine = 17 Mass number of chlorine = 35

We can work out the number of protons, neutrons and electrons from this information:
Number of protons = atomic number = 17
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons = 35 – 17 = 18
Number of electrons = number of protons = 17

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 Atomic Structure Worksheet 1

Use your Periodic Table to complete the following

- table. The last three columns require you to write in
the number of protons (p), electrons (e ) and neutrons (n).

Mass Atomic
Element Symbol
Number number P e- N

Silicon

Argon

Oxygen

Beryllium

Sodium

Boron

Potassium

Fluorine

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 Isotopes

- Atoms of the same element, having the same atomic number but different mass number.

OR
- Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons .

Example:
Thus there are 3 isotopes of carbon.(according to the figure)

Carbon- 12: has 6 protons and 6 neutrons

Carbon 13: has 6 protons and 7 neutrons

Carbon 14: has 6 protons and 8 neutrons

Complete the ‘p e- n’ numbers for the following sets of isotopes:

Mass Atomic -
Isotope Symbol Number number P e N

Uranium-
235

Uranium-
238

Chlorine-35

Chlorine-37

- Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different masses.

- Isotopes have the same chemical properties (how they react), since they have the same number
of electrons in the outermost shell.

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 - Radio Isotopes or Radioactive Isotopes: are the Isotopes of an element that can emit radiation.

Example; Carbon-14. This means its nucleus is unstable and it can break down to form a
more stable form, emitting radiation.

- Radioisotopes of elements can be dangerous due to the radiation they emit, but they can also be
extremely useful.

Uses of Radioactive isotopes:

Medical uses Industrial uses

1- cobalt 60 is used 1- Uranium 235 is used
in Treatment of cancer in energy production
2- Detecting thickness of
2- Treatment of paper
thyroid gland 3- Detection of cracks in
water pipes
equipment

Electron Arrangements (Electron Configurations)

- To work out the number of electrons an atom has :

Number of electrons in an atom = Number of Protons

- Electrons are arranged in energy levels (also known as shells) around the nucleus. The lowest energy
levels are always filled first.

1- Elements with proton no. from 1 to 20, Electron shells are filled according to the following rule

The first energy level can only hold 2 electrons.

The second energy level can only hold 8 electrons
The third energy level can hold 8 electrons

2- Elements with proton no. greater than 20, Electron shells are filled according to the following rule:

2
2n

The first energy level can only hold 2 electrons.

The second energy level can only hold 8 electrons
The third shell can expand to hold a maximum of 18 electrons, and the fourth shell can
expand to hold up to 32 electrons, but not when they are the outer shells. For example Rubidium
has 37 electrons arranged 2,8,18,8,1.

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Example:

Potassium has an atomic number of 19. An atom of potassium has 19 protons and therefore has 19
electrons. Arranging the electrons in levels, filling the inner (lower energy) levels first gives 2 in the first
level; 8 in the second level; 8 in the third level; 1 in the fourth level. This can be shown on a diagram:

Or it can be written as: 2,8,8,1.

So the electron arrangement of potassium is
2,8,8,1.

Valence electrons

- The outer shell of any atom is called valency shell and its electrons are called valence electrons.

- Atoms want to have full outer shells (a full set of valency electrons), that's why they react by losing,
gaining or sharing electrons.

- Noble gases (group 8 or zero, will be discussed later in details) have a full outer shell, that's why
they don't react.
- More reactive elements have a greater desire to have a full outer shell, so also form more stable
compounds.

Metals and non-metals

About one-quarter of the elements are non-metals. They are found on the right-hand side of the
periodic table.

Non-
metals

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 Non-metals have different properties to metals and are summarised in the table below:

Properties of metals Properties of non-metals

Shiny (when polished) Dull

Malleable and ductile Brittle

They conduct electricity They don’t conduct electricity (apart

from carbon (graphite)

Strong (apart from group 1 metals Brittle

which can be cut with a knife)

They are solids at room temperature They can be solids, liquids or gases
(except mercury)
at room temperature

The Periodic table

-- The modern periodic table is very useful for giving a summary of the atomic structure of all
the elements.
- Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (proton number) and not mass
number.

- Elements are arranged in the periodic table into periods (horizontal rows) and groups ( vertical
columns).

- Elements in the same period have the same no. of shells and elements in the same group have the
same no. of electrons in the outermost shell.

- Elements in the same group have the same chemical properties as they have the same no. of valence

electrons that determine reactivity.

Some of the groups have special names:

Group 1- Alkali metals
Group 2: Alkaline earth metals
Group 7: Halogens
Group 0: Noble Gases
Hydrogen: It sits alone in the table because it's the only element with one electron shell.

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Page 8 of 205
 Trends in the periodic table:

Metals Ex. (Gp.1) Generally Non- Metals Ex. (Gp. 7)

Physical Properties Physical Properties
- Melting and boiling - Size of Atoms increase - Melting and boiling
points decrease - Mass increases points increase
- Density increases - Colour becomes
darker
Chemical properies Chemical Properties
Reactivity increases Reactivity deacreases

Transition Metals
physical properties:
1- High density
2- High strength
3- High melting points and Boiling points (except mercury)

Chemical properties:
1- Most transition metals form coloured compounds. The colours of many minerals
and gemstones are due to the presence of transition metal ions.

2- Transition metals have more than one oxidation state. Eg Fe2+ and Fe3+, Sn2+ and Sn 4+.

3- Can act as catalysts in industry. Many are good catalysts e.g. iron
(Haber Process) and platinum

4- The transition metals are much less reactive than group I or II metals. They do react with water or
oxygen in the air but much more slowly. Eg iron takes days or weeks to rust. Other metals corrode
much more slowly than this.

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 Noble gases

Properties

- The elements in Group 8 or 0 are known as the noble gases as they are unreactive
inert. Because they have full outer shells of electrons so they do not try to bond with
other elements to fill them.

- They are colourless gases

- They are monatomic (ie. as one atom, not grouped in a molecule like the halogens F2,
hydrogen H2 or oxygen O2). They all give off light when a current is passed through
them.

EMA
Trends in group 0: (As you go down the group)
1- Atoms get bigger down the group. Each successive element has an extra electron shell.

2- Density of the gases increases down the group.

That's why, Helium is used in balloons as it is lighter than air, whilst a balloon full of Xenon
would drop like a stone.
.

Uses:

- Helium is used in balloons as it is lighter than air and unreactive (unlike hydrogen
which is less dense but very reactive).
- Argon is used in light bulbs (due to its unreactivity) to prevent the white hot
filament would react with oxygen and quickly burn away,

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 Structure of Matter
Atom:
It is the smallest particle of an element that can exist on its own or take part in a chemical
change. It cannot be broken down into anything further.

Molecules

Two or more atoms joined together by a chemical bond.

Diatomic Molecule
(a MOLECULE) formed when two atoms forming a pair are joined together by a chemical
"bond". For Example, hydrogen (H2 ), oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2).

Elements, Mixtures and Compounds

AN ELEMENT is a substance which contains just one type of atoms, that have the same
atomic number and chemical properties .

- Noble gases are elements (e.g. argon) and are formed of single atoms . (Mono atomic)
- Other gaseous elements consist of pairs of atoms. (Diatomic) For Example, hydrogen
(H 2 ), oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2)

A COMPOUND: is two or more different elements which are chemically bonded together.

The properties of compounds are usually very different from the properties of the elements
they contain. For example sodium is a very reactive shiny metal and chlorine is a very poisonous
green gas. Sodium chloride, which is made when these two elements react, is commonly known as
salt and is safe to eat.

A MIXTURE: is when two more elements (or compounds) are mixed together but not
chemically joined and can be physically separated.

Element (Diatomic) Element (Monoatomic) Compound Mixture Mixture

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 Chapter 2- Bonding and Structure
- Most elements form compounds because they want a full outer shell and to achieve that they must react
with other atoms.
Bonding

Ionic Covalent

- Between Metal and Non-Metal atoms - Between Non-Metal atoms

- They react by losing and gaining - They react by sharing valence
valence electrons. electrons

1- IONIC BONDING
-Definition: It's a strong electrostatic attraction force between positive and negative ions.

Step 1 - Formation of Ions

Ions: are atoms which have gained or lost electrons to obtain a full outer shell. Ions
are always charged, because electrons have a negative charge.

Metals and Hydrogen Non- Metals

- Atoms that have 4 or more electrons
- Atoms that have less than 4 electrons
in the outermost shell.
in the outermost shell.
- They gain electrons form negative
- They lose electrons form positive
ions because they now have more
ions because they now havemore
electrons than protons.
protons than electrons.
- Negative ions are also known
- Positive ions are also known as as anions and their names end in
cations. -ide

Step 2 – Formation of ionic bond

Positive and negative ions are attracted by strong electrostatic attraction forces.

Summary of the steps of formation of and Ionic compound (Important 3marks question):
.
- Metals lose electrons to form cations
- Non-metals gain electrons to form anions.
- Positive and negative ions attract each other by a strong electrostatic attraction
force. This electrostatic attraction force is called ionic bonding.

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 Example 1 : Sodium Chloride

- Sodium (2,8,1) has 1 electron in its outer most shell, it loses the electron and becomes a positive
ion (cation), sodium has a charge of 1+, Because it has one more proton than electron.
- Chlorine (2,8,7) has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, . It gains an electron from sodium and becomes
a negative ion (Anion), it will have a charge of -1, as it has one more electron than proton.

- The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by the strong electrostatic attractions between the
positive and negative charges.

The formula of sodium chloride

You need one sodium atom to provide the extra electron for one chlorine atom, so they combine
together 1:1. The formula is therefore NaCl.

Important points:
- Hydrogen and metals form positive ions.

- Group 4 do not usually form ions because they would have to lose or gain several electrons
and that take too much energy.

- Group 0 elements do not form ions they already have full outer shells.

- Some of the transition metals form more than one ion.

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 Some other examples of ionic bonding

magnesium oxide

calcium chloride

Formulae and dot and cross Diagrams

- First: This takes place by Working out formulae by balancing charges on ions since the
final compound is electrically neutral. E.g Aluminium oxide

1 Write down the charges/ valencies on the two ions.

The charge on an ion will depend on the no. of electrons in the outermost shell.

Aluminium = 3+ oxygen = 2-

valency:
Is the number of electrons lost, gained or shared by an atom to reach the nearest inert gas.

An easy way to remember the charge on an ion is given in the table below:

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Electrons
Charge on no no
+1 +2 +3 ions -3 -2 -1
Ion ions

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 zero

3+
2 Switch the valences but now to act as subscripts. Al O2-

2 3
Hence the formula contains 3 x Al and 2 x O Answer Al2O3

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 - Second: Dot and Cross Diagram

Some other examples of dot and cross diagrams of other ionic compounds:

Magnesium Oxide

Calcium Chloride:

Magnesium Chloride:

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Write the Formulae and dot and cross diagrams of:

1- Magnesium oxide

2- Magnesium chloride

3- Sodium chloride

4- Sodium oxide

5- Calcium fluoride

6- Aluminium iodide

7- Magnesium sulfide

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 Naming Ionic Compounds:
- The metal always appears first in the name (if there is one).
- The -ide is added to the end of the non-metal to tell us that 2 elements have joined together,
forming a compound
E.g. sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
iron + oxygen iron oxide

Atomic Structure Worksheet 2

Use your Periodic Table to complete the following table. Beware of the ions hiding among the
atoms....
Mass Atomic Number Number of Number of Electronic
Particle
Number number of protons electrons neutrons Structure

P 31 15

K 19 19

F 9 9

Cl- 35 17 2,8,8

Na+ 23 11

H 1 1

Ar 18 22

O2- 10 8

H+ 1 1

Ca2+ 20 18

N3- 14 7

Al3+ 10 14

Li+ 3 2

C 6 6

S2- 16 18

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 Ionic Compounds
Structure:
When Ionic compounds are formed of a structure called IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE.
- Ionic Crystal lattice: (or Ionic lattice)
regular arrangement of alternating oppositely charged ions.( 2 marks)
held together by strong electrostatic attraction forces (1mark) total: 3 marks

An example is the sodium chloride lattice, which is shown as an ‘exploded’ view below.

+
Na ion
-
Cl ion

Each sodium ion is in contact with six chloride ions; each chloride ion is in contact with six sodium ions.

In reality, the ions are touching, as shown in the following diagrams.

+ - + - +
- + - + --
+ - + - +
- + - + -
+ - + - +

single layer
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Properties of ionic compounds

1. Ionic substances have high melting points and high boiling points.
Because:
- The IONS are held together by strong electrostatic attraction forces.
- The bonds need very high energy to be broken down

2. Ionic substances are solids at room temperature

Because:
- They have high melting and boiling points
- The ions are held together by strong electrostatic attraction forces
- They need high energy to be broken down

3. Ionic compounds can conduct electricity only when molten or aqueous because they have
free moving ions

- In the solid, the ions are rigidly held in the lattice, so they are not free to move.

4. Most ionic compounds are soluble in water.

2- COVALENT BONDING

A covalent bond is defined as a shared pair of electrons

.
It occurs in non- metals only.

Example (Read Only):

Here are two hydrogen atoms forming a covalent bond to

become H2.

Each H atom only has one electron. As it only has other H

atoms to bond with, each H atom pairs with another to share
their electrons, so each can have 2 in the shell making it full
and therefore stable.

It now exists as a hydrogen molecule (H2). It is very

difficult to split them up again (i.e. to break the covalent
bond) but very easy to separate one H2 molecule from
another. Hence, it has a low boiling point so at room
temperature it exists as a gas.

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Covalent bonding can be represented in 2 ways:

1- Dot and cross diagram :

A covalent bond can be represented by a dot and cross diagram. ONLY THE OUTER, BONDING
ELECTRONS NEED TO BE SHOWN.

Steps:

1. Decide how many electrons are in the outer shells of the atoms in the formula (remember
the Periodic Table shows this by the Group in which the element sits).

2. Decide the valency of each element, start with the elements on the outer sides. This will equal the
number of covalent bonds or shared pairs needed.

3. Draw the atoms overlapping and making the electron from one as dots, the other as crosses and
place the correct number of dot/cross pairs in the overlap.

4. Count the number of electrons in each atoms shell including those in the overlap and check the shells are
now all full. If they are not then increase the sharing until they are.

- When 1 pair of electrons is shared, it is called a single covalent bond.

- When 2 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called a double covalent bond

- When 3 pairs of electrons are shared it is called a triple covalent bond.

Oxygen, O2 Chlorine, Cl2

Covalent bonding can also occur in compounds (i.e. 2 or more different non-metals).

Hydrogen chloride, HCl Carbon dioxide, CO2

H-Cl O=C=O

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 Methane, CH4 Water, H2O

H
H–C–H H-O-H
H

EMAD
Ammonia, NH3 Nitrogen, N2
N ––– N

H-N-H
Dr. (3 lines show 3 pairs of
H
shared electrons, called
a triple bond)
2- Line diagram:
- The covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons) shown as a single line between two
atoms.
- each one of the moecules above has the line diagram written beside.

Naming covalent compounds

- If the compound in made of two non-metals joined together, the element with the lower group
number comes first.

- For naming compounds, hydrogen is considered to be part of group 1.

E.g. hydrogen + chlorine hydrogen chloride

carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide

- The prefixes mon- and di- are used to identify the no. of atoms of elements, where more
than 1 non-metal exists.

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 Covalent compounds are classified into:

1- Simple molecular substances/ Simple covalent substances

2- Giant Macromolecular substances/ Giant Covalent substances

1- SIMPLE MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES (Most common)

- Molecular substances are formed when two or more

atoms of non-metallic elements share pairs of
electrons.; forming strong, covalent bonds.
- The separate molecules are held together by
weak
attractive
forces called van der Waals’ forces or weak Weak forces between molecules
intermolecular forces.
- Molecular substances may be elements
(e.g. Cl2 O2) or compounds (e.g.H2O NH3).

Properties of simple molecules

1. They have low melting and boiling points. Strong covalent bonds

-The molecules are bonded by very weak intermolecular forces (the weak van der Waals)
- that require very little energy to be overcome.
Since this, some molecular substances melt, or even boil, below room temperature.

2. Molecular substances are usually gases, liquids or low-melting solids.

Because:
- They have low melting and boiling points.
- The molecules are bonded by very weak intermolecular forces (the weak van der Waals’ forces)
- That requires very little energy to be overcome.

3. Simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity, because they have no free moving ions
nor electrons.

4. Most covalent substances are insoluble in water. They will, however, dissolve in organic
solvents such as alcohol

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 2- MACROMOLECULAR SUBSTANCES/ GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES:

- Atoms which share electrons can also form giant structures. Macromolecular substances
have continuous structures of atoms which are bonded by covalent bonds. Each piece is one
enormous molecule which extends indefinitely in two or three dimensions. The covalent bonds are
strong and exist throughout the crystal.

- Examples: quartz, diamond, graphite.

Quartz is silicon dioxide SiO2. Diamond and graphite are both forms of carbon; they contain only
carbon atoms, but the atoms are bonded together differently.

B- DIAMOND

- Each carbon is bonded to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent

bond forming a tetrahedral structure.

Properties of diamond
(tetrahedral)
1. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance known and is used to make tip cutting tools
that are used in drilling and cutting.
Why?
- Because in diamond each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms,
- which are joined by very strong covalent bonds
- forming a tetrahedral structure
- These bonds need very high energy to be broken down.

2. Diamond has a very high melting point (3350oC).

Why?
- Because in diamond each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms,
- which are joined by very strong covalent bonds
- forming a tetrahedral structure
- These bonds need very high energy to be broken down.

A- GRAPHITE
Structure:

- Graphite repeated layers of hexagons in which each carbon

is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.
- layers are bonded by weak vanderwaal forces weak
intermolecular forces

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 Properties of graphite

1. Graphite is a dark grey, greasy solid with a dull shine.

2. Graphite is soft and slippery and can be used as a lubricant.

-Because: (3 marks)

- Graphite is formed of layers that are bonded by weak intermolecular forces.

- These layers can slide over each other easily.

3. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

This is because of free moving electrons

SILICON DIOXIDE

- Silicon Dioxide occurs naturally as the mineral quartz.

- This is the main component of sand.
Structure:

Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 other oxygen atoms and

Each oxygen atom is bonded to 2 other silicon atoms
bonded by stong covalent bonds forming a tetrahedral structure.

= Si =O
Properties:

It is a very similar macromolecule to diamond so:

- It is very hard
- Has a high melting point
- Does not conduct electricity.

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 3- METALS
- Metals have giant structures called lattice which can be described as:
layers/ lattice of positive ions embedded in a sea of negative electrons bonded by electrostatic attraction
force. (3 marks)

+ + + + + + metal ion
+ + + + free electron
+ + + + +

*Properties of metals

1. Metals are good conductors of electricity, even when solid, because they have free moving
electrons.

2. Metals are good conductors of heat, because it has free electrons.

3. Most metals can be hammered into different shapes (malleable) or drawn into wires (ductile),
because the layers of atoms can slide over each other due to same atomic size and without breaking the
attraction forces between them

4. Most metals have high melting points, because it requires a large amount of energy to break up
the electrostatic attraction forces.

Important exceptions are the group 1 metals (e.g. sodium melts at 98 oC) and mercury, which is
liquid at room temperature.

Alloys:
Alloys are mixtures of metals and other elements that give the element better properties (harder and more
resistant to corrosion).

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Steel alloys: Mixture of iron and other elements (Mainly carbon)
.

Steel (High percentage of Carbon): is hard and strong but brittle; it is used to make bridges and buildings

Mild Steel (Low percentage of carbon): is soft and easily shaped.. It is used in the manufacture of car bodies
and machinery.

Stainless steel: is an alloy containing high percentage carbon plus chromium and nickel, which is hard and
resistant to corrosion. It is used to make cutlery, sinks etc.

Why alloys are harder than pure metals?

Because Ions have the same atomic size so layers cannot slide over each other as easily as in the pure metal.

Other alloys

ALLOY COMPOSITION PARTICULAR PROPERTIES

Stainless steel Iron 74% Resists corrosion

Chromium 18%
Nickel 8%

Bronze Copper 90% Much harder than copper

Tin 10%

Brass Copper 60% Easy to work. Resistant to corrosion

Zinc 40%

Page 26 of 205
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is a useful structural metal. It can be made harder, stronger and stiffer by mixing in small amounts
of other metals to make alloys.

1- Aluminium has a low density, which makes it useful in the construction of aircraft. It can be
made harder, stronger and stiffer by mixing with small amounts of other metals to make alloys.

2- Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity and has a low density and is used to make overhead
power lines.

3- Aluminium is a good conductor of heat and is used to make car engines, saucepans and kitchen
foil.

4- Aluminium is a useful structural metal, because it is ductile and can be shaped

easily to make, for example, window frames and greenhouses.

Aluminium is a reactive metal which is high in the reactivity series. However, it is resistant to corrosion.
This is because aluminium reacts to form a very thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface, which then
protects the aluminium below from further corrosion by acting as a barrier to water and oxygen.

COPPER
Uses of copper
1- Copper is used in electrical wiring due to its high electrical conductivity
2- Copper is also used to make pots and pans which conduct heat very well

Page 27 of 205
 Chapter 3- ACIDS AND BASES

Many compounds dissolve in water to produce acidic or alkaline solutions, while many other compounds
react with water to produce acidic or alkaline solutions.

ACIDS

Main Definition: An acid is a proton donor.

Other Definitions: Acids dissolve in aqueous solution produce hydrogen
ions, H+ (aq) or/ a substance that reacts with a base to form salt and water.

-- Turns wet blue litmus paper red.

Examples:
- Hydrochloric acid HCl  H+ + Cl-
HCl + H2O  H3O+ + Cl-

- Sulfuric acid H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-

2-
H2SO4 + 2H2O  2H3O+ + SO4
-
- Nitric Acid HNO3  H+ + NO3
HNO3 + H2O  H3O+ + NO3-

BASES

Main Definition: A base is a proton acceptor

or/ a substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water.
- Soluble bases are called alkalis, they dissolve in aqueous solution
producing hydroxide ions, OH(aq).
- Turns wet red litmus paper blue.

Examples: NaOH  Na+ + OH-

KOH  K+ + OH-

NH3 + H2O  NH4+ + OH_

Bases are either metal oxides or metal hydroxides.

Common metal oxides: Common metal Hydroxides

- NA2O Sodium oxide - Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
- K2O potassium oxide - NaOH Sodium hydroxide
- CuO copper oxide - KOH Potassium hydroxide

Page 28 of 205
 NEUTRALISATION
- Hydrogen ions, H+(aq), make solutions acidic.
- Hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), make solutions alkaline.

- When equal numbers of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions react together, they
produce a neutral solution, which can be shown by an indicator. The simplest equation to
represent this process of neutralisation is:

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

The other product of the reaction is a salt.

ACID +BASE  SALT + WATER

The Strengths of Acids and Alkalis

Acids and alkalis are classified according to the extent to which they dissociate into ions when
dissolved in water.

Strong Acids
A STRONG ACID is an acid which completely ionises in water.

Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric
acid.
HCl H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) 100%

Weak Acids
A WEAK ACID is one which partially ionises in water.

Examples of weak acids are ethanoic acid (in vinegar), citric acid (in lemon juice) and carbonic acid (in soda
water).
CH3COOH H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) 1%

Since strong acids are ionised to a greater extent than weak acids, a solution of a strong acid will contain a
higher concentration of hydrogen ions than a weak acid of the same concentration. This is reflected in the
pH.
The higher the hydrogen ion concentration, the less the pH. 1M HCl, a strong acid, has a pH of about 1. 1M
ethanoic acid, a weak acid, has a pH of about 4.

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Strong Alkalis
A STRONG ALKALI is one which completely ionises in water.

Examples of strong alkalis are sodium hydroxide NaOH and potassium hydroxide KOH.

NaOH H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) 100%

Weak Alkalis

A WEAK ALKALI is one which partially ionises in water.

An example of a weak alkali is ammonia solution NH4OH. Ammonia produced hydroxide
ions in the following way;
NH3 + H2O NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Since strong alkalis are ionised to a greater extent than weak alkalis, a solution of a strong alkali will contain
a higher concentration of hydroxide ions than a weak alkali of the same concentration. This is reflected in the
pH.
The higher the hydroxide ion concentration, the higher the pH. 1M NaOH, a strong alkali, has a pH of about 14.
1M ammonia solution, a weak alkali, has a pH of about 10.

PH Scale:

YASSMIN
It's a scale from 0 to 14 that states how acidic or alkaline a substance is.

- Acids have PH < 7, The stronger the acid, the lower the PH.
- Alkalis have PH > 7, the stronger the base, the higher the PH.
- Neutral solutions have PH=7

Page 30 of 205
How can you measure the PH of a solution?

1- Indicators:
Indicators are substances which changes colour when added to acidic or alkaline solution.

Examples: litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, ...................

Indicator Colour in acid Neutral colour Colour in alkali

Litmus solution Red Violet Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow

2- Universal indicator solution:

- It is the only indicator that gives a range of colours depending on the strength of the acid or alkali
added. Its colour changes according to the PH.

- It may be in the form of solution or paper. The paper is called PH paper and is more accurate.

- The same solution may give different colours according to the concentration.

Page 31 of 205
 3- Using a PH meter:
PH of colored solutions must not be measured using indicators, PH meter has to be used.

Reactions of acids and bases

Reactions of acids:

Compounds of metals called salts can be made by the reaction of different substances with
acids. These are all examples of neutralisation.

Acid + metal salt + hydrogen

1-

Only metals above H+ in the reactivity series are able to react with acids
Example:
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid  Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2

Acid + base salt + water

2-

- Most metal oxides and hydroxides especially those of the transition elements, are
called bases since they are insoluble in water.
Calcium oxide + nitric acid ---> Calcium nitrate + Water
CaO + 2 HNO3 ---> Ca(NO3)2 + H2O

3- Acid + Alkali salt + water

The bases which are soluble in water, like sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide, are called alkalis.

Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide  sodium chloride + water

HCL +NaOH  NaCl +H2O

4- Acid + metal (hydrogen) carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

Hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate  calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

HCl + CaC03 --> 2CaCl2 + H 2O + CO2

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 - The particular salt formed in the reaction of an acid depends on the acid used and the
metal ion present in the metal, base alkali or metal carbonate.

- Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides.

- nitric acid produces nitrates.

- Phosphoric acid produces phosphates

- carbonic acid produces Carbonate

- Sulphuric acid produces sulphates.

- Ethanoic acid produces ethanoate

Solve the following word equations and convert to chemical

equations:

1- Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid 

2- Calcium oxide + nitric acid 

3- Sodium Hydroxide + Sulfuric acid 

4- Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid

Page 33 of 205
 Comparing Strong & Weak Acids
Since strong acids are ionised to a greater extent than weak acids, a solution of a strong acid will contain a
higher concentration of hydrogen ions than a weak acid of the same concentration. This means that any
reaction involving hydrogen ions will occur faster with the strong acid than with the weak acid.

The higher the hydrogen ion concentration, the lower the pH.
1M HCl, a strong acid, has a pH of about 1.
1M ethanoic acid, a weak acid, has a pH of about 3.

(1M is a measure of concentration; there is one mole of the acid in a litre of solution.)

1- Reaction with Magnesium

Magnesium dissolves in acids, giving off bubbles of hydrogen gas. The reaction is a redox reaction
involving hydrogen ions:
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

- Add equal masses of magnesium to equal volumes and concentrations of HCL and Ethanoic Acid
- The experiment containing HCl will produce more hydrogen gas per unit time that the experiment
containing ethanoic acid. (The piece in HCl dissolves faster)

2- Reaction with metal carbonate

To differentiate between strong acid and weak acid:
- add equal masses of metal carbonates (e.g. calcium carbonate) to equal volumes and
concentrations of the 2 acids.

- The one that produces more hydrogen gas per unit time is the stronger acid/ gives more
vigorous effervescence is the stronger acid.

3- Electricity conduction
Also stronger acids conduct electricity better than weak acids. They have higher concentrations of hydrogen
ions.

4- Using universal Indicator

- On adding a universal indicator to a strong acid it gives a red color, the weaker acid would give
orange or yellow. On using same volume and concentrations of acids.

- Compare the colour of the universal indicator chart to obtain a PH value.

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 5- - Titration

Titration is a practical laboratory technique to find out the end of a reaction between an acid and
an alkali.
If we have two acids, acid (A) and acid (B), which are of the same concentration.
a. 50 ml of one of the acids, acid (A) is placed in the conical flask using a pipette.
b. Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the acid which turns red.
c. The acid is then titrated against 0.1 mol/dm3 of sodium hydroxide solution
(NaOH) from a burette until the end point from red to yellow.
d. Record the volume of sodium hydroxide solution taken from the burette.
e. Repeat the experiment with acid (B) instead of acid (A) but same concentration.

Analysis: The acid which takes the larger volume of the sodium hydroxide
solution in the burette is the stronger.

Comparing strengths of alkalis: (Soluble bases):

1- using universal indicator

- On adding a universal indicator to a strong alkali it gives a violet color, the weaker alkali
would give blue colour. On using same volume and concentrations of acids.

- Compare the colour of the universal indicator chart to obtain a PH value.

2- Titration:
If we have two bases, base (A) and base (B), Which are of the same concentration.
a. 50 ml of one of the bases, base (A) is placed in the conical flask using a pipette.

b. Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the base which turns yellow.

c. The base is then titrated against 0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution
(HCl) from a burette until the end point from yellow to red.
d. Record the volume of hydrochloric acid solution taken form the burette. e. Repeat
the experiment with base (B) instead of base (A) but same concentration.

Analysis: the base which takes the larger volume of the hydrochloric acid solution in
the burette is the stronger.

Page 35 of 205
 Reactions of Bases:

1- Base + acid salt + water (neutralization)

For example:
potassium hydroxide + nitric acid potassium nitrate + water
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid sodium chloride + water

2- Base + ammonium salt  salt + water + ammonia gas

Example:

Sodium hydroxide + ammonium chloride  sodium chloride + water + ammonia

NaOH + NH4Cl ---> NaCl + H2O + NH3

3- Ammonia is a gas which dissolves in water to produce an alkaline solution. This

can be neutralised by acids to produce ammonium salts. for example:
ammonia + sulphuric acid ammonium sulphate
2 NH3 + H2SO4 ----> (NH4)2SO4

Displacement Reactions

1- Displacement of Metals and Metal compounds

A metal will displace (take the place of) a less reactive metal
in a metal salt (solid or solution). The element carbon can do
this also.

For example,

magnesium + copper sulfate magnesium sulfate +copper.

Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Page 36 of 205
Solve the following word equations and convert to chemical equations:

1- Magnesium + iron III chloride 

2- Calcium + potassium nitrate 

3- Sodium + lead II nitrate 

4- Zinc + Copper II Sulfate

Displacement Reactions of Halogens:

The relative reactivity of the halogens, can be shown by displacement reactions. for example, Bromine gas
bubbled through a solution of potassium iodide in water will displace (take the place of) the less reactive
iodine, forming iodine and potassium bromide.

bromine + potassium iodide potassium bromide + iodine.

Br2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KBr(aq) + I2(s)

Similarly, chlorine will displace less reactive halogens. Chlorine will displace both bromine and iodine from
the appropriate salt.

chlorine + potassium iodide potassium chloride + iodine.

Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KCl(aq) + I2(s)

N.B. The colour always changes from colourless to red brown (in Case Iodine is produced)
But the Colour changes from colourless to orange red (In Case bromine is Produced)

Page 37 of 205
 Solubility

1- All Metals are insoluble in water

2- All acids are aqueous

Soluble Insoluble

- All sodium, potassium, ammonium and

nitrate salts are soluble in water
(SPAN)

All chlorides, bromides and iodides are Except silver and lead halides
soluble in water

All sulfates are soluble in water Except barium and lead sulfates
Except sodium, potassium and All carbonates and phosphates are
ammonium insoluble in water

- Except sodium, potassium and All oxides and hydroxides are

ammonium insoluble in water

- Calcium compounds are sparingly

(Partially) soluble in this case

Page 38 of 205
 COLOURS
1- All metals are silvery grey except:

Gold: golden yellow

Copper: red brown

2- All gases are colourless except :

fluorine is pale yellow

chlorine is greenish yellow

nitrogen dioxide is red brown

3- Halogens become darker down the group

F pale yellow gas

Cl Greenish yellow gas

Br red brown liquid/ Orange red when aqueous

I Grey solid/ red brown when aqueous/ purple vapour in the gas state

4- All compounds of group 1, 2 and 3 metals are white and dissolve to form colourless

solutions.

5- All transition metal compounds are coloured and dissolve to form coloured solutions

- Al copper compounds are blue except:

CuO Black

CuCO3 Green

- All iron (II) compounds are green

- All iron (III) compounds are red brown

- MnO2 is a black compound

- KMnO4 is a purple compound

Page 39 of 205
 OBSERVATIONS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1- Acid/Base Reactions:

A- Metal/Acid:
magnesium + sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate + hydrogen

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

- Silvery grey metal dissolves

- Effervescence of a colourless gas
- Solution gets warmer

B- BASE /ACID
copper oxide + sulphuric acid copper sulphate + water
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

- Black solid dissolves

- Solution turns from colourless to blue
- Solution gets warmer

C- Metal carbonate/Acid:
copper carbonate + sulphuric acid copper sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

- Green solid dissolves

- Effervescence of a colouless gas
- Solution turns from colourless to blue
- Solution gets warmer

2- Displacement Reactions of Metals:

Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Silvery grey solid + Blue solution colourless solution + red copper

- The blue colour of the solution fades away.

- Silvery grey magnesium metal is seen to turn brown as the displaced copper metal
becomes deposited on its surface.

3- Displacement Reactions of Halogens:

a- Br2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KBr(aq) + I2(s)

The colour always changes from colourless to red brown

Page 40 of 205
 PREPARATION OF SALTS

There are several methods for making salts. The method chosen depends on:

whether the salt reacts with water

whether the salt is soluble or insoluble in water
whether the metal contained in the salt is a reactive or unreactive metal

1. PRECIPITATION
- Definition of Precipitate: An Insoluble Salt fomed from mixing 2 aqueous
solutions
- When a salt is insoluble in water, it is prepared by precipitation.
- A solution of a soluble salt containing the desired metal ion (usually the metal
nitrate) is added to a solution containing the desired negative ion (usually as its
sodium salt).
- The two ions combine immediately to give a precipitate (a solid).
- The precipitate is filtered off, washed with water and dried.

e.g. to make lead(II) iodide, a solution of lead(II) nitrate is added to a solution of

sodium iodide.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s)

e.g. to make barium sulphate, a solution of barium nitrate is added to a solution
of sodium sulphate
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)

2- SOLUBLE SALTS (Excess method)

There are three methods for making soluble salts:
the reaction of an acid with a reactive metal
the reaction of an acid and an insoluble metal oxide (or hydroxide) the reaction of an
acid and an insoluble metal carbonate

The method followed in each case is the same.

Page 41 of 205
a) The reaction of an acid with a reactive metal

- The reaction of an acid with a metal can only be used for metals which are neither
too reactive nor too unreactive, i.e. those between Ca and Sn inclusive in the
reactivity series.

- For example, magnesium sulphate, MgSO4, can be made by the reaction of

magnesium with sulphuric acid:

magnesium + sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate + hydrogen

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

The method is:

- warm the dilute sulphuric acid

- add excess magnesium ribbon until no more will react, and a small
amountof the metal remains undissolved .

- filter the excess magnesium

- evaporate the filtrate till the point of crystallization

- leave the solution to cool and crystallise

- Filter magnesium sulfate crystals

- wash the crystals with a little cold water and dry between 2 filter papers

magnesium

dilute sulphuric acid

excess magnesium

Page 42 of 205
b) The reaction of an acid with an insoluble metal oxide

The reaction of an acid and an insoluble metal oxide (or hydroxide) can be used to prepare
almost all soluble salts.

For example, copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, can be made by the reaction of copper(II) oxide
with sulphuric acid:

copper oxide + sulphuric acid copper sulphate + water

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

The method is:

- heat dilute sulphuric acid.

- add solid copper oxide a little at a time until no more will react, and a small
amount of the solid remains un dissolve

- filter off the excess copper oxide

- evaporate the solution to the point of crystallization

- leave the solution to cool and crystallise .

- collect copper sulphate crystals by filtration

- wash the crystals with cold distilled water water and dry between 2 filter papers

copper oxide

excess copper oxide

dilute sulphuric acid

Page 43 of 205
c) The reaction of an acid with an insoluble metal carbonate

The reaction of an acid and an insoluble metal carbonate can be used to prepare almost all
soluble salts.

For example, copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, can be made by the reaction of copper(II)
carbonate with sulphuric acid:

copper carbonate + sulphuric acid copper sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The method is:

- heat dilute sulphuric acid.

- add solid copper II carbonate until no more will react, and a small amount of
the solid remains un dissolved.

- filter off the excess copper II carbonate

- evaporate the solution to the point of crystallization

- leave the solution to cool and crystallise .

- collect copper sulphate crystals by filtration

- wash the crystals with cold distilled water water and dry between 2 filter papers

copper oxide

excess copper oxide

dilute sulphuric acid

Page 44 of 205
3. TITRATION

The two reasons when we use titration:

- When the metal oxide or metal carbonate is soluble in water, it is not possible to
use the method described in section 3, because it is not possible to see when an
excess has been added, nor is it possible to filter off the excess.

- When the metal is very reactive, it is not possible to use the acid + metal method .

Therefore, none of the three usual methods for making soluble salts can be used for making
sodium and potassium salts. Instead titration is used. For example, sodium chloride can be
made by titrating hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide solution.

The method is:

- measure out 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid using a pipette

- add 3-5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator

- add sodium hydroxide solution from a burette, until the indicator changes colour,
showing that neutralisation is complete and the end-point has been reached.

- read from the burette the amount of sodium hydroxide solution needed,
repeat 3 time and take average.

- repeat the titration using identical volumes of hydrochloric acid and

sodium hydroxide solution, but without the indicator

- evaporate the solution till the point of crystallization

- leave it to cool and crystallise

- collect sodium chloride crystals by filtration

- wash the crystals with cold distilled water and dry between 2 filter papers.

Page 45 of 205
 SALT PREPARATION

DOES THE SALT REACT No IS THE SALT SOLUBLE No

WITH WATER? IN WATER?
PRECIPITATION
Yes Yes

IS IT THE SALT OF A No
REACTIVE METAL? ACID + INSOLUBLE OXIDE

Yes ACID + INSOLUBLE CARBONATE

IS ITA SODIUM OR
POTASSIUM SALT?

No
Yes

TITRATION ACID + METAL

ACID + INSOLUBLE OXIDE

ACID + INSOLUBLE CARBONATE

Page 46 of 205
 Chapter 4- REDOX

1. Oxidation & Reduction

A- Oxidation and reduction are based on the loss/gain of oxygen .

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen; reduction is the loss of oxygen or the gain of hydrogen.

These definitions can only be used when a chemical reaction involves oxygen, and therefore
their usefulness is limited.

2Mg + O2 2MgO Mg has been oxidised

CuO + H2 Cu + H20 CuO has been reduced

H2 has also been oxidised

B- Oxidation and reduction is based on the loss/gain of electrons.

OXIDATION IS LOSS OF ELECTRONS

REDUCTION IS GAIN OF ELECTRONS

In reactions involving simple ions, it is usually easy to tell whether

electrons are lost or gained.

Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- iron has been oxidised

Al3+ + 3e- Al aluminium has been reduced

C- If, the oxidation state of an element increases (i.e. becomes more positive or
less negative), then the element has lost electrons and has been OXIDISED.

But, if the oxidation state of an element decreases (i.e. becomes less positive or more negative),
then the element has gained electrons and has been REDUCED.

oxidation: loss of 2e- x 1

0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

reduction: gain of 1e- x 2

Page 47 of 205
 Oxidation

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Reduction

2. Oxidation State (Number)

- The oxidation state is used to express the valency of an element , whether as the
uncombined element or when combined in a compound; it consists of a + or – sign followed by a
number, or it is zero. Oxidation states of metals are usually written in roman numerals e.g. Iron (III)
chloride.

e.g. compound oxidation state

NaCl Na +1 Cl -1
CCl4 C +4 Cl -1
HBr H +1 Br -1
H2S H +1 S -2

The following general rules are useful:

All free elements (i.e. those not combined with another element) have an oxidation state of 0.

e.g. Na, Mg, Br2

In simple ions, the charge on the ion is equal to the oxidation state.

e.g. ion Na+ Fe3+ Br- O2-

oxidation number +1 +3 -1 -2

Halogens have an oxidation state in their compounds of –1.

Combined oxygen always has an oxidation state of –2.

e.g. compound oxidation numbers

Fe2O3 Fe +3 O -2
Mn2O7 Mn +7 O -2
CrO3 Cr +3 O -2

Page 48 of 205
 Group I elements in their compounds always have an oxidation state of +1.

Group II elements in their compounds always have an oxidation state of +2.

Hydrogen in its compounds always has an oxidation state of +1, except when it has combined with
a reactive metal.

e.g. compound oxidation numbers

H2O H +1 O -2
HCl H +1 Cl -1
CH4 H +1 C -4
BUT ….
NaH Na +1 H -1

4. Redox Reactions

REDuction and OXidation occur together in what is called a REDOX reaction.

Example:

 work out the oxidation states for all the elements in the reaction

 identify the oxidation and reduction steps

oxidation: loss of 2e- x 1

0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

reduction: gain of 1e- x 2

Page 49 of 205
Oxidising and reducing agents
An oxidising agent oxidises another substance and is itself reduced in the process.

A reducing agent reduces another substance and is itself oxidised in the process.

Reduction Oxidation
In the reaction

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

Oxidising agent Reducing agent

Common oxidising agents:

1- Potassium manganate KMNO4

2- Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7
3- Halogens

Common reducing agents:

1- Potassium iodide KI
2- Carbon C
3- Carbon monoxide CO
4- Hydrogen H2

Test for oxidising agents:

They turn potassium iodide from colourless into red brown.

Test for reducing agents:

They turn Potassium manganate from purple to colourless

Page 50 of 205
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION (1)

Examine each of the following redox equations. Work out the state of each element in all the atoms, ions
and molecules. Using these numbers, explain with reasons which substance is oxidised and which
substance is reduced

SO2 + 2Mg 2MgO + S

C + H2O CO + H2

SnCl2 + HgCl2 Hg + SnCl4

H2 + Cl2 2HCl

2Fe3+ + 2I- 2Fe2+ + I2

Page 51 of 205
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION(2)

QUESTION SHEET 5
Examine each of the following reactions.

 For each equation, work out the oxidation state of each element in all the atoms, ions and
molecules. Use these numbers to decide whether the change taking place is a redox reaction or
not.

 Where a redox reaction occurs, indicate, with reasons, which species is oxidised and which is
reduced

 Where the change is not a redox reaction, describe in one word the type of change taking place.

1. Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)

2. NaCl(s) Na+(l) + Cl-(l)

3. 2Fe3+(aq) + 2I-(aq) 2Fe2+(aq) + I2(s)

4. C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)

5. Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

6. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

7. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

8. Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)

Page 52 of 205
 OXIDATION & REDUCTION(3)
 Examine each of the following redox equations. Work out the state of each element in all the
atoms, ions and molecules. Using these numbers, explain with reasons which substance is
oxidised and which substance is reduced

1. Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)

2. Br2(s) + 2KI 2KBr(aq) + I2

3. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

4. SO2 + 2Mg 2MgO + S

5. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Page 53 of 205
 Oxides
Oxides are compounds which contain oxygen and another element. They are usually formed
by the direct combination of the two elements by heating them together.

1- Acidic oxides:

 They are non-metal oxides are acidic oxides such as: Carbon dioxide CO2, silicon
dioxide SiO2, sulfur dioxide SO2 and sulfur trioxide SO3, phosphorous (III) oxide
P2O3 and Nitrogen dioxide NO2
 They are covalent compounds.

 They can neutralize bases. They react with alkalis to give salt and water.
SiO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaSiO3 + H2O

 They dissolve in water to give acidic solutions.

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

2- Basic oxides:

 Most metal oxides are basic oxides.

 They are ionic compounds
 they can neutralize acids. They react with alkalis to give salt and water.
CuO + 2HCl  CuCl2 + 2HCl + CuCl2 + H2O

 They dissolve in water to give alkaline solutions

CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2

Suggest why carbon dioxide turns lime water milky?

Because carbon dioxide is acidic oxide which dissolves in water to form an acidic
solution, while lime water is alkaline. they react together.

3-Amphoteric oxides:
Aluminium oxide Al2O3, Lead Oxide PbO and Zinc Oxide ZnO are the most common
3 Amphoteric Oxides.Here, aluminium oxide is behaving as if it were a base by
reacting with an acid.
Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H20

But here, aluminium oxide is behaving as if it were an acid by reacting with a base.
Al2O3 + 6NaOH 2Na3AlO3 + 3H20

Page 54 of 205
 4-Neutral oxides:

Some oxides are neutral oxides. They don’t react with acids or bases. Carbon monoxide,
Water and nitrogen monoxide are neutral oxides.

Ionic equations
Ionic equations only show ions which take part in a reaction and are often simpler than full chemical equations.
Consider a few examples of the reactions mentioned above. Remember that many ionic substances dissolve in
water to give a solution containing a positive and negative ion. Those that don’t dissolve still contain ions.

1- HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+(aq) + Cl -
(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl -
(aq) + H 2O
(l)

For the ionic equation we cancel out the ‘spectator’ ions that are not taking part.

H+ (aq) + Cl -
(aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl -
(aq) + H2O(l)

Gives

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

The 4 types of Ionic equations:

1- Metal + acid: (Redox)

Ex. Na(s) + H+(aq) Na+ (aq) + H2 (g)

2- Neutralization reaction: (Not a Redox reaction)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

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 3- Metal displacement reaction

Ex. Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

4- Precipitation reaction (Not a Redox Reaction)

Ex. Ag+(aq) + Cl-  AgCl (s)

Balancing Ionic Equations:.

----Mg + ----HCl ---- MgCl2 + ---H2

0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0

---Fe2+ + ---Cl2 ---Fe3+ + ---Cl-

+2 0 +3 -1

---Fe3+ + ---S2- ---Fe2+ + ---S

+3 -2 +2 0

---Cu2+ + ---Zn ---Zn2+ + ---Cu

+2 0 +2 0

Page 56 of 205
 Chapter 5 - STATES OF MATTER
1- Kinetic Theory

The properties of solids, liquids and gases can be explained by kinetic

theory. Kinetic theory states that matter is made of tiny particles and
move all the time.

2- Solids, Liquids and Gases

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape •Have a fixed shape •Take the shape of •Take the shape of
their container their container
Volume Fixed Fixed Takes the volume
of the container
Attractive forces Strong Weak Very Weak
between particles
Compressibility •Can’t be compressed •Can’t be •Can be compressed
compressed
Distance between •Particles close •Particles close •Particles widely
particles together. together but more spaced
slightly further
apart than solids.
Arrangement of .In a regular pattern .Particles are a .Particles are
particles called a lattice little disordered arranged in a
random order
Movement of •Particles vibrate •Particles slide over •Particles moving
particles around a fixed point each other very fast.

Page 57 of 205
Changing states of matter:

Most substances can exist in all three states, but not all at once! The state of a
substance depends on the temperature, so changes of state happen by heating
and cooling. The changes between the different states are summarised below.

.Definitions:

Evaporation: (Vaporization) When particles of liquid gain energy they move

a part and the liquid becomes a gas.

Melting: When a solid is heated, its particles get more energy and vibrate more
breaking away from their position, the solid becomes a liquid.

Sublimation: This is the change of state from solid to vapour and back from
vapour to solid without passing through the liquid state.

Example: Dry ice and iodine undergo sublimation.

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The graph above shows what happens to the temperature of a substance as it
changes state.

1) Starting from the solid state, the temperature increases steadily and the
particles gain kinetic energy, vibrate faster, separate away from each other,
thus the solid expands.

2) When the temperature reaches the melting point for that particular
substance the particles in the solid start separating and a liquid is formed. The
temperature does not change because all the energy being supplied is being used
to separate the particles from each other (breaking bonds). This is the melting
point and is shown by the first flat section of the graph.

3) Once the entire solid has turned into a liquid then the energy being supplied
particles gain kinetic energy,move faster and bounce further apart, thus the
liquid expands. Now the graph shows the temperature of the liquid rising
steadily.

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4) The temperature of the liquid continues to rise until it reaches the boiling
point for that particular substance. Here, the particles in the liquid begin to
separate and a gas if formed. The temperature does not change during boiling
because the energy being supplied is used to separate the particles in the liquid
(Breaking bonds again). This is the boiling point and is shown by the second flat
section of the graph.

5) Once all the liquid has turned into a gas then the energy being supplied makes
the particles in the gas move with increasing speed. Now the graph shows the
gas becoming steadily hotter.

These processes are all easily reversible simply by cooling down.

Note:
- In a pure substance, changes of state happen at fixed temperatures.

Definitions:

- The BOILING POINT: of a liquid is the temperature at which it quickly

changes into a gas.

- The MELTING POINT: of a solid is the temperature it changes into a

liquid.

- The freezing point: of a substance is the same as its melting point. In

other words, the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid
(melting) is the same at which the liquid changes back into a solid
(freezing). For example, solid ice melts into liquid water at 0 °C, and liquid
water freezes into ice at 0 °C.

Page 60 of 205
Note:

Other substances melt and boil at different temperatures depending on the

strength of the forces of attraction which must be overcome. Oxygen melts at -
219°C and boils at -183°C. This tells us that not much heat energy needs to be
applied to overcome the forces of attraction between the molecules. (weak
intermolecular forces of attraction between particles) However diamond (a form
of carbon) melts at 3550°C and boils at 4832°C meaning a huge amount of energy
is needed. (Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between particles)

Difference between boiling and evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation (Vaporization)

Definition When a liquid is heated, its - Particles on the surface

particles get more energy and in a liquid have more
move faster. energy than others even
when a liquid is more
- At the boiling point, All the below the boiling point.
particles get enough energy to
overcome the forces holding - These particles have
them together. They break away enough energy to
from the liquid to form a gas. escape and form a gas.

Temperature Occurs at certain temperature Occurs at any temperature

which is the boiling point

Note:

The rate of evaporation increases with:

Increasing the temperature and increasing the surface area.

Page 61 of 205
 3- Diffusion

- This is the movement atoms or molecules due to their continuous and

random motion, from the region of their higher concentration to the
region of their lower concentration. e.g. Mixing of bromine vapour and air.

Evidence of diffusion:
- In Gases: A gas jar of air and a gas jar of
bromine connected.

- A few drops of liquid bromine are put into a

gas jar and the lid is replaced. After a short
time the jar becomes full of brown gas.
Bromine vaporises easily and its particles
diffuse to fill the available space.

- In liquids: potassium permanganate in a

beaker of water.

- potassium permanganate dissolves from the surface of the crystals

to water,

particles diffuse from a region of high concentration to a region of

low concentration until evenly distributed and it fills the beaker.

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Rate of diffusion
- Ammonia and hydrochloric acid particles react when they meet and white
smoke (ammonium chloride) forms.

- Ammonia evaporates and Hydrochloric acid evaporates forming hydrogen

chloride gas.They diffuse along the tube and react forming ammonium
chloride closer to the HCl .`

Page 63 of 205
As the ammonia travels farthest along the tube we know that:

The ammonia particles move faster than hydrochloric acid particles.

The ammonia particles are lighter (lower molecular mass) than the hydrochloric
acid particles.

That's why the white smoke of ammonium chloride is formed

close to the hydrochloric acid soaked cotton wool.

Factors affecting diffusion:

Temperature: The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature
the faster they move.

Molecular mass of particles: Heavier particles move more slowly than

light ones at a given temperature.

4- THE MASSES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES

1- RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

- The mass number of an isotope is equal to the number of protons plus
neutrons in one atom and is, therefore, a whole number.

- The mass of single hydrogen is incredibly small when measured in grams.

Mass of one hydrogen atom= 1.7X 10-24. Because of the incredibly small size
of atoms, it is not possible to weigh them directly. Instead the masses of
atoms are weighed in relative to a standard atom; for this purpose the
mass of one atom of 12C is taken to be 12.0000.

- The mass of any other atom compared to that of the carbon atom is
called it’s RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS and is given the symbol Ar.

The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the average mass of

isotopes of the element compared with the mass of one standard
atom of an atom of 12C.

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- N.B. Relative atomic mass is a ratio, so it is simply a number and has no units.

- The 12C atom contains 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons. The hydrogen
atom contains 1 proton and 1 electron. Since the mass of an electron is
negligible compared to that of a proton or a neutron, the hydrogen atom
has only 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom; therefore the relative atomic
mass of hydrogen is 1. Similarly, the relative mass of an oxygen atom,
which contains 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons, is 16.

2- RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

It is the sum of all atomic masses of all atoms of a molecule. It is found by

adding up all the relative atomic masses of all elements in the compound
according to the number of each element's atoms.

- Example 1:
For CO2 the molecule contains a carbon atom and two oxygen atoms and so 1
molecule of CO2 has a relative formula mass of 12+16+16=44. Similarly the
formula of NaCl shows 1 sodium atom for every chlorine atom and so the Mr
of NaCl is 23+35.5=58.5.

- Example 2:
Ammonium sulphate has the formula (NH4)2SO4
Mr = (2x14)+(8x1)+32+(4x16) = 132

Brownian motion

It is the random movement of Specs of dust (due to

collision with gas particles in the air (mainly nitrogen and
oxygen)

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Gas pressure:

Gas particles are free to move around and will collide with each other. When
they are contained inside a closed container (e.g. a balloon or bicycle tyres)
the particles will also collide with the walls of the container and exert a
pressure on it.

Factors affecting gas pressure:

1- Amount of gas particles: If more gas particles are introduced (if

you continue to pump up tyres) the pressure will increase as there will be
more collisions.

2- Increase in temperature:
- When a gas in a closed container is heated, the particles gain energy
and move faster. This also results in an increase in pressure since the
faster particles will collide with the walls of the container more often
and with more force.

- If you cool a gas the pressure will decrease.

3- Decrease in volume: Compressing a gas also results in an increase in

pressure since the same number of particles are squashed into a smaller
space. This also results in an increase in the number of collisions with
the container walls.

Page 66 of 205
Chapter 6- COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS
AND SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

Page 67 of 205
Page 68 of 205
1- Beaker: for transferring liquids, rough measurements and performing

titrations and other separation techniques.

a- Beaker

b- Conical flask (narrow opening for volatile liquids and allows mixing solids without

spillage)
2- For measuring volumes of liquids:

a- Measuring cylinder: fast, inaccurate, zero mark at the bottom.

b- Pipette: Accurate, measures only 25cm3

c- Burette: Accurate, measures any volumes between 0 and 50 cm 3

including decimals. Zero mark is at the top.
3- Mortar and pestle: for crushing solids.

4- Stand and clamp: for holding the burette

5- Evaporating dish/basin: for evaporating liquids
6- Funnel: for filtration

7- Watch glass: to observe colours and crystals and to cover beakers.

8- Tap funnel: similar to the burette only without graduation, could be also
called a separating funnel (a) if used in separating immiscible liquids.
9- Dropper (sometimes pipette): for adding drops
10-Spatula: for transferring solids

11- U-shaped tube: for passing gases over liquids

12- Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze : for heating

Open hole (Blue Flame and strong heating)
13- Thermometer: 0-100 degrees (or more)

14- Crucible and lid: for heating or burning solids

15-Glass rod: for stirring (poor conductor of heat,
doesn’t react with chemicals)

16- Test tube and boiling tube

17-Round bottom flask: used in distillation

Page 69 of 205
 DISSOLVING

MIXTURES
A mixture contains two or more different substances which are not chemically
joined together that can be separated Physically. You meet a wide variety of
mixtures in everyday life, for example:

• Vinegar is a mixture of two liquids (water and ethanoic acid)

• Hair gel is a mixture of a solid and a liquid

• Shaving foam is a mixture of a liquid and a gas

SOLUTIONS
- One particular type of mixture is called a SOLUTION.

- A solution: is obtained when a solid is dissolved in a liquid, which is most

commonly water.

- Solutions are clear and look the same all the way through because the
dissolved solid is completely mixed with the water.

- The liquid part of a solution is called the SOLVENT.

- The solid part of a solution is called the SOLUTE. (Solutions can also
be obtained by dissolving some gases and some liquids in water).

- Not all solids dissolve in a particular liquid. The ones that do dissolve
are said to be SOLUBLE; the ones that do not dissolve are said to be
INSOLUBLE.

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To re-cap:

SOLUTE: the solid that is dissolved

SOLVENT: the liquid that the solute is dissolved into

SOLUTION: the mixture formed by dissolving the solute into the solvent.

SOLUBILITY: It's the amount of solute dissolved in 100 grams of solvent at a given
temperature.

Factors affecting solubility:

1- Dissolving can be speeded up by heating the solvent up (sugar dissolves

much faster in a hot cup of tea than in cold water). The hotter the solvent,
the faster the molecules are moving, the more energy they have and the
more collisions there between solvent and solute. The solute molecules will
also have more energy.

2- Stirring the mixture also speeds up dissolving

3- Grinding the solid into smaller pieces speeds up dissolving too.

(Increasing surface area)

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Purity
- Purity is important in drugs and foodstuffs since they cannot
contain harmful substances. The ability to separate substances to
obtain pure samples is therefore very important.

Measuring purity

1- Identifying purity using melting and boiling points:

- Pure substances have a definite, sharp meting/boiling point.

- A substance + impurity has:

lower melting point and higher boiling point at a range of temperatures.

- More impurity means bigger change. This is why salt is used on roads
to prevent the formation of ice or to melt ice.

2- Identifying purity using Chromatography:

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 SEPARATING MIXTURES
Choosing a suitable separation method:
Method of separation Used to separate

1- Filtration an insoluble solid from a liquid

2- Evaporation a soluble solute from a solution (inaccurate)
3- Crystallization a soluble solid from a solution
4- Distillation a solvent from a solution
5- Separating funnel Immiscible liquids from each other
6- Fractional distillation Miscible liquids from each other
7- Chromatography Coloured substances/Amino acids/Sugars

METHODS OF SEPARATION

1- SEPARATING INSOLUBLE SOLIDS FROM SOLUTION

OR MIXTURE:

a- Decantation: (Inaccurate)

pouring out a liquid while leaving the solid behind.

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b-Filtration (Insoluble solid from a liquid)

The mixture goes in a funnel with

filter paper, into a flask.

The residue is insoluble and stays in

filter paper.

The filtrate, which is the soluble

part, goes through the paper.

2- SEPARATING SOLUBLE SOLIDS FROM SOLUTION:

a- Evaporation (inaccurate)

The solution is heated to remove solvent (often water) and leave the solute
behind.
Care must be taken to heat very gently near the end as the solute may
decompose if heated too strongly.

b- Crystallisation (to obtain crystals of the solute)

Steps:

1- Evaporate the solution till the point of crystallization.

2- One drop is placed on a microscope slide to check if

crystals are forming.

3- The solution is left to cool and crystallise.

4- Filter the crystals to remove the solvent.

5- Wash the crystals with cold distilled

water and dry between two filter papers.

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3- SEPARATING SOLVENTS FROM SOLUTION:
Simple distillation (solvent from the solution)

- Impure liquid (solution mixture) is heated

- It boils and the solvent rises into the condenser (due to its
much lower boiling point).

- Impurities are left behind because they have

much higher boiling point.

- This method of separation depends on the large

difference between the boiling point of solute and
solvent.

- Condenser is cold so steam condenses to pure liquid and it drops into the
beaker,

Q. Explain why the cold water inlet is placed downwards?

To allow the water to move upwards slowly in the condenser against

gravity so that the cooling is efficient.

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 4- SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS:

Fractional distillation:
(miscible liquids with significant
difference in boiling point)

Fractional distillation removes a liquid

from a mixture of liquids because
the liquids have different boiling points.
For example; water and ethanol.

1) The mixture is heated to evaporate the

substance with the lowest boiling point.

Function of the beads: (Read only)

- Some of the other liquid(s) will evaporate too.

- A mixture of gases condense on the beads in the fractional column.

- So the beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest substance in this
case, so that the substance being removed cannot condense on the beads.

2) The other substances continue to condense and will drip back into the flask.
The beaker can be changed after every fraction.

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b- Immiscible liquids: Separating funnel (oil and water)

- As the liquids don't mix it settles into two layers

- The tap of the funnel is opened to let only the bottom layer run
into the beaker

- The tap is closed and the beaker is changed, then it is opened to

let the top layer out.

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 Paper chromatography
- (To identify substances)
1) Draw a baseline using a pencil.
Spots of substances placed onto a pencilled line which is also called
the origin (baseline).

 Why is the line pencilled (made of graphite)?

Graphite is an insoluble substance that will not dissolve in any solvent.

2) Add Spots of the solute (Substances) using a pipette/ dropper)

3) Paper goes in solvent, and solvent travels up paper, then paper is

taken out. There are spots which have travelled different distances.

 The level of liquid should not reach the origin line?

to avoid leaching of the spots.

4) calculate the Rf value to identify a substance, given by the formula:

Rf value = distance moved by substance

distance moved by solvent

5) Calculated Rf values should be compared to known data.

6- To make colourless substances (Amino acids and Sugars) visible use

a locating agent :

1) Dry paper in oven

2) Spray it with locating agent

3) Heat it in the oven for 10 minutes.

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Note:

1) Paper + rings (dots) = chromatogram.

2) Ring (dots) are created because different substances travel at different

rates, according to their solubility.

3- The stationary phase is the material on which the separation takes place
(e.g. the paper).

4- The mobile phase consists of the mixture you want to separate, dissolved
in a solvent.

- Important points to consider when interpreting simple chromatograms:

1) Number of rings/dots = number of substances

2) If two dots travel the same distance up the paper

they are the same substance. (on the same horizontal
line)

3) You can calculate the Rf value to identify a

substance, given by the formula:

Rf value = distance moved by substance

distance moved by solvent

4) Calculated Rf values should be compared to known data.

Page 79 of 205
 Chapter 7- ELECTROLYSIS AND METAL
EXTRACTION
THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
- An electric current is a flow of electrons.

- Conductors: they are substances that allow electricity pass through.

-
Conductors
Substances having free moving electrons Substances having free moving ions
1- Metals: because they have free Molten ionic compounds: they have
electrons ions that are free to move
2- graphite (because each C atom in
the macromolecule also free
electron)

- Conduction in metals involves a one-way flow of electrons.

- Conduction in ionic substances involves a two-way flow of ions

- Electrons flow from the negative terminal of a cell and are pumped around a circuit
towards the positive. You can test to see if a substance conducts by placing it in a
circuit as shown below.

- Insulators: Solid ionic compounds, most polymers, other macromolecules such as

diamond, and simple molecules such as water or methane do not have free electrons or ions and
are therefore insulators. Because The outer electrons in these molecules are not able to
move between particles and so these substances cannot conduct.

Page 80 of 205
 ELECTROLYSIS

It's the breakdown of an ionic compounds when molten or aqueous by the action of electricity.

- Main parts of the Electrolytic cell:

1- Electrolyte: the liquid used to transfer electric current. It's a molten or aqueous
ionic compound (Contains free moving ions).

2- Electrodes: are the solid conductors that transfer electric current from the
battery to the liquid. They are either made of
graphite or metals (free moving electrons).
cel l

battery

flow of electrons

ELECTRODES
anode cathode
(+) (-)

Electrolyte

Electrolysis

According to the type

of electrolyte -----> Aqueous Molten
Electrolysis Electrolysis

According to Inert Active

the type----> Electrodes Electrodes
Page 83 of 163
of Electrode

Graphite and Platinum Active Metals

Page 81 of 205
 (+) Electrode- (-) Electrode- CATHODE
ANODE Negative Electrode
Positive electrode
Ions Discharged Negatively charged
Positively charged ions, for
ions move to the
metal ions and hydrogen
positively charged
ions, move to the negative
electrode. electrode.
(Non-metals)

Redox rection - The ions lose electrons

- The ions gain electrons
(oxidation) to form
(reduction) to form
electrically neutral
electrically neutral atoms or
atoms or
molecules.
molecules.

Products If metal atoms are formed,

they are deposited on the
electrode. If hydrogen
molecules are formed, they
are given off as a gas.
-

 N.B:

- Current flows from the anode to the cathode in the external circuit due to free
moving electrons. While it flows from the cathode to the anode inside the electrolyte
due to free moving ions.

- During electrolysis, new substances are made, electric energy changes to chemical
energy.

- Electrolysis is an endothermic process as it needs external support of energy

(electric and sometimes heat energy)

Page 82 of 205
 EXAMPLES OF ELECTROLYSIS

1- MOLTEN ELECTROLYTES

The Electrode :
Graphite is mainly used in molten electrolysis because
1- It's a good conductor of Electricity
2- has a high melting point
3- Inert

a) Electrolysis of Molten Lead Bromide

Lead bromide is an ionic compound and can be split up into the elements lead and bromine by
electrolysis.

- The reactions at each electrode are called half equations.

- Electrons produced at one electrode and consumed at the other.

(-) Electrode- CATHODE (+) Electrode- ANODE

Lead metal is produced at the (-) Whilst bromine gas is produced at the
cathode (+) anode (Br2)
Drops of silvery grey liquid metal Bubbles of red brown gas (bromine gas)
(lead) are formed. form.
Pb2+ + 2e- Pb 2Br- - 2e- Br2

- Observation at electrolyte: The electrolyte gets used up.

The overall reaction is PbBr2(l) Pb(s) + Br2(g)

Page 83 of 205
2. ELECTROLYTES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISCHARGE OF IONS In Aqueous Electrolysis:

1- Position in the Reactivity Series

If a reaction mixture contains two or more different positive ions, only one will be
reduced
during electrolysis. The ions of the metal which is lower in the reactivity series are reduced
(gain electrons) more easily, and these ions will be discharged preferentially at the cathode.
(Less reactive ions)
K+

Na+

Ca2+

Mg2+
Al3+ Reduction easier
Zn2+
Fe3+
Sn2+
Pb2+
H+
Cu2+
Ag+

Similarly, if a reaction mixture contains two or more different negative ions, only one will be
oxidised during electrolysis. The ions which are lower in the reactivity series are oxidised
(lose electrons) more easily, and these ions will be discharged preferentially at the anode.
(less atomic ions)

never discharged SO42-

not often discharged NO3-

OH- Oxidation easier

Cl-

Br-

I-

Page 84 of 205
 N.B.
- If a solution is being electrolysed (eg sodium chloride solution) then, not only are the
obvious ions present (Na+ and Cl-), but H+ and OH- ions from water are also present. So now
there is a decision to make based on reactivity.
- OH- ions are discharged to produce oxygen and water.

2- The Electrode

Changing the electrode material can lead to totally different electrolysis products from the
same electrolyte. For example, the electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution with copper
electrodes and with graphite electrodes.

- Inert electrodes: like graphite or platinum, do not take part in the reaction.

- Reactive electrode: that could be made of metals, take part in the reaction.

Page 85 of 205
a) Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride solution (Brine)

chlorine

hydrogen

brine containing
universal indicator

Pt electrodes

(-) (+)
- The apparatus used for this experiment is called a Hofmann Voltameter.

- Sodium chloride solution contains four ions. Na+ and Cl- ions are provided by sodium
chloride, and H+ and OH- ions are provided by the water.

(-) Electrode- CATHODE (+) Electrode- ANODE

Products - The two positive ions - The two negative ions
+ +
(Na and H) are (OH- and Cl-) are
attracted to the attracted to the
negatively-charged positively-charged
cathode. anode.

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 - Since hydrogen is below - Since the chloride ions
sodium in the reactivity are easier to oxidise
series, hydrogen ions are than hydroxide ions,
easier to reduce than they lose electrons
sodium ions. Therefore, (oxidation) to form
they gain electrons chlorine atoms. The
(reduction) to form chlorine atoms
hydrogen atoms. The immediately combine to
hydrogen atoms form chlorine molecules
immediately combine to (Cl2)
form hydrogen molecules
(H2)
Observation Bubbles of colourless Bubbles of greenish
gas (hydrogen gas) yellow chlorine gas.
+ -
(-) 2H + 2e H2 (+) 2Cl- - 2e- Cl2

- Change in Electrolyte: Changes to sodium hydroxide.

Effect of Electrolysis on the universal indicator:

- The initial colour of the universal indicator in the voltameter is green, because
sodium chloride solution is neutral.

- At Cathode: When hydrogen ions are removed, this leaves an excess of OH- ions in
this area. These make the solution alkaline, so the indicator changes colour to
purple.

- At Anode: Chlorine is formed at the anode. Chlorine in water is powerful bleach

and
bleaches the universal indicator, making it colourless.

Page 87 of 205
-Overall, when sodium chloride solution is electrolysed, H + and Cl- ions are discharged at
the electrodes, but the Na+ and OH- ions stay in the solution, making sodium hydroxide
leading to the formation of 3 products:

 chlorine
 hydrogen
 sodium hydroxide solution

Chlorine is used:
 to kill bacteria in drinking water and in swimming pools
 to manufacture hydrochloric acid
 to manufacture disinfectants and bleach
 to manufacture the plastic (polymer) PVC

Hydrogen is used:
 to manufacture ammonia
 to manufacture margarine

Sodium hydroxide is used:

 to manufacture soap
 to manufacture paper
 to manufacture ceramics

Page 88 of 205
b) Electrolysis of Dilute Sulphuric Acid

oxygen hydrogen

dilute sulphuric
acid

Pt
electrodes

(+) (-)

Dilute sulphuric acid contains three ions. H+ and SO42- ions are provided by sulphuric
acid, and H+ and OH- ions are provided by the water.

(-) Electrode- CATHODE (+) Electrode- ANODE

The H+ ions are attracted to the The two negative ions (OH- and SO42-)
negatively-charged cathode, where are attracted to the positively-
they gain electrons (reduction) to form charged anode. Since the hydroxide
hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atoms ions are easier to oxidise than sulphate
immediately combine to form hydrogen ions, they lose electrons (oxidation) to
molecules (H2) form oxygen and water.

(-) 2H+ + 2e- H2 (+) 4OH- - 4e- 2H2O + O2

N.B.: in this experiment, twice as much hydrogen than oxygen is produced.

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c) Electrolysis of Copper (II) Sulphate Solution Using Graphite
Electrodes:

- When graphite electrodes are used, copper sulphate solution undergoes electrolysis to
produce copper metal at the cathode and hydrogen gas forms at the anode.

- Dilute copper sulphate contains four ions. Cu2+ and SO42- ions are provided by copper
sulphate, and H+ and OH- ions are provided by the water.

(-) Electrode- CATHODE (+) Electrode- ANODE

The H+ and Cu 2+ ions are The two negative ions (OH- and SO42-)
attracted to the negatively- are attracted to the positively-
charged cathode. Since the charged anode. Since the hydroxide
copper ions are easier to reduce ions are easier to oxidise than sulphate
than sulphate ions they gain ions, they lose electrons (oxidation) to
electrons (reduction) to form form oxygen and water.
copper atoms.

(-) Cu2+ + 2e- Cu (+) 4OH- - 4e- 2H2O + O2

Eventually the blue solution of copper sulphate will fade as the blue colour is caused by the
presence of the copper ions which are slowly being ‘used up’.

Once all of the copper is gone, the solution which is left contains H + ions and SO42- ions (just
like sulphuric acid did) and so, if we continue to electrolyse the solution, we begin to produce
hydrogen and oxygen gas (just as we did when we electrolysed dilute sulphuric acid).

Page 90 of 205
d) Electrolysis of Copper (II) Sulphate Solution Using Copper
Electrodes:

If we change the electrodes from graphite (carbon) to copper a different process takes
place. This process is used commercially to refine impure copper.

(-) Electrode- CATHODE (+) Electrode- ANODE

At the cathode, copper metal is When electricity is passed through the
deposited by reduction. cell copper is dissolved at the anode by
oxidation and Cu2+ions go into solution.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
Cu(s) - 2e- Cu2+(aq)

- As copper ions move from the anode to the cathode the anode gets smaller as the
cathode gets bigger. This is a redox reaction.

Q. Explain why the blue colour of the solution doesn’t change?

1- The rate at which the copper is oxidised at the anode is the same as the rate at
which the copper ions are reduced at the cathode.
2- The concentration of the copper sulphate solution therefore remains unchanged.

- As copper is transferred from the anode to the cathode any insoluble impurities fall
to the bottom of the cell and form sludge. The sludge often contains precious metals
(silver and platinum) which are extracted and refined.

Page 91 of 205
 Electroplating:
It is covering the iron or any reactive metal with a layer of a less reactive metal by electrolysis to:

1- Protect the metal from corrosion .

2- Gives the metal a shiny appearance.

The metal plating process (also called electroplating) uses electrolysis of a solution
containing ions of the plating metal.

1- The anode is made from the pure plating metal for example chromium or silver.
2- The metal object which needs plating is used as the cathode.
3- The object is placed in a solution containing ions of the plating metal e.g.
AgNO3 solution above. (in case of coating with copper, copper sulphate is better
used as the solution).

(-) Electrode- CATHODE (+) Electrode- ANODE

Silver is deposited onto the surface of When electricity is passed through the
the object by reduction at the cell silver is dissolved at the anode by
cathode. oxidation. Ag+ ions go into the silver
nitrate solution.
Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s)
Ag(s) - e- Ag+(aq)

-As silver ions move from the anode to the cathode the anode gets smaller as the object
becomes silver plated. This is a redox reaction.

- The rate at which the silver atoms get oxidised at the anode is the same as the rate at
which the silver ions get reduced at the cathode.
- The concentration of the silver nitrate solution therefore remains unchanged.

Page 92 of 205
 Rusting
Rusting

- The general reaction of metals with oxygen to form a metal oxide is called corrosion.

- When iron or steel (an alloy of iron) corrodes we give it the specific name of rusting.

- The brown flakes of rust, which form during the corrosion of iron and steel, are
brittle and weak. This causes them to crumble and break away, exposing the iron
underneath. The iron rusts further until it has all corroded away.

Investigating rusting

Rust is actually hydrated iron (III) oxide, formed from the reaction of iron with oxygen and
water. The equation is:

4Fe + 3O2 + 4H20 2Fe2O3.2H20

In the test tubes shown below, three iron nails are

kept in different conditions to determine what
factors are needed for the iron to rust. A summary
of the conditions and the results are show in the
table below:

Tube Variable(s) present Variable(s) not present Is the nail rusted?

1 Water, oxygen - Yes
2 Water Oxygen No
3 Oxygen Water No

Conclusions:
- Rust was only found in test tube 1 demonstrating that both air and water are needed
for rusting to occur.
- If a tube containing air, water and salt was included, it would rust faster. Sodium
chloride (salt) is known to speed up the rate of rusting.

Page 93 of 205
Preventing rusting

There are four main ways of protecting iron and steel from corrosion.
1- The first method uses a physical barrier to keep out air and water.
2- The second method, called sacrificial protection involves attaching a more reactive
metal to the iron.
3- Alloying
4- Cathodic protection

1- Protection by a physical barrier

For iron and steel to rust oxygen and water must be present. The simplest way of stopping
rusting therefore is to prevent oxygen and/or water getting at the metal. This can be done
in several ways.

 Paint is cheap and easily applied. Painting is used to protect many everyday steel objects like
cars, bikes, bridges, etc.
 Oil and grease are good flexible coatings, which are suitable to prevent the corrosion of tools
and machinery.
 Plastic coatings are more expensive, but they are strong and long lasting. Wire netting is often
coated with plastic to stop it corroding.
 Electroplating uses electricity to put a thin coating of an expensive unreactive metal onto
iron. Metals like chromium and zinc can be used for electroplating. They form a hard,
shiny, protective coating. Food tins are made from steel electroplated with zinc.

The main disadvantage of physical barriers is that they need to be maintained. If they are
scratched or broken the iron or steel is exposed and will rust.

2- Sacrificial protection

It is not practical to cover an oil rig in the North Sea with a barrier. So a different method
is needed. It is known that iron and steel can also be protected from rusting by attaching a
more reactive element like magnesium or zinc which reacts instead of the iron. Some
examples are:

 Blocks of magnesium metal attached to oil rigs in the North Sea

 Blocks of zinc bolted to the hulls of iron ships
 Bags of magnesium metal attached to underground oil and gas pipes

Sacrificial protection Mechanism:

1- Zinc is more reactive than iron

2- It loses electrons more readily/instead of iron
3- Electrons lost by zinc are gained by iron
4- This means that zinc reacts with oxygen leaving iron unreacted

Page 94 of 205
 3-Alloying
Alloys are harder and more resistant tp rusting than pure metals.

4- Cathodic protection
Used for huge objects which are constantly under conditions suitable for rusting e.g.
oil rigs, the object to be protected is connected to the –ve pole of a source of
electricity (cathode) where another metal is connected to the +ve pole.

Galvanising

Galvanising is another way of using zinc to

protect iron by completely coating iron or
steel (an alloy containing mostly iron) with a
thin layer of zinc. It is a method that
combines between mechanical barrier and
sacrificial protection.

- The zinc coating means that the iron or

steel is not exposed to water and oxygen in
the air and so cannot rust.

- If the zinc layer is scratched, it will act by sacrificial protection. (3/4 points).

Page 95 of 205
 SIMPLE CELL (BATTERY)
- It is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

- It is composed of:
1- A strip of a reactive metal (negative electrode).
2- A strip of a less reactive metal (positive electrode)
3- Both dipped in an aqueous solution of an ionic compound, ex. Sodium chloride solution
or sulphuric acid. (electrolyte)

- Consider having a cell of formed of zinc electrode, copper electrode and sulphuric
acid.

1- At the more reactive metal (Negative electrode):

1- Being more reactive metal, zinc has a greater tendency to want
-
to form ions and so Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2e
2- Zinc loses electrons and changes to zinc ions that dissolve in the
solution, this causes the negative electrode to become thinner.

3- The electrons produced move around the circuit to the copper

(through the bulb). Since the electrons are leaving the zinc, the zinc
becomes the negative pole of the cell.

2- At the less reactive metal (Positive electrode):

The H+ is attracted to the copper electrode. H+ picks up the electrons and hydrogen
gas is formed.
2H+ (aq) + 2e-  H2(g) + 2e-

N.B

- Different metals can be used and

the larger the difference between the two metals in
reactivity, the higher the voltage will be.

- However, two metal strips and a solution is not a very

practical way of producing electrical energy. You
couldn’t use it in a torch or remote control. We have
overcome this problem with dry cells which works in
much the same way but has a paste rather than a
solution as the electrolyte. (The paste also provides
free moving ions)

Page 96 of 205
 METAL EXTRACTION

Metals are useful materials, because they have many desirable properties, for example:
thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, ductility, strength, hardness, resistance to
corrosion, low density, shiny appearance

Occurrence

Ores: are rocks which contain a high concentration of a metal that needs to be
extracted.

The fewer the impurities, the higher grade the ore is. Extracting a metal is not cheap and
the method used depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity series.

Most metal ores are sulphides or oxides of the metal, for example:

 zinc blende (ZnS)

 haematite (Fe2O3)
 bauxite (Al2O3)

Some unreactive metals occur native, i.e. uncombined in the Earth’s crust, for example
copper, silver and gold.

K
Na
Li Metals above carbon must be obtained by the electrolysis of a molten
Ca compound (e.g. Al) or by the reaction of a compound with a more
reactive metal (e.g. Ti).
Mg
Al
Ti
C
Zn Metals below carbon can be obtained by carbon reduction of the
Fe metal oxide (e.g. Fe and Zn)
Sn
Pb
H
Cu Metals below hydrogen can be obtained by hydrogen reduction of the
Ag metal oxide or by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a salt (e.g. Cu)

Au Gold, an unreactive element, is found in the Earth’s crust as the metal

Pt itself. Chemical separation is not needed.

Page 97 of 205
Extraction of Moderately Active Metals:

The extraction of a moderately reactive metal from its ore involves the reduction of a metal
ion to a metal atom. Often an ore contains a metal oxide or a substance which can easily be
changed into a metal oxide. Metal oxides are usually used directly in the extraction process,
but sulphide ores are first roasted in air to convert them to oxides.

IRON & STEEL

A-EXTRACTION OF IRON
A metal such as iron, which is less reactive than carbon, can be extracted from its ore (iron
oxide) by reduction using carbon. This is carried out in a blast furnace

The raw materials are:

 iron ore (haematite)
 coke, which acts as a fuel and a reducing agent
 limestone, which removes impurities
 hot air, which is blown into the base of the blast furnace.

1- (Exothermic/ Oxidation reaction): Carbon dioxide burns in air to form carbon dioxide
C + O2 CO2
This reaction is responsible for produce enough heat that keeps the blast furnace hot.

2- (Reduction reaction): At the high temperatures of the furnace, carbon dioxide

reacts with coke to form carbon monoxide:
C + CO2 2CO

3- (Extraction step/ Redox reaction): The carbon monoxide reduces the iron oxide
in iron ore by combining with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide:
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
This is a redox reaction in which iron oxide is reduced and carbon monoxide is oxidised. The
molten iron which is formed (known as pig-iron) runs to the bottom of the furnace.

4- Limestone undergoes thermal decomposition- due to the high temperature in the blast
furnace- into calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

5- (Purification step): Lime (Basic oxide) combines with the acidic impurities in the ore to
form a molten slag, which floats on the surface of the molten iron. This is an
acid-base reaction (neutralization). Slag layer is also important in protecting iron
from further rusting.
CaO(s)+ SiO2 CaSiO3 (Slag)

Page 98 of 205
 waste gases
EXTRACTION
RAW MATERIALS: OF IRON
iron ore (haematite)
coke
limestone

stock line
o
300 C
BLAST
FURNACE
o Cowper stoves
ore reduced 600 C
by CO pre-heat the blast

o scrubber
slag forms 900 C removes
o impurities
1200 C

melting zone 1500 oC

carbon burns o
1900 C

hot air blown in

through tuyeres
slag
iron

Page 99 of 205
 STEEL MAKING (THE OXYGEN CONVERTER)

 The pig-iron (5% carbon) produced in the blast furnace has high carbon content in
addition to other impurities; sulfur, Phosphorous and silicon (S C P Si), which makes
it brittle. The impurities need to be removed and most iron is then mixed with
either a little carbon or with other metals to make the alloy steel.

1- Pure oxygen is blown into the molten iron obtained from the blast furnace.

2- Carbon reacts with oxygen and is converted to carbon dioxide and

carbon monoxide gases and escape. Sulfur is converted into sulphur
dioxide gas and escapes.

3- Other non-metal impurities (Phosphorous and silicon) are converted into other
acidic oxides (Silicon dioxide and phosphorous oxides).

4- Lime (Basic calcium oxide) is added to the pig iron. It reacts with the acidic
oxides in a neutralisation reaction to produce a layer of slag that can be easily
removed from the surface of the iron.

oxygen
n

water cooled
lance

molten cast iron

containing scrap
steel

Page 100 of 205

 Calculated quantities of carbon and/or other elements are then added to make a range of
steels with particular properties.

Steel Alloys:
The addition of small quantities of other metals or carbon alters the properties
of steel.

1- Steel (High carbon steel is hard and strong but brittle; it is used to
make buildings and bridges.

2- Stainless steel is an alloy containing chromium and nickel, which is hard

and resistant to corrosion. It is used to make cutlery, sinks etc.

3- Mild Steel; (Low carbon steel) is soft and easily shaped; . It is used in the
manufacture of car bodies and machinery.

B- Extraction of Zinc Metal:

Zinc is obtained from its ore, Zinc blende, which contains mainly zinc sulphide.

Step 1- Roasting of zinc blende in air

This process involves heating zinc sulphide in air (roasting). This releases sulfur(IV) oxide
into the atmosphere, which is undesirable because of the formation of acid rain.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

Step 2- Reduction of Zinc Oxide

Zinc oxide is reduced by coke in the blast furnace. (if the question is for more than 2
marks describe the reduction of zinc in the blast furnace as that of the iron in
details)
2ZnO(s) + C(s) 2Zn (l) + CO2 (g)

Step 3- Separation of Zinc

 Zinc is collected as a vapour at the top of the blast furnace--> as its boiling
point is below the temperature inside the blast furnace.
 It’s then separated from other metals by fractional distillation

Page 101 of 205

ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is the commonest metal in the Earth’s crust.
It is a reactive metal. Since it is above carbon in the reactivity series, it
cannot be extracted by carbon reduction and must, instead, be obtained by
electrolysis.

THE EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

 The raw material for the production of aluminium is the ore, bauxite. This
is an impure form of aluminium oxide, the main impurity being iron (III)
oxide.

1- The ore is purified to give aluminium oxide (alumina).

2- For electrolysis to be carried out, the aluminium oxide must be molten

(to have free moving ions)

3- But because the alumina’s melting point is so high, it is dissolved in

molten cryolite. Cryolite is another compound of aluminium. The role
of cryolite is:
 to lower the melting point to 970oC
 to act as a solvent and increase the electrical conductivity

pipe for sucking out (+) graphite anodes

molten aluminium

crust of solid
electrolyte

molten electrolyte
molten aluminium (-) graphite cathode

Page 102 of 205

 4- The molten aluminium oxide/cryolite mixture is electrolysed using
graphite (carbon) electrodes.

5- The positive aluminium ions (Al3+) are attracted to the cathode, where
they gain electrons (reduction) to form aluminium atoms.

Al3+ + 3e- Al

6- The negative oxide ions (O2-) are attracted to the anode, where they
lose electrons (oxidation) to form oxygen molecules.

2O2- - 4e- O2

7- At the high temperatures of the electrolysis, the oxygen produced at

the anode reacts with the graphite (carbon) that the electrode is
made of to form carbon dioxide. (complete combustion in excess
supply of oxygen) and carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion in
limited supply of oxygen) This means that the anode burns away and
has to be replaced regularly.

C + O2 CO2

The process of electrolysis consumes large amounts of electricity, which makes

aluminium an expensive metal.

Advantages of the Recycling of metals

1- Saving metal ores

2- Recycling uses much less energy than the primary extraction process.
Since electrolysis of aluminium uses so much energy, melting and re-
shaping aluminium can save up to 95% of the energy used in extraction.

3- Much less carbon dioxide is produced during recycling compared with extraction
from an ore and, if metals are recycled, the old material does not go to landfill.
(Less pollution)

4- Steel and iron are easily recycled because they are magnetic.

Page 103 of 205

 8- The Mole
- A Mole: is the amount that contains the same no. of particles as the number of carbon
atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.

- It is equal to 6.02 X 1023 atoms, this no. is called Avogadro's constant.

OR
- A Mole: is the Ar. Or Mr. expressed in grams .e.g. 1 mole of carbon- 12 is equal to 12
grams.
- The relationship between moles, mass and Mr is generally given by

1- CALCULATION OF REACTING MASSES

Since chemical equations are quantitative as well as qualitative statements, it is possible to
calculate the quantities of reactants necessary to produce a given amount of product, or to
calculate the quantity of product(s) given by a specified amount of reactants.

PROCEDURE:

1) Write the balanced equation for the reaction concerned.

2) Write the ratio of reacting moles for the chemicals in question.
3) Convert the masses into moles using moles = mass/(Ar or Mr)- U-SHAPE
4) Use the ratio of moles from step 2 to find number of moles of product formed.
5) Calculate mass of product from the number of moles formed.

Page 104 of 205

Example 1:
What mass of carbon dioxide will be given off when 9g of calcium carbonate is
decomposed by heating?

1) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2) 1 mole gives 1 mole
3)
9g Mr (CO2) = 44
9/100 =0.09mol Mr (CaCO3) = 100

4) If 1 mole CaCO3 1 mole CO2

then 0.09 mol 0.09mol

5) mass = moles x Mr
Mass = 0.09 x 44
=3.96g
9g calcium carbonate will produce 3.96g of carbon dioxide.

Example 2:
If 4g phosphorus is burned in oxygen, what mass of phosphorus(V) oxide will be
formed?

1) 4P(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(s)

2) 4 mole gives 2 moles
3)
4g A r (P) = 31
4/31 =0.129mol Mr (P2O5) = 142

4) If 4 mole of P 2 mole P2O5

then 0.129 mol 0.0625mol

5) mass = moles x Mr
Mass = 0.0625 x 142
=9.16g

4g phosphorus will burn to give 9.16g phosphorus(V) oxide.

Page 105 of 205

 2-THE SPECIAL SITUATION OF GASES

It is usually more important to know the volumes of gases involved in a reaction rather than
their masses. Therefore, molar volume is often used in the calculation in place of molar mass.
You need to know that 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24,000cm3 at rtp (room
temperature and pressure)

PROCEDURE:

1) Write the balanced equation for the reaction concerned.

2) Write the ratio of reacting moles for the chemicals in question.
3) Convert the masses into moles using moles = mass/(Ar or Mr)
4) Use the fact that 1 mole of gas occupies 24,000cm3.
5) Calculate volume of product from the number of moles of reactant.

Example 3:
What volume of hydrogen at r.t.p. will be produced when 3.25g zinc is dissolved in dilute
sulphuric acid?

1) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

2) 1 mole gives 1 mole
3)
Ar (Zn) = 65
Molar volume (H2) = 24000cm3

3.25g
=3.25/65 = 0.05mol

4) 1 mole 24000 cm3

0.05mol 24000 x 0.05 = 1200cm3

3.25g zinc reacts to produce 1200cm3 hydrogen.

Page 106 of 205

 3-Solutions
When dealing with solutions it is usually useful to know the concentration of a solution.
Concentration is the amount of solute (in grams or moles) that is dissolved in 1 dm3 of
solution. It is found using

Find the concentration of NaOH when 20g of NaOH is used to make 250cm3 of
solution?

Concentration is measured in mol/dm3 and 1dm3 is 1000cm3 Mr (NaOH) = 40

So moles of NaOH = 20/40 = 0.5mol

This number of moles is dissolved in a volume of 250cm 3 which is 0.25dm3

Concentration = moles / volume

Concentration = 0.5 / 0.25

So concentration of NaOH = 2 mol/dm3 often written 2M (2 molar)

Page 107 of 205

 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
- We have already seen that we can use titration to prepare a sample of a salt. Titration
is more often used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution.

hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

- The burette is filled with hydrochloric acid of known concentration. A known quantity
of alkali (say 25 cm3) of sodium hydroxide of unknown concentration is added from a
pipette into a conical flask. The tap on the burette is turned open to allow the acid to
be added drop by drop into the alkali. The alkali contains an indicator (phenolphthalein)
which is pink in an alkali and colourless in an acid. The flask is swirled during the
experiment to ensure mixing.

- When enough acid has been added to neutralize the alkali the indicator changes from
pink to colorless. This is called the end point and could also be determined using a pH
meter.
- The titration can be repeated using the same amounts of acid and alkali and an average
value obtained.

- Other indicators can be used too. Methyl orange is red in acid and yellow in alkali,
whilst litmus is red in acid and blue in alkali.

Page 108 of 205

Titration calculations

25cm3 of NaOH solution was exactly neutralised in a titration by 20.0cm 3 of

0.5mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration of NaOH solution.

The balanced equation is

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

The equation tells us that 1 mole of NaOH react with 1 mole of HCl

No of moles of HCl = concentration (mol/dm3) x volume (dm3)

No of moles of HCl = 0.5 x 20/1000 (dm 3)

= 0.01

So in 20cm3 there are 0.01 moles of acid

Remember that in this case there are 1 moles of NaOH reacting with 1 mole of
HCl ie 1:1

In that case the 0.01 moles of acid must have reacted with 0.01 moles of NaOH

0.01 moles of NaOH was in 25cm3 (or 25/1000dm3)

Therefore the concentration of the NaOH, in mol/dm3 = moles÷volume (dm3)

So the concentration of the NaOH = 0.01 ÷ 25/1000

Or 0.40 mol/dm3

Page 109 of 205

 CALCULATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAE

The EMPIRICAL FORMULA is the simplest WHOLE number ratio of the

atoms of each element present in a compound.

The MOLECULAR FORMULA is the actual number of atoms of each

element present in one molecule of the compound.

The two are related by the expression:

Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
Where n is a whole number

For example:
The molecular formulae of methane and ethane are CH4 and C2H6 respectively.
The empirical formula of methane is CH4; in the above expression n = 1.
The empirical formula of ethane is CH3, which is the simplest whole number ratio of carbon
to hydrogen atoms. In the above expression n = 2.

CALCULATION OF AN EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Example: a) Calculate the empirical formula of an unknown compound having the

composition: carbon 7.20g; hydrogen 1.20g; oxygen 9.60g.
b) If the Mr is 180, what is the molecular formula?

PROCEDURE:

a) Convert the mass of each element into moles: this is done by dividing the mass by
the relative atomic mass.

Element Mass (g) Ar moles Simplest whole

number ratio
C 7.20 12 7.20/12 = 0.60 1
H 1.20 1 1.20/1 = 1.20 2
O 9.60 16 9.60/16 = 0.60 1

The simplest whole number ratio of moles is found by dividing the number of moles of each
substance by the smallest number (in this case 0.60).
C 0.60 / 0.60 = 1
H 1.20 / 0.60 = 2
O 0.60 / 0.60 = 1 therefore the empirical formula is CH2O

b) For an empirical formula of CH2O, the empirical mass is 30.

Since the actual Mr of the substance is given as 180, 6 x 30 = 180.
Therefore the molecular formula (actual whole number ratio) must be C6H12O6.

Page 110 of 205

Water of crystallisation

- When solid crystals are obtained from a solution, water molecules are often incorporated
into the crystal structure. Such substances would have a molecular formula which looks like
this;

- CuSO4.5H2O pronounced CuSO4 ‘dot’ 5H2O.

- Sometimes we are not told the degree of hydration and are given a formula such as;

MgSO4.xH2O

- The value of x (always a whole number) can be calculated by recording the mass of the
hydrated salt before and after it is gently heated in a crucible where water is lost.

- The reaction which takes place is

MgSO4.xH2O → MgSO4 + xH2O

- Example:

Mass of MgSO4.xH2O heated in crucible = 4.92g

Mass of H2O removed when heated = 2.52g
Therefore mass of MgSO4 remaining = 4.92 – 2.52 = 2.40g

Using

Moles of H2O removed = 2.52/18 = 0.14

Moles of MgSO4 remaining = 2.40/ 120 = 0.02

Since there are 7 times the number of moles of H2O (0.14/0.02 = 7) as there are MgSO4, then x =
7.

So the formula of hydrated magnesium sulfate is written as MgSO 4.7H2O.

Page 111 of 205

How efficient are reactions?

Percentage yield

We can gain an understanding of the efficiency of a reaction by considering the percentage

yield of a reaction.

The amount of product obtained, usually measured in grams or kilograms, is known as the
yield. Often, when we carry out a reaction, the starting materials do not fully react to form
products. We say the reaction does not go to completion. This results in many reactions
producing a lower yield than expected. This can occur because;

 The reactants were not pure (and so we didn’t have as much as we thought we did),
The reactants were not mixed properly (reactions won’t take place if the reactants are not
in contact with each other)
 The reaction is reversible.
Some of the product is lost during separation from the reaction mixture

It is useful, therefore, to know the percentage yield of a reaction. This compares the
amount of product that the reaction really produces with the maximum amount it could
possibly produce if it went to completion.

Percentage yield = amount of product produced by the reaction x 100

Maximum amount of product possible

E.g. it was calculated that a reaction could produce 24g of iron. When it was carried out, the
mass of iron produced was only 15.6g. Calculate a percentage yield for this reaction.

Percentage yield = 15.6 x 100 = 65%

24

Chemical companies want to make money and ideally want 100% yield so nothing is wasted and
the maximum amount of product can be made and sold. Chemical plants are designed to be as
efficient as possible. This is better for the environment too as less energy and resources are
wasted and there is less pollution.

Page 112 of 205

 Chapter 9- Metals
Alkali Metals Group I

Chemical properties:

1- Lithium, sodium and potassium are all very reactive metals and have to be stored in oil.
(they only lose one electron to react)
2- Their reactivity increases down the group.
3- They readily tarnish in air as they react with oxygen giving a white oxide layer.
Therefore these metals are stored under oil. They react with oxygen according to the
equation:
4Li (s) + O2 (g) 2Li2O (s)

The formed oxide is soluble in water giving strong alkaline solution.

4- They all react with cold water, forming a soluble alkaline hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Li (Lithium) Lithium + water lithium hydroxide + hydrogen.

2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

Floats, darts and melts, releases heat and fizzes

Na (Sodium) Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen.

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Floats, darts, melts and burns with an orange or golden yellow flame
before the sodium
Disappears and fizzes
K (Potassium) potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Floats, darts, melts and burns with a lilac flame and fizzes. There is
sometimes a small explosion at the end of the reaction.

5- Group I compounds are all white solids which dissolve to form colourless solutions.
6- Lithium, sodium and potassium will all react vigorously with halogens to form the
corresponding halide salt. The halogens are fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.

For example,

sodium + chlorine sodium chloride.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Page 113 of 205

In all of these reactions the group I metal has lost one electron and formed an ionic compound
in which it is present as an M+ ion.

Physical properties:
1- They are soft and can be cut with a knife. Yet, softness increase down the group.
2- Group I metals have a low density and all three metals above float on water while
reacting.
3- Have low melting and low boiling points
4- Have a shiny silvery surface when freshly cut.
5- Good conductors of electricity
6- Malleable and ductile

Comparing Alkali Metals & Transition Metals

Alkali Metals Transition Metals

● low density High density

●low melting points high melting points (except for mercury (Hg))
●soft and easily cut hard, tough and strong

●very reactive with water much less reactive with water

●white compounds coloured compounds
●not catalysts good catalysts

The Reactivity Series of Metals

Reactivity

The reactivity of a metal is a measure of how readily the metal

becomes a compound so that its atoms gain a full outer shell.
In the case of metals this means how readily a metal loses
electrons to form positive ions.

Page 114 of 205

 Metal Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with acids
oxygen water
Potassium- K React with oxygen and React vigorously with Potassium, sodium,
Sodium- Na will burn brightly in cold water to form lithium and calcium all
Calcium- Ca air to form metal metal hydroxides. react violently with
oxides. dilute hydrochloric
Hydroxides are acid.
Metal oxides are basic/alkaline in It is dangerous to put
bases and can be used nature and group 1 are these metals into an
to neutralise acids known as the alkali acid.
forming salts and metals. The reaction is similar
water. to the reaction with
Sodium +water water, forming the
sodium hydroxide + metal chloride and
hydrogen. H2(g).
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
Magnesium- Mg From magnesium to Magnesium, zinc, Iron,
Aluminium- Al Do not burn but may iron react with steam tin and lead all react
Zinc- Zn react slowly with (H2O(g)) but not water slowly with acids.
Iron- Fe oxygen in the air to (H2O(l)).
Tin- Sn form the metal oxide. The reaction of zinc
Lead- Pb The reaction of with acid is used to
Example: magnesium or iron make a small amount
with steam forms the of hydrogen in the
Zinc + oxygen zinc metal oxide and laboratory.
oxide. hydrogen gas. For example:

Magnesium +steam Magnesium +

2Zn(s) +O2 (g) magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid
2ZnO(s) hydrogen. magnesium chloride +
Mg(s) +H2O(g) MgO(s) hydrogen.
Aluminium is the
+ H2(g) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)
fastest and copper is
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
the slowest of the six.
Copper- Cu Tin, lead, copper, Metals below
(react with oxygen silver, gold and hydrogen in the
only) platinum do not react reactivity series
Mercury- Hg Silver to platinum with water or steam. (copper,silver, gold
Silver- Ag do not react at all and platinum) will not
Gold- Au with oxygen and react with diluteacids.
Platinum- Pt so remain shiny and
attractive.

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Why is aluminium different?

Aluminium is a reactive metal but does not appear so.

It reacts quickly with the oxygen in air to produce a very thin oxide layer on its surface which
then acts to protect itself from further oxidation.
You can drop the metal in acid and you won’t see any reaction as acid does not actually touch
any aluminium.

Displacement Reactions
1- Reactions with metal compounds (double displacement reactions)
A metal will displace (take the place of) a less reactive metal in a metal salt (solid or
solution). The element carbon can do this also.

For example,
magnesium + copper sulfate magnesium sulfate +copper.

Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

 Observation:

Copper sulfate is blue, magnesium sulfate is colourless.

1- The blue colour of the solution fades away.

2- Magnesium metal is seen to turn brown as the displaced copper metal becomes deposited
on its surface.

In these displacement reactions the metals are competing for the non-metal anion (negative
ion). In the above examples the non-metal anion is sulfate -SO42-. Since magnesium is more
2-
reactive, it wins the SO4 . The order of the metals in the reactivity series can be worked out by
using these type of reactions.

The above is a REDOX reaction since magnesium is going from magnesium atoms to magnesium
ions by losing electrons. At the same time copper ions are gaining the electrons and turning to
atoms. The overall ionic equation is

Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) Mg2+(aq)+ Cu(s)

If a less reactive metal is added to ametal salt solutionthere will be no reaction –nothing will
happen! Iron is less reactive than zinc so

Iron + zinc chloride no reaction.

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 2- Reduction of metal oxides with carbon:

Only metals below carbon in the reactivity series can only be extracted using carbon from
their metal compounds.

a- lead oxide + carbon carbon dioxide +lead

2PbO(s) + C(s) CO2(aq) +2Pb(s)

b- while MgO + C  no reaction

3- Displacement of the H+ ion of acid:

A reactive metal (above hydrogen in the reactivity series) can displace hydrogen ions from an
acid or water.

zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

Since copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, copper will not displace hydrogen from
an acid so there is no reaction.

Using the difference in reactivity of two metals

Thermite reaction

We can make use of the difference in the reactivity of two metals in a number of different
ways. Railway lines can be joined together using the ‘thermite reaction’ where aluminium
displaces iron from its oxide in a very exothermic reaction. The liquid iron produces flows into
the gap between the rails joining them when it cools.

Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) Al2O3(s) + 2Fe (l)

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 Thermal Decomposition
Definition: Breaking down of compounds by the action of heat.
- Once a reactive metal has formed a compound these compounds are extremely stable and it
is very difficult to obtain the metal on its own once again. This means that extracting a
reactive metal from its ore is very difficult. (Group 1 metal compounds)

- Whereas the less reactive the metal, the less stable its compounds and so- the easier it is
to obtain from its ore.

1- Carbonates:
Most carbonates thermally decompose to form metal oxides and
CO2.
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(s)
Except group I carbonates, Sodium and potassium carbonates do not decompose because
they are particularly stable.

2- Hydroxides:
Most hydroxides thermally decompose to form metal oxides and H2O.

Cu(OH)2(s) CuO(s) + H2O (l)

Except group I hydroxides, Sodium and potassium hydroxides do not decompose again because
there are particularly stable.

3- Nitrates:
Nitrates thermally decompose to form metal oxides, O2(g) and
NO2.(Brown fumes)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4 NO2 (g) + O2(g)

Group I, Sodium and potassium nitrates do decompose slightly to make nitrites and O2.
(No brown fumes evolve). Be Careful here - Nitrites (whose formulae end NO2) are not the
same as nitrates (whose formulae end NO3)!

2Na(NO3)(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

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Chapter 10- COLLECTING AND TESTING OF GASES
AND IONS
Many gases can be prepared simply in the lab.

1- Hydrogen is made by the reaction of a moderately reactive metal such as zinc with an acid.
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

2- Carbon dioxide is made by the reaction of a metal carbonate with an acid.

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

3- Oxygen is made by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a manganese

(IV) oxide catalyst.

2 H2O2 O2 + 2H2O

4- Ammonia can be made by heating an ammonium compound with sodium hydroxide.

NH4Cl + NaOH NH3 + NaCl + H2O

5- Sulfur dioxide can be made by reacting a sulfite with nitric acid.

Na2SO3 + HNO3 SO2 + 2NaNO3 + H2O

We do not tend to make chlorine gas in the laboratory as it is extremely poisonous.

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Gas collection

Gas Method of collection Test

Ammonia Upward Delivery Ammonia gas will turn damp litmus

Method as it is less paper from red to blue. It also has a very
dense than air. pungent smell.
Carbon Dioxide Downward Delivery When carbon dioxide is bubbled through
Method as it is denser limewater, a solid white precipitate of
than air. calcium carbonate is formed.(lime water
turns milky or cloudy)
Chlorine Downward Delivery Chlorine gas bleaches damp litmus
Method as it is denser paper to white.
than air.
Hydrogen Upward Delivery Hydrogen burns with a squeaky pop
Method as it is less sound. The 'pop' is the sound of a
dense than air. small explosion!
Oxygen Collected over water as Oxygen gas is the only gas that will
it is not very soluble in relight a glowing splint.
water.
Sulfur dioxide Downward Delivery Sulfur dioxide reacts with purple
Method as it is denser potassium manganate (VII) and turns it
than air. colourless.

N.B. The manufacture of ethene was covered in the organic chemistry topic but you should
remember that ethene and other molecules containing a C=C decolourise bromine water.

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 Gas collection and measurement

Inaccurate Method:

Water displacement Method: only gases that are insoluble in water, not acidic
and alkaline gases)

Accurate Method:
You could also collect these gases by connecting directly to a gas syringe if you wanted to measure
exactly how much you had made.

Page 121 of 205

 Tests for gases
Gas test and test result
ammonia (NH 3) turns damp, red litmus paper blue
carbon dioxide (CO2) turns limewater milky
chlorine (Cl 2) bleaches damp litmus paper
hydrogen (H2) ‘pops’ with a lighted splint
oxygen (O2) relights a glowing splint

DETECTION & IDENTIFICATION

CHEMICAL TESTS

POSITIVE IONS (Cations)

Flame Tests
Certain elements can be detected by the distinctive colours they produce when their compounds are
heated in a Bunsen flame.

To carry out a flame test:

1- Concentrated hydrochloric acid is sprayed over the salt
2- A nichrome wire is dipped into the compound to be tested
3- Wire is then heated in a hot roaring (blue) flame. The following colours are obtained:

Li +
Na +
K +
Cu 2+
red yellow-orange lilac blue-green

Flame tests for metal ions

metal ion flame colour
lithium (Li+) red
+
sodium (Na ) yellow
+
potassium (K ) lilac
copper(II) (Cu2+) blue-green

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Reaction with sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution
A. Most metal hydroxides are insoluble in water, so when a solution of sodium hydroxide or
ammonia is added to a solution containing metal ions, a precipitate of metal hydroxide is formed.
The colour of the precipitate can be used to identify the metal ion.

The following results are obtained:

Cu2+ pale blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)

This precipitate does not re-dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide

but re-dissolves when you add an excess of ammonia to form a deep blue
solution.

Fe2+ green precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)

This precipitate does not re-dissolve in excess sodium or

ammonium hydroxides.

Fe3+ brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide

Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)

This precipitate does not re-dissolve in excess hydroxide.

Ca2+ white precipitate of calcium hydroxide

Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s)

This precipitate does not re-dissolve in excess hydroxide.

No precipitate forms when ammonia is added to calcium ions.

white precipitate of zinc hydroxide

Zn2+ Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)

This precipitate re-dissolves when you add an excess of hydroxide ions to form
a colourless solution.
It also re-dissolves in excess ammonia to form a colourless solution.

Al3+ white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide

Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)

This precipitate re-dissolves when you add an excess of hydroxide to form a

colourless solution.
It does not re-dissolve in excess ammonia.

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Cr3+ green precipitate of chromium(III) hydroxide
Cr3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Cr(OH)3(s)

This precipitate re-dissolves when you add an excess of hydroxide ions to form
a green solution.
It also re-dissolves in excess ammonia to form a green-grey solution.

NH4+ If no precipitate is obtained when sodium hydroxide solution is added, the

mixture should be warmed. If ammonium ions are present, ammonia will be
given off. Ammonia turns damp red litmus paper blue.

Tests for aqueous cations

Cation effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide effect of aqueous ammonia

copper (Cu2+) light blue ppt., insoluble in excess light blue ppt., soluble in excess,
giving a dark blue solution
+
iron(II) (Fe2+) green ppt., insoluble in excess green ppt., insoluble in excess

iron(III) (Fe3+) red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess

calcium (Ca2+) white ppt., insoluble in excess no ppt. or very slight white ppt.

zinc (Zn2+) white ppt., soluble in excess, giving a white ppt., soluble in excess,
colourless solution giving a colourless solution
3+
aluminium (Al ) white ppt., soluble in excess giving a white ppt., insoluble in excess
colourless solution
chromium(III) (Cr3+) green ppt., soluble in excess grey-green ppt., insoluble in excess

ammonium (NH 4 ) ammonia produced on warming –

2. NEGATIVE IONS (Anions)

1- Chloride, Bromide &Iodide Ions, Cl-, Br-, I-

To show the presence chloride, bromide or iodide ions in solution:
 the solution is first acidified with dilute nitric acid, then silver nitrate solution is added
 chlorides give a white precipitate of silver chloride
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

 bromides give a cream precipitate of silver bromide

Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s)

 iodides give a pale yellow precipitate of silver iodide

Ag+(aq) + l-(aq) Agl(s)

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 2- Sulfate Ions, SO42-
To show the presence sulfate ions in solution:
 the solution is first acidified with dilute nitric acid, then barium chloride solution is added
 a white precipitate of barium sulfate forms

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)

3- Sulfite Ions SO32-

Test: To test for sulphite we add an equal volume of nitric acid and heat the mixture.
Result: If sulphite ions are present, the gas sulphur dioxide will be produced. That turns acidified
potassium manganate (VII) paper from purple to colourless.

SO32- + 2H+ SO2 + H2O

4- Nitrate Ions, NO3-

Before this test is carried out, the test for ammonium ions (see above) must be carried out.

To show the presence of nitrate ions in solution:

Test:
1- The solution is basified with sodium hydroxide solution
2- Then aluminium powder is added
3- Heat gently

Result:
The nitrate ion is reduced to ammonia. Ammonia is a pungent gas. It turns damp red litmus
paper blue

litmus paper universal indicator paper

5- Carbonate Ions, CO32-

To show the presence of carbonate ions in solution:
 add dilute nitric acid
 the solution fizzes and carbon dioxide is given off

CuCO3 + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

2H+ + CO32- H2O + CO2

Carbon dioxide is a gas which turns limewater milky.

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Tests for anions
anion test test result
carbonate (CO3 2– ) add dilute acid effervescence, carbon dioxide
produced
chloride (Cl – ) acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add white ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
bromide (Br– ) acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add cream ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
iodide (I– ) acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add yellow ppt.
[in solution] aqueous silver nitrate
–
nitrate (NO3 ) add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then ammonia produced
[in solution] aluminium foil; warm carefully
sulfate (SO4 2– ) acidify, then add aqueous barium nitrate white ppt.
[in solution]
sulfite (SO3 2– ) add dilute hydrochloric acid, warm gently sulfur dioxide produced will turn
and test for the presence of sulfur dioxide acidified aqueous potassium
manganate(VII) from purple to
colourless

Page 126 of 205

 CHAPTER 11- AIR AND WATER
1- WATER

Sources of Water:
Rivers and Underground

Uses of Water at home:

1- Cleaning
2- Drinking
3- Cooking

Uses of Water in industry:

1- Solvent
2- Coolant

Purifying Water
Water is purified by:
1- Filtration (to remove solid impurities)
2- Chlorination (to kill bacteria)

Test of Water
Physical test (test for purity):
You can tell if water is pure because in melts at 0oC and boils at 100oC.

Chemical test (test for identification):

1- Water turns anhydrous copper II sulfate from white into blue
hydrated copper II sulfate.

2- Water turns anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride from blue to pink

hydrated cobalt (II) Chloride.

Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride

Pink Blue
CoCl2.6H2O (s) CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O (l)

Page 127 of 205

 Air

Gas % in dry air

Nitrogen (N2) 78
Oxygen (02) 21
Argon (Ar) 0.9
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.04
Other gases (not Hydrogen) Traces

Finding out the amount of oxygen in air

The apparatus shown below can be used to find the percentage of oxygen in air.

- The volume of air in the syringes is 100cm3 at the start of the experiment. The copper
is then heated strongly as the air is passed slowly from one syringe to the other. The
process is continued until there is no further change in the volume of gas.
- Finally, the apparatus is allowed to cool and the volume of air in the syringes is
measured again. The change in volume is due to the loss of oxygen which is
removed as it reacts with the copper to form copper oxide.

Results:
Volume of air at the start 100 cm3
Volume of air at the end 79 cm3
Volume of oxygen 100 - 79 = 21cm3

Conclusion: This sample of air contains 21% oxygen

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Fractional distillation of air (Separation of air components)

As we have seen air is a mixture of gases and these can be separated. Each component of the
air has a different boiling point:

Gas Boiling point (o C)

Nitrogen -196

Increasing boiling point

Argon -186

Oxygen -183

Krypton -153

Xenon -108

Carbon dioxide -78 (sublimes)

Fractional distillation of liquid air can be used to separate the gases.

1- The air is filtered to remove the solid pollutants.
2- The air is liquefied by cooling and pressure. This turns the air into a mixture of liquids.
3- Water and carbon dioxide are removed as they would freeze in the process.
4- The gases are slowly warmed and as they boil they are collected as fractions according
to the difference in their boiling points.

Diagram to show the process involved in the fractional distillation of air

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Properties and uses of gases in air
All the gases in air are colourless and have no smell, but they differ in other properties and
uses.

Nitrogen, N2
- This is the most abundant gas in air
- Insoluble in water
- Does not easily react with other substances. (Un-reactive)
- Uses:
1- The gas is used for packaging foods. Filling a packet of crisps
with nitrogen means there is no oxygen for the food to react
with and spoil.
2- Liquid nitrogen can be used to freeze items very quickly.
3- Nitrogen is also needed for the production of ammonia which is needed for the
manufacture of fertilisers that are essential in the mass production of crops.

Oxygen, O2
- Oxygen is soluble in water and reacts with many other
substances.
- The presence of oxygen in air and water is essential to
life on Earth. It is also needed for respiration, the
process by which living things release energy from
sugars.

- Chemical properties of oxygen: (reaction with magnesium)

Magnesium burns in air with bright white light. During the reaction white fumes appear and
white ash of MgO is left
2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)

- Uses:
1- Cylinders of oxygen gas are used in hospitals to help patients with breathing
difficulties, and by underwater divers.
2- Oxygen is also used along with the fuel gas acetylene (ethyne, C2H2) to produce a
very high temperature flame in oxyacetylene burners used in the welding of metals.
3- Used to purify and convert steel into mild steel in the oxygen converter.

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Argon
Argon is insoluble in water and extremely unreactive. Ordinary light bulbs are filled
with argon so that the filament does not burn out.

Neon
Neon is a colourless gas which used in advertising signs since is glows red when
a current is passed through it.

Helium
Helium is very light and is used to fill balloons.

Air Pollution

Carbon based pollutants

1- Greenhouse Gases

a- Methane:
- Methane (CH4) is a colourless, odourless gas made up of the elements carbon and
hydrogen.

- Sources:
-1- It is found trapped below impermeable rock under the sea floor where it formed
millions of years ago.
2- Some animals produce methane during the digestion of vegetation (cows and sheep)
due to the presence of certain bacteria in their gut.
3- It is also produced by the decomposition of vegetaion in air due to the presence
of Bacteria

- Effect:
- Methane is also a greenhouse gas which contributes to global warming.

b- Carbon dioxide:
Source:
Burning of fossil fuels in excess supply of air or oxygen, complete combustion takes
place, forming carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and contributes
to global warming.

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O ΔH = -890 kJ.mol-1

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 Global Warming

Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour and nitrous oxides absorb infra-red radiation in the
same range that is given off by the Earth at night. More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
means more heat is absorbed, and less can escape at night into space. The overall effect is
that the Earth receives more heat in the day than it can lose at night, so the temperature
rises. The same thing happens in a greenhouse where glass instead of carbon dioxide is used
to prevent the heat escaping at night. So, carbon dioxide, along with methane and water
vapour have been called greenhouse gases.

Consequences for life on planet Earth:

1- Climate change
Carbon dioxide is causing the global temperature of the Earth to rise.

2- Rising sea levels because of ice melting at the poles

3- More extreme weather because of more convection in the hotter wetter atmosphere.
4- Finally, some species may not be able to adapt to the different climate and may die out
altogether.

Solution:

Cutting back on the burning of fossil fuels will help as will switching to more
environmentally friendly sources of power such as wind, tidal and solar power.

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 2- Carbon monoxide:
Source:
Carbon monoxide is produced from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, when there is
limited supply of oxygen, forming water together with carbon monoxide or even carbon.

CH4 + 11/2O2 CO + 2H2O

Sometimes the incomplete combustion may produce carbon (soot) when the combustion is
incomplete. For Example; Bunsen burners, which are intended for use in open
laboratories, produce carbon when combustion is incomplete (the luminous flame obtained
when the air hole is closed is sooty).

CH4 + O2 C + 2H2O
Effect: (toxic gas)
Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly to haemoglobin in the blood to prevent the transport of
oxygen.

3- Acidic Gases:
a- Sulphur based pollutants (sulphur dioxide, SO2- sulphur trioxide, SO3) :

Source:
They are produced from the burning of fossil fuels which contain sulphur containing
compounds as impurities. .

Effects:
Both these oxides are toxic and also dissolve and react with water vapour in the air ,
causing acid rain.

Acid rain problems:

1- Can cause problems with the respiratory system when inhaled as a gas.
2- Damaging building made of limestone.
3- Damaging statues made of metals such as iron.
4- Acid rain can also cause river water to become acidic which can kill fish and plants.
5- Acid rain can also cause soil to become acidic which can kill plants.

Flue Gas Desulphurisation is a process used to prevent SO2 escaping into the atmosphere.
Waste gases containing SO2 are passed through a flue (chimney) containing calcium oxide
(CaO) or Calcium hydroxide which neutralises the SO2 producing calcium sulphite (CaSO3).

CaO + SO2 CaSO3

This can easily be oxidised to to make hydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4), also known as
gypsum, which is used to make plasterboard for the building industry.

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b- Nitrogen based pollutants (Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide)

Nitrogen oxide is produced by the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen of air either in lightning
or inside the car engine under high temperature and pressure.

N2 + O 2 2NO

On cooling and in the presence of more oxygen, nitrogen oxide reacts to form other oxides
of nitrogen (NOx), especially nitrogen dioxide, NO2.

2NO + O2 2NO2

Effect:
1- Oxides of nitrogen are irritant, toxic gases.
2- With water and more oxygen, nitrogen dioxide reacts to form nitric acid, which
contributes to acid rain.

4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3

Catalytic Converters

Catalytic converters are fitted to the exhaust systems of cars to remove pollutant gases.
1- They consist of high surface area of ceramic material which is coated with a thin
layer of a catalyst containing platinum (Pt) and rhodium (Rh). Up to 90% of pollutant gases
are removed.
The catalyst system catalyses two important reactions:
2-  nitrogen monoxide is turned into oxygen and nitrogen. This is a
REDUCTION
2NO N 2 + O2

3-  carbon monoxide is turned into carbon dioxide. This is an

OXIDATION
2CO + O2 2CO2

4-  Overall reaction: 2NO + 2CO 2CO2 + N2

5- Burning of unburnt Hydrocarbons.

4- Lead based pollutants

Source:
For many years, lead compounds were added to petrol to help the engine run more smoothly
and quietly.

Effect:
However, lead is a very toxic metal and can kill brain cells especially in children (causing
mental retardation) as well as damage to other organs. It was banned as a petrol additive in
many countries including the UK in the 1990’s but not worldwide.

Page 134 of 205

 Chapter 12 - FUELS AND ENERGETICS
- During a chemical reaction, existing chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are
formed.
 Energy must be absorbed to break existing bonds (Endothermic)
 Energy is released when new bonds are formed (Exothermic)

- The overall change in energy, which takes place during the reaction, is called the heat of
reaction and is given the symbol H (pronounced ‘delta H’).

1- Exothermic Reactions:
- If the energy needed to break existing bonds is less than the energy released when new
bonds are formed, the reaction will give out energy (usually as heat) to its surroundings.
- The temperature of the reaction mixture will rise. This is called an exothermic reaction.
- For an exothermic reaction, the sign of the heat change (H) is negative.

Examples:
- All reactions involving burning, e.g. the burning of magnesium.
- Most neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis are also exothermic.
- Respiration in the human body.
- Freezing and condensation (physical)
- Chemical reaction in the Electric Cell

bonds
bonds
breaking
forming
Ea
Chemical
Energy
reactants
H
products
1

Reaction path

- Energy of products is < energy of reactants

Page 135 of 205

 Endothermic Reaction:
- If the energy needed to break existing bonds is greater than the energy released when
new bonds are formed, the reaction will absorb energy (usually as heat) from its
surroundings.
- The temperature of the reaction mixture will fall. This is called an endothermic
reaction.
- For an endothermic reaction, the sign of the heat change (H) is positive.

Ea
Chemical
Energy
products
H
reactants

Reaction path

- Energy of products is > energy of reactants

Examples:
- The reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with hydrochloric acid is endothermic.
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
- The reaction which occurs when you put sherbet on your tongue is also endothermic and
cools your tongue.
- Thermal decomposition
- Cooking
- Photosynthesis
- Electrolysis reactions

Page 136 of 205

Calculation of H from Bond Energies
When, for example, methane and oxygen react together to form carbon dioxide and water:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

bonds in methane molecules and oxygen molecules are broken, and bonds in carbon dioxide
and water molecules are formed. If the bond energy of each type of bond is known, it is
possible to calculate H for the reaction in the following way.

 The energy required to break all of the existing bonds is calculated ( ΣBond
energybonds broken). This will have a positive value because energy must be supplied to
break bonds. (Endothermic)

 The energy released when all of the new bonds are formed is calculated ( ΣBond
energybonds formed). This will have a negative value because energy is given out when
bonds form. (Exothermic)

 Then, H = Σ Bond energybonds broken + ΣBond bonds formed

Example:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2 + 2H2O(g)

Bond energies: C-H 412 kJ/mol

O=O 496 kJ/mol
O-H 463 kJ/mol
C=O 743 kJ/mol

Bonds broken: 4 x C-H 4 x + 412 kJ/mol

2 x O=O 2 x + 496 kJ/mol
TOTAL = + 2640 kJ/mol

Bonds formed: 2 x C=O 2 x - 743 kJ/mol

4 x O-H 4 x - 463 kJ/mol
TOTAL = - 3338 kJ/mol

H = +2640 + (-3338) = - 698 kJ/mol.

Since H is negative, this reaction is exothermic (it gives out heat).

This change can also be represented on an energy diagram.

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Energy Diagram

C(g) + 4H(g) + 4O (g)

bonds broken
+2640kJ/mol
Energy bonds formed
-3338 kJ/mol

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)

H
-698 kJ/mol
CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g)

This is the reactions which occurs when you light the cooker at home. You create a spark or strike
a match to start the reaction. However, you do not need to continue to provide a heat source as
the energy given out by the reaction breaks further bonds and keeps the reaction going.

Respiration vs photosynthesis

You can think of respiration and photosynthesis as being the exact opposite of one another.

- Respiration is the process by which cells turn glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide,
water and energy. Energy is released and so this process in exothermic.

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

- On the other hand photosynthesis in plants involves energy taken in from the sun,
carbon dioxide and water being converted into glucose and oxygen and so is endothermic.

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

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 Fuels

What is a fuel?
- Any substance which provides energy is a fuel and we use fuels to heat and light our
homes, cook our food and make vehicles move.

Fossil fuels (need burning)

Advantages:
1-The burning of fossils fuels is exothermic and produces large amount of heat energy
2- Fossil fuels are easy to find and use
Disadvantages:
1- Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) all produce carbon dioxide when burned and are
not good for the environment causing global warming.
2- When burnt they may also produce toxic gases as carbon monoxide.
3- When burnt they may also produce acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide which
contribute to acid rain.
4- It is anticipated that oil and gas will run out in your lifetime but coal could last
several hundred years. Non-renewable

 An ideal fuel for the future:

1- would not pollute the atmosphere
2- would be cheap
3- Readily available
4- Gives out a lot of heat and is easy to use and store.

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Alternative fuels

1- Ethanol (bioethanol):(needs burning)

Advantages:
- Produces more heat than natural gas when burned.
- It can be made from sugar cane (renewable source). The sugar is fermented to produce
ethanol. C2H5OH
- Carbon dioxide produced from the burning of ethanol is less than the amount of carbon
dioxide produced by fossil fuels. This amount of carbon dioxide can easily be remved by
photosynthesis.
- It can be used on its own or mixed with petrol to make petrol last longer.
C2H5OH + O2  2CO2 + 3H2O + heat energy
Disadvantages:

Produces less energy than other liquid fossil fuels when burnt

2- Nuclear fuels : (Doesn't need burning)

. Uranium (235) is used as a fuel in a nuclear reactor and when hit by neutron the
following reaction occurs. It is not burned.

235 92 141
n + U  Kr + Ba + 3n + energy

Advantages of using nuclear fuels:

- Uranium (235) the size of a pea can produce the same amount of energy as a tonne of
coal.
- No CO2 or other polluting gases are produced.

Disadvantages:

- The radioactive isotopes used are unstable and an explosion could spread radioactive
material over a large area and cause huge damage.
- The disposal of waste material which is still radioactive for hundreds of years after
use.

3- Hydrogen:
- H 2 + O 2  H 2O
- It gives out three times as much energy as natural gas but is extremely dangerous
to store and use, because it burns explosively with oxygen.
- It is currently used by NASA to fuel space rockets. It can also be used more safely
to produce electricity in a device called a fuel cell.

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Fuels cells

- A cell where hydrogen and oxygen combine together without burning

Advantages:

- A fuel cell works by converting hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy and water
vapour and so there are no harmful emissions.
- Produces very large amount of heat.
- It also works continuously as long as hydrogen and oxygen are supplied.

Disadvantages:
- It seems like an ideal device, however, hydrogen is extremely flammable and is
difficult to store and very dangerous to use.

Hydrogen gas is converted to hydrogen ions with the release of electrons. The electrons
travel around the external circuit and through a device before reaching the other side. The
hydrogen ions migrate across a membrane to the other electrode where they react with
oxygen to produce water.

Overall 2H2 + O2  2H2O

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 CHAPTER 13- RATES OF REACTION
 The rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical change takes place.

 It is followed by measuring the rate at which reactants are used up or the rate at
which products are formed. This allows a comparison to be made of the changing
rate of a chemical reaction under different conditions.

Rate of reactions can be measured in either of 2 ways:

Rate = amount of reactant used / or Rate = amount of product formed/
Time Time

1- Amount of reactant used /time:

 Since the rate of a reaction is a measure of how quickly reactants are being used
up, it follows that we can determine the rate of a reaction by measuring the
gradient of the following graph.

Concentration

Of
reactant

Time
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 2- Amount of product/ time:

Water displacement method Gas syringe

method

The rate of the reaction is measured by calculating the gradient of the curve.

Collisions:

 Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each
other successfully with sufficient energy. The minimum amount of energy which
particles must have to react is called the activation energy.

 Reactions are fastest at the start because this is when there are the most
particles (higher concentration of reactants), so, particles collide more
frequently. As a reaction proceeds, reactants are used up and the rate decreases.

Page 143 of 205

For Example:

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Reason the reaction becomes slower by time (Explanation)

- The calcium carbonate is in excess, so the hydrochloric acid is

used up completely as the reaction takes place.

- Since its concentration decreases with time,there will be less

particles per unit volume and there will be less frequent collisions per
time. The reaction becomes slower and slower. This is shown on the
graph by a curve of steadily decreasing gradient.

Various factors alter the rate of a reaction:

1- The particle size/ surface area of a solid, the smaller the particle
size (greater surface area), the faster the reaction is.
2- The concentration of dissolved reactants or the pressure of
gases: the higher the concentration or the pressure, the faster
the reaction is.
3- The temperature of the reaction mixture: the higher the
temperature, the faster the reaction is.
4- The addition of a catalyst speeds up the reaction

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 Paper 6
1- The Particle Size of Solid Reactants

- The reaction used to study the effect of particle size is the

reaction of calcium carbonate, in the form of marble, with dilute
hydrochloric acid.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

- The reaction is followed by the change in mass of the reaction

flask with time as carbon dioxide is given off.
- It would also be possible to measure the change in the volume
of carbon dioxide given off with time by collecting the gas in,
for example, a gas syringe.

Method: (Paper 6) loss of mass method

 A constant mass of marble chips was weighed out and placed into
a 250cm3 conical flask. 100cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid was added
from a measuring cylinder.
 The flask was loosely stoppered with cotton wool (to allow the
gas to escape but to prevent the loss of liquid splashes) then
placed onto an electronic balance.
 The mass of the conical flask was recorded every 15s for the
first minute, then every 30s for a total of ten minutes.
 It is assumed that the temperature of the reaction mixture
stayed constant.
 The experiment was repeated with three different sizes of
marble chips, keeping all other variables the same. The results
were tabulated and a graph of mass of carbon dioxide (y-axis)
against time (x-axis) was plotted.

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Results: Paper 6

Large Particles Medium Particles Small Particles

Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of

Time /s
flask/g CO2 /g flask /g CO2 /g flask /g CO2 /g
0
15
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600

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 Interpretation of Results: (Conclusion)
 For a given mass of calcium carbonate, the smaller the size of the
particles, the greater is the surface area and the faster the
reaction as there will be more surface area for more frequent collisions.

 This is shown on the graph by the gradient becoming steeper as the particle
size decreases.

The smaller the particle size (the bigger the surface area) , the
faster the reaction, as there will be more surface area
for more frequent collisions

Graphs ending at the same volume of

gas (Explanation)

-Since the same quantities of

reactants are involved in all reactions,
the same mass of carbon dioxide is
given off in all of them, if the reaction
is allowed to go to completion.
- This is shown by all two curves levelling
off at the same total mass of carbon
dioxide.

Applications:
- In flour mills and coal mines:

- The flour particles are tiny, it can also catches fire.

- In flour mills, if there is a lot of flour dust in the air, a spark from a
machine could be enough to start an explosion.

- Same as for coal.

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 Paper 6
2. The Temperature
The reaction used to study the effect of temperature is the reaction of
sodium thiosulphate solution with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + S(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

(Read only)
The reaction is followed by the appearance of
colloidal sulphur as the reaction proceeds. The
formation of sulphur begins as soon as the
reactants are mixed, but it takes time for
observable amounts to be produced. The time
taken to reach a particular point in the reaction
can be determined by standing the reaction flask
on a piece of paper marked with a feint cross
and timing how long it takes for the cross to be
obscured when looked at from above.

Method: (Paper 6)

 10cm3 of sodium thiosulphate stock solution (concentration 40g per

litre) were measured out into a measuring cylinder and poured into a
250cm3 conical flask. 40cm3 of water were measured out in a similar
way and added to the flask.
 The flask was heated gently over a Bunsen burner to a temperature
slightly above the desired temperature. The flask was placed on a
piece of paper marked with a feint cross.
 5cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid were measured out into a second
measuring cylinder.
 As the acid was poured into the conical flask, a stopwatch was
started and the mixture gently swirled. The initial temperature was
recorded. The stopwatch was stopped when the cross, viewed from
above, became obscured.
 The time and the final temperature were recorded. The mean of the
initial and final temperatures was taken as the temperature of the
reaction.
 The experiment was repeated for five different temperatures,
keeping all other variables constant.
 The results were tabulated and from the results a graph of 1000/
time (y-axis) against temperature (x-axis) was plotted. (1000/ time is
a measure of the rate)

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 Results:

Initial temp. Final temp. Mean temp. 1000/time

Time /s
/oC /oC /oC /s-1

Interpretation of Results:
The rate of reaction increases rapidly with temperature, a rise in
temperature of 10oC approximately doubling the rate.

In the reaction between thiosulphate

ions and hydrogen ions, as the ions
collide covalent bonds are broken
and new bonds are formed. Since
energy is needed to break bonds, bonds
bonds
breaking
the colliding particles must have a Ea
forming
minimum energy on collision Chemical
sufficient to break the bonds. This Energy
energy is known as the activation reactants H
energy (Ea).
products
Only those collisions with energy
greater than or equal to the
activation energy will result in a Reaction path
reaction.

The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction (4 marks)

As temperature increases:
1- particles gain energy
2- move faster
3- collide more frequently
4- collide with energy higher than activation energy

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3. The Concentration of Reactants Paper 6
The reaction used to study the effect of
concentration is the reaction of sodium
thiosulphate solution with dilute hydrochloric
acid. (same as the previous reaction)

Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + S(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Method: (Paper 6)

 50cm3 of sodium thiosulphate stock solution (concentration 40g per

litre) were measured out into a measuring cylinder and poured into a
250cm3 conical flask.
 The flask was placed on a piece of paper marked with a feint cross.
5cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid were measured out into a second
measuring cylinder.
 As the acid was poured into the conical flask, a stopwatch was
started and the mixture gently swirled. The stopwatch was stopped
when the cross, viewed from above, became obscured. The time was
recorded.
 The experiment was repeated for five different concentrations,
keeping all other variables constant.
 A graph of 1000 /time (y-axis) against volume of Na2S2O3 (x-axis)
was plotted.
 Since the total volume of the reaction mixture is constant (at 55cm 3)
the concentration of Na2S2O3 is proportional to its volume.

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 Results:

Constants: total volume of Na2S2O3 solution 50cm3

2M hydrochloric acid 5cm3
temperature 20oC
conical flask & cross

Volume of Na2S2O3 Volume of H2O 1000/ time

Time /s
(40g/l) /cm3 /cm3 /s-1
50 0
40 10
30 20
20 30
10 40

The more concentrated the solution, the faster the reaction

The explanation why increase in concentration increases the rate of

reaction:
The more concentrated the solution is, the greater the number of
particles there are in a given volume and therefore the greater the
frequency of collisions. It is important to note that only a very small
proportion of the total number of collisions is successful and leads to a
reaction.

Effect of Pressure
 Pressure is important only in reactions involving gases.

 Pressure affects gaseous reactions in the same way that the

concentration affects reactions in solution.

 As the pressure is increased, the greater the number of particles

per unit volume and therefore the greater the number off
collisions in a given time. (more frequent collisions) Therefore,
as the pressure increases, the rate increases.

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 4. Addition of a Catalyst

The reaction used to study the effect of a catalyst is the decomposition of

hydrogen peroxide:
2H2O2 2H2O + O2

 The reaction is catalysed by several metal oxides; the compound used

here is manganese(IV) oxide.
 The reaction is followed by collecting the oxygen given off and
measuring its volume at regular intervals of time. The gas may be
collected either in a gas syringe or over water in a burette.

 A graph of volume of oxygen (y-axis) against time (x-axis) is plotted.

A catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is

not used up in the reaction.

A catalyst works by providing an alternative reaction route which has a lower

activation energy.

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Interpretation of Results:

 The reaction is faster the more catalyst there is present; this is

shown by the increasing steepness of the curves.

 The reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst. Increasing

the mass of catalyst increases the surface area and therefore
speeds up the rate.

Ea
A catalyst does not affect the outcome
of a reaction; the same product is
formed but in a shorter time. A catalyst Chemical Ea cat
works by weakening bonds, which Energy
lowers the activation energy for the
reaction. If the activation energy is reactants H
lowered, more particles have enough
energy to react and therefore the products
reaction goes faster.

A catalyst is not used up in the reaction Reaction path

but is recovered unchanged at the end.

 A catalyst can be used over and over again to speed up the conversion
of reactants to products. Different reactions need different
catalysts.

Biological catalysts

 Enzymes are large molecules that speed up the chemical reactions

inside cells. These are called biological catalysts.
 If the shape of the enzyme changes, it may no longer work. We say
the enzyme has been denatured. They can be denatured by high
temperatures or extremes of pH. Note that it is wrong to say the
enzyme has been killed. Although enzymes are made by living things,
they are proteins, and not alive.

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Photochemical Reactions

Photochemical reactions get the energy they need from light. The
more intense the light, the faster the reaction goes. Two examples of
photochemical reactions are photosynthesis and the reaction in film
photography.

1- Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis turns carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen. It is
catalysed by chlorophyll.
In the experiment below, as the lamp moves closer to the beaker the
number of oxygen bubbles produced increase

2- Film photography:
 In photography, light falls on a film coated with silver bromide.
 When light is exposed to the film, the silver ions break down
(reduced) to silver metal.
 The more light that hits the film, the more silver ions are reduced to
silver.
 So the areas exposed to most light have the most silver and appear
darkest.
 When the file is developed any unreacted silver bromide is removed
leaving silver behind on the film.
 This is what we call the ‘negative’.

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 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

Reactions that can move both forward and backward are called reversible reactions and are
represented:

A + B C + D

 The formation of C&D is the forward reaction and the formation of A&B is called
the backward reaction.

Example 1- Heating ammonium chloride:

If ammonium chloride (a white solid) is heated, it splits up into the

colourless gases, ammonia and hydrogen chloride.

Ammonium chloride ammonia + hydrogen chloride

NH4Cl(s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

- On heating a test tube filled with white solid ammonium chloride, it decomposes to
ammonia gas (which is alkaline and hydrogen chloride gas which is acidic).

- On the cold surface of the funnel, the white solid is reformed.

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 Example 2: Heating hydrated pink cobalt II chloride turns to blue
anhydrous cobalt chloride and water.

Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride

Pink Blue

CoCl2.2H2O (s) CoCl2 (s) + 2H2O (l)

Example 3:

EMAD
- When hydrated blue copper sulphate is heated it changes to
anhydrous white copper sulphate and water (water of
crystallization). (Endothermic reaction)

-
YASSMI
When water is added to anhydrous copper sulphate it changes into

blue hydrated copper sulphate and heat is generated. (Exothermic reaction)

-
N Dr.
hydrated means that the water is built into the structure)

Anhydrous means that the water is not present.

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 Equilibrium

A + B C + D

Dynamic Equilibrium is reached when:

1- Rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction.

2- Concentration of reactants and products remain constant.

Factors Affecting the Position of an Equilibrium

The effects of temperature and pressure on the position of a chemical equilibrium are
given byLe Chatelier’s Principle:
Any change in one of the variables which determines the state of a system in
equilibrium causes a shift in the position of the equilibrium in the direction
that tends to oppose the effect of the change. (Read only)

a) Temperature:

If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the

opposite direction. The same amount of energy is transferred in each case.

(Exo)hydrated copper sulphate anhydrous copper sulphate + water (Endo)

(blue) (white)

N.B. The backward reaction is used as a test for water.

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If the forward reaction is exothermic, for example:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ∆H = -92 kJ.mol-1

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) ∆H = -192 kJ.mol-1

Effect on equilibrium and thus effect on yield:

 Increasing the temperature results in a shift of the equilibrium to the left, decreasing the yield
of product.
 Decreasing the temperature results in a shift of the equilibrium to the right, increasing the yield
of product.

If the forward reaction is endothermic, for example:

N2O4(g) 2NO2(g) ∆H = +57 kJ.mol-1

PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) ∆H = +93 kJ.mol-1

Effect on equilibrium and thus effect on yield:

 increasing the temperature results in a shift of the equilibrium to the right, increasing the yield
of product.
 decreasing the temperature results in a shift of the equilibrium to the left, decreasing the yield
of product.

Effect on the rate of reaction:

Regardless of its effect on the position of an equilibrium, an increase in temperature always increases
the rate of the reaction.

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b) Pressure

1- Effect of pressure on equilibrium:

 In gaseous reactions, if the pressure of the reaction is raised, the equilibrium will be
shifted in the direction which is accompanied by a reduction in volume, i.e. towards the
side with fewer moles of gas. (Look for the state symbol (g) in the equation for the
reaction).
 Conversely, lowering the pressure will shift the equilibrium towards the side with more
moles of gas.

In reactions such as:

N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)

PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)

which proceed with an increase in volume (more moles of gas on the right hand side),

 increasing the pressure results in a shift of the equilibrium to the left, decreasing the yield of
product.
 decreasing the pressure results in a shift of the equilibrium to the right, increasing the yield of
product.

In reactions such as:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

which proceed with a decrease in volume (fewer moles of gas on right hand side),

 increasing the pressure results in a shift of the equilibrium to the right, increasing the yield of
product.
 decreasing the pressure results in a shift of the equilibrium to the left, decreasing the yield of
product.

2- Effect of pressure on rate of reaction:

An increase in the pressure of a gaseous system is equivalent to an increase in the concentration of the
reactants, therefore the rate at which equilibrium is established is greater at higher pressures.

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c) Concentration of a substance

 By Le Chatelier’s Principle, increasing the concentration of one of the reactants in an

equilibrium mixture will cause the equilibrium to be displaced towards the right hand side,
forming more product
 Increasing the concentration of one of the products will cause the equilibrium to be
displaced towards the left hand side forming more reactants.

In the equilibrium:

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

an increase in the concentration of SO2 will result in a shift in equilibrium position to the RHS and more
SO3 will be produced.

d) Catalyst
A catalyst has no effect on the position of an equilibrium, but it speeds up the rate at which
equilibrium is established by providing an alternative reaction path with a lower activation
energy.

The above factors, together with reaction rates, are important when determining the
optimum conditions for industrial processes, such as the Haber process (ammonia) and
the Contact process (sulphuric acid).

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 Chapter 14- NON-METALS
Halogens
- The halogens are all in group 7 on the right of the periodic table.
- They are Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine.
- They are all diatomic covalently bonded molecules.
- Diatomic: means that each molecule contains two atoms.
The formulae are F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2.
- All of the halogens will either
1) gain one electron from a metal to form an X- ion
or
2) share one electron with a non-metal to form a covalent bond
(see structure of chlorine or hydrogen chloride).

Physical trends down the group:

- Colour becomes darker down the group.

- Melting and boiling points increase down the group.

Fluorine is a pale yellow gas, Chlorine is a yellow-green gas, Bromine is red-brown liquid, Iodine is
a still less reactive dark grey (or black) solid.

Chemical trends down the group:

Fluorine is extremely reactive, Chlorine is reactive, Bromine is less reactive, and Iodine is still
less reactive.

The relative reactivity of the halogens, can be shown by displacement reactions. For example,
Bromine gas bubbled through a solution of potassium iodide in water will displace (take the place
of) the less reactive iodine, forming iodine and potassium bromide, causing the change of colour
from colorless to brown.

bromine + potassium iodide potassium bromide + iodine.

Br2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KBr(aq) + I2(s)

Uses of Halogens:
1- Chlorine is a bleaching agent and use in the purification of water.
2- Iodine used to test the presence of starch.

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 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe. It is a colourless, odourless gas which is
less dense than air and extremely reactive. Unfortunately it is so light that there is none of it
in our atmosphere.

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen:

1- Electrolysis of water –aqueous solution of salts- (H2O is broken down into the elements
hydrogen and oxygen).

2- Active metal and water

Very active metals (K-Ca) react with cold water, while less active metals (Mg-Fe) react
with steam.

3- Metal and Acid

Example: reaction of hydrochloric acid with an active metal such as magnesium, aluminum,
zinc and hydrogen.

Industrial Preparation of Hydrogen:

By the cracking of hydrocarbons in the presence of water, fine powder of nickel and a suitable
catalyst.

Chemical properties of Hydrogen:

1- With Oxygen:

Hydrogen burns with blue flame giving water and a pop sound in the presence of a lighted splint.
The gas is therefore, used as a fuel. The combustion of hydrogen doesn‟t produce any pollutants
but produces water vapor only. (clean fuel)

H2(g) +O2 (g)  2H2O

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2- Acting as a reducing agent:

It can reduce the metal oxides of the moderately active metals (Zn-Cu) giving metal and water
CuO (S) + H2 (g)  Cu (S) + H2 O(g)
Fe2O3(S) + H2 (g)  Fe (s) + H2 O(g)

3- Test for Hydrogen:

Test: Apply a lighted splint to a gas jar filled with hydrogen.

Result: The gas burns with a “pop” sound

4- Uses of Hydrogen:

1- Industrial: It is used in the Haber process, where hydrogen and nitrogen combine
together to produce ammonia gas which is used in the manufacturing of ammonia and
nitric acid.

2- As a fuel:
a- It is used as a fuel for rockets and in welding, cutting of metals and in fuel cells.
b- It is used to fill balloons (the gas is however flammable).
c- Fuel cell (mentioned before).

Nitrogen
Nitrogen on the other hand makes up 78% of the air around us. Nitrogen is also a colourless,
odourless gas which is very unreactive.

Industrial Preparation of Nitrogen:

1- Can be obtained by fractional distillation of liquefied air

2- By removing the 21% oxygen from the air by combustion.

Hydrogen and nitrogen can react together to make ammonia

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 The Haber Process

Raw Materials:
1- Nitrogen: 0btained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.
2- Hydrogen: obtained from the reaction of natural gas (methane) and steam or cracking of
hydrocarbons.

H2O(g) + CH4(g) 3H2(g) + CO(g)

The Industrial process:

1- The purified gases are passed over a catalyst of iron at a high temperature and pressure.
About 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen react to produce ammonia.
2- The gases are cooled to liquefy the ammonia, which is removed.
3- Then the nitrogen and hydrogen are re-circulated through the reactor.

The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is reversible, this means that ammonia also breaks
down again into nitrogen and hydrogen.

3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g) H = -92 kJ.mol-1

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Conditions of the Haber Process

The optimum conditions for this equilibrium reaction, which produce a reasonable yield of
ammonia quickly, are decided as follows:

1- Pressure: 200 atm

Advantages of high pressure:

1- An increase in pressure will shift the equilibrium to the right hand side, because this has
fewer moles of gas. Therefore, the yield of ammonia will increase.

2- Increasing the pressure will increase the reaction rate, establishing equilibrium faster.
Since the molecules of gas are forced closer together, there will be more collisions in a given
time.

Disadvantages of high pressure:

increase the cost. As pressure increases, the cost of industrial plant increases because, for
example, vessels and pipes have to be thicker.

A compromise has to be struck between increasing rate and yield, which are beneficial
to the economics of the process, and increasing cost, which is not. In practice, a pressure of
about 200 atmospheres is used.

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 2- Temperature: 450 C
0

 Advantages of high pressure:

1- An increase in temperature will displace the equilibrium to the left hand side, because
the backward reaction is endothermic. Therefore, the yield of ammonia will decrease.

In addition to its effect on the equilibrium position, increasing the temperature will:

2- increase the reaction rate, establishing equilibrium faster. Since the molecules of
gas have more energy, move faster, collide more frequently, and collide with
energy higher than activation energy.

 Disadvantages of high pressure:

 increase the cost. Higher temperatures incur greater fuel costs.

A compromise has to be struck between increasing rate, which is beneficial to the economics of
the process, and increasing cost & decreasing yield, which are not. In practice, a temperature
of about 450oC is used.

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 3- Catalyst: Powdered iron

1- Addition of a catalyst has no effect on the equilibrium position and therefore does not affect the
yield of ammonia.

2- A catalyst provides an alternative reaction path with a lower activation energy. Therefore, it
increases the reaction rate, establishing equilibrium faster.

3- Using a catalyst leads to a small increase in cost.

In practice, an iron catalyst containing promoters is used.

USES OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is a colourless gas with a very characteristic smell. It is an alkaline gas which turns
damp red litmus paper blue.
1- Manufacture of fertilizers
2- Manufacture of nitric acid

1- Manufacture of Fertilisers:

Fertilizers are chemicals added to land to:

1- increase soil fertility
2- Increase rate of plant growth
3- Increase the yield of crops.

The 3 main nutrients in any fertilizers are:

N nitrogen P phosphorous K potassium

Page 167 of 205

 The most common compounds used as fertilizers are:

- Natural Fertilizers: manure and faces of animals

- Synthetic Fertilizers:

 ammonium sulphate, which is made by the neutralisation of ammonia with sulfuric acid
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

 ammonium nitrate, which is made by the neutralisation of ammonia with nitric acid

NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

 urea, which is made by the reaction of ammonia and carbon dioxide

2NH3 + CO2 CO(NH2)2 + H2O

PROBLEMS WITH THE USE OF FERTILISERS

The run-off of fertilisers from fields into water courses is a problem because:

 Too much fertiliser in water can lead to excessive algal growth (eutrophication). The
algae form a thick mat on the surface of the water, which blocks out light and kills
aquatic plants. This reduces oxygen levels in the water. When the mat starts to die and
falls to the bottom, it removes oxygen from the water as it decomposes. As a
consequence of this, fish are killed.

 The presence of nitrate in drinking water can cause health problems, particularly blue
baby syndrome. In new-born babies, the presence of nitrate affects their ability to carry
oxygen in the blood.

 Too much fertilizer in the soil can also increase soil acidity.

Some changes to farming practice could reduce these problems. Farmers could, for example:
 not apply fertilisers when rain is expected, so that they are not washed into water
courses before the plants have had a chance to absorb them
 apply fertilisers several times in small doses rather than in fewer larger doses

Attempts are being made to reduce the need for artificial fertilisers by developing strains of
the most important food crops which can fix their own nitrogen.

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 SULFUR
You will see sulfur written as sulphur in textbooks – it is the
same thing. As an element it exits as small molecules of 8
sulfur atoms arranged in a ring. The molecule can be written
as S8.

Sources:
1- From compounds found as impurities in natural gas (fossil fuels).

2- Sulfur can also be extracted from underground sulfur beds. In this case, hot water is
pumped underground and the sulfur melts and is carried back to the surface.

3- Combined with metals in their ores e.g. natural gypsum and zinc blende.

Properties of Sulfur:
1- Sulfur is a yellow non-metallic element that exists in a low melting point.

2- Sulfur burns in air to produce sulfur dioxide which causes acid rain. Sulfur dioxide is a
colourless gas with a choking smell
S + O2  SO2

Uses of Sulfur:
1- Used to produce sulfuric acid
2- Used to toughen rubber tyres (vulcanizing)
3- Make drugs and cosmetics.

SULFUR DIOXIDE

1- Sulfur burns in air to produce sulfur dioxide which causes acid rain. Sulfur dioxide is a
colourless gas with a choking smell
S + O2  SO2

2- The SO2 produced dissolves in water (clouds) to for an acidic solution.

SO2 + H2O  H2SO3

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Uses of Sulfur dioxide:

1- It can be used to bleach wool and wood pulp for making paper.
2- It also kills bacteria and can therefore be used to preserve food.

THE MANUFACTURE OF SULFURIC ACID

(The Contact Process)

Concentrated sulfuric acid is manufactured from the raw materials sulfur, water and air.

Step 1:
Sulfur is burned in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) H = -297 kJ/mol

This reaction, which is exothermic, is a redox reaction. Sulfur is oxidized from an oxidation
state of 0 to an oxidation state of +4.

Step 2:
The sulfur dioxide is then mixed with oxygen, and the mixture is passed over a catalyst of
vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) at a temperature of 450oC and a pressure of 2 atmospheres. This
reaction, in which sulfur trioxide is formed, is exothermic. It is also a redox reaction, because
sulfur is oxidized from an oxidation state of +4 to an oxidation state of +6.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) H = -192 kJ/mol

The optimum conditions for this equilibrium reaction are decided as follows:

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 Pressure
Advantages:

1- An increase in pressure will shift the equilibrium to the right hand side, because this has
fewer moles of gas. Therefore, the yield of sulfur(VI) oxide will increase.

2-Increasing the pressure will increase the no of frequent collisions between particles, thus
increasing the rate of reaction.

Disadvantages of high pressure:

- High cost

But, even at low pressures, the equilibrium is already shifted to the right hand side, so
the use of expensive high pressures is not justified. Thus, A compromise has to be struck
between increasing rate and yield, which are beneficial to the economics of the process,
and increasing cost, which is not. In practice, a pressure of about 2 atmospheres is used.

Temperature

- Advantages of High temperature:

 increase the reaction rate

- Disadvantages of High temperature:

- An increase in temperature will displace the equilibrium to the left hand side, because
the backward reaction is endothermic. Therefore, the yield of sulfur(VI) oxide will decrease.

- increase the cost

A compromise is needed between increasing rate, which helps the economics of the process, and
increasing cost & decreasing yield, which do not. In practice, a temperature of about 450oC is
used.

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Catalyst

Addition of a catalyst has no effect on the equilibrium position and therefore does not affect
the yield of sulfur(VI) oxide. But it increases the ratr of reaction

Using a catalyst leads to a small increase in cost. In practice, a catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide is
used.

Step 3:
The sulfur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid to form (oleum, H2S2O7).

SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7 (l)

Step 4:
Water is then carefully added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulfuric acid (98%).

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2 H2SO4(l)

The reaction produces more moles of sulfuric acid than the moles used in the previous step.

USES OF SULFURIC ACID

Sulfuric acid is used:
 as car battery acid
 in the manufacture of fertilizers
 in the manufacture of soaps & detergents
 Concentrated sulfuric acid is also a dehydrating agent– ie it can „remove water‟

Page 172 of 205

 Carbon
The element carbon is found in the earth‟s crust in two allotropic forms. Diamond is a clear,
hard solid which does not conduct electricity, whilst graphite is a black, slippery solid which
does conduct electricity. There are millions of compounds containing carbon. Most living things
are made up of compounds containing carbon.

Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon through the environment. Carbon
exists in the ground, in the sea, in plants and animals, and in the air.

The natural processes shown in the picture below that can release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere are (combustion, decay and respiration)

The natural processes shown in the picture below that can remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere (by dissolving in the sea and by photosynthesis).

Carbon can also be "locked away" in the ground as a fossil fuel or by forming carbonate rocks.

Page 173 of 205

 1- Carbon dioxide

Sources of carbon dioxide:

1- Burning fossil fuels

CH4 + 2O2  2H2O + CO2

2- Thermal decomposition of metal carbonate rocks.

CaCO3  CaO + CO2

3- Respiration
4- Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the lab by: the reaction of limestone or marble with
hydrochloric acid. The prepared gas is collected by downward delivery because it is
denser than air.

Uses of carbon dioxide:

1- Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and does not support combustion. It is therefore used
in fire extinguishers.
2- Producing fizzy drinks.

2- Carbon monoxide

- Carbon monoxide (CO) is also produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, which
is produced in the limited supply of oxygen.
- Carbon monoxide is an odourless, poisonous gas which binds to haemoglobin in blood cells
preventing them from carrying oxygen around the body. Carbon monoxide poisoning therefore
is very often fatal.
CH4 + 1½ O2  2H2O + CO

3- Carbonates

Carbonates decompose when heated to form oxides and CO2. Only the carbonates of the most
reactive metals (Na2CO3 and K2CO3) as so stable that they do not decompose when heated.

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 4- Organic compounds

They are methane and other organic compounds. There are millions of other organic compounds
such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, fuels and plastics which are all made of carbon bonded to
other elements (organic chemistry).

LIMESTONE
Limestone is formed when sea creatures die and fall to the bottom of the sea floor. Over millions of
years this material builds up and is pressed together to form limestone rock. These rocks are slowly
pushed upwards and sea levels have fallen exposing the limestone. Limestone contains mostly
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is an important raw material. Limestone is obtained by quarrying.

Thermal Decomposition
Calcium carbonate undergoes THERMAL DECOMPOSITION when heated in a kiln to about 1100oC,
forming calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Hydration
Quicklime reacts with water in a very exothermic reaction, forming calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)

The Limestone Cycle LIMESTONE

(calcium carbonate)
H2O

CO2

CO2

SLAKED LIME QUICKLIME

(calcium hydroxide) (calcium oxide)

H2O
If excess water is added to excess slaked lime it forms lime water

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Uses of Calcium Carbonate, Calcium Oxide and Calcium Hydroxide

1- Building Material (Lime stone)

Limestone is used as a building material. Limestone is a hard rock, but it erodes badly in air,
because it dissolves readily in acid rain. Marble is used in sculpture and as a building material.

2- Cement Manufacture (lime stone)

Cement is made by roasting
 powdered limestone
 powdered clay
 gypsum in a rotary kiln.

Cement is then used to make concrete.

3- Glass Manufacture (Lime stone)

Glass is made by heating a mixture of:
 limestone
 sand
 sodium carbonate

4- Iron production
Limestone is added to the Blast Furnace, in the production of iron, to remove acidic impurities present
in iron ore.

5- Removal of Acidity (All three compounds)

Lime stone, lime and slaked lime are all basic compounds. Powdered limestone is used to neutralise
acidity in lakes and in light, sandy soils. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is used to neutralise acidity
in heavy soils and in drinking water.

6- Flue Gas Desulfurization (Slaked lime)

is a process used to prevent SO2 escaping into the atmosphere. Waste gases containing SO 2 are
passed through a flue (chimney) containing calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2) (basic) which absorbs
the SO2(Acidic) producing calcium sulphite (CaSO3) and water. (neutralization reaction)

Ca(OH) 2 + SO2 CaSO3 + H2O

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  heavy soils
NEUTRALISATION  drinking water
SLAKED
Mg ‫ ظ}"~]يؤ‬.،‫؟ز‬,,E‫شؤ‬
>|~] LIME
U /‫ش‬TRALISATION
|ِ+
 lakes
GLASS  light soils
add water

QUICKLIME
heat + sand &
sodium carbonate
heat

LIMESTONE CALCIUM CARBONATE

CHALK
MARBLE
heat + powdered clay

BUILDING removal of impurities

CEMENT
mix with
IRON & STEEL CONCRETE
 water
 sand
 crushed rock

Page 177 of 205

 15- ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic: means derived or produced from a living organism. Which are mainly made of carbon.

CRUDE OIL
Like coal, gas and wood, crude oil consists of organic compounds; organic compounds are
compounds of carbon. Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds, most of
which are hydrocarbons.

A mixture contains two or more substances, which may be elements or

compounds, which are not chemically joined together.

A hydrocarbon is a substance which is made up of

carbon and hydrogen atoms ONLY.

FORMATION OF OIL
Crude oil (sometimes called petroleum) is obtained from the
Earth's crust. It is often found together with gas. It was formed
from the remains of marine organisms which lived millions of
years ago. When these creatures died, they sank to the bottom IMPERMEABLE ROCK
of [\the sea and were slowly covered by mud and sand. The mud and GAS
sand gradually hardened to form sedimentary rock. When OIL
subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years, in the WATER
POROUS ROCKS
absence of air, the organic remains gradually changed to oil.
We are consuming crude oil at a rate far greater than it is
being formed. It is estimated that the Earth’s resources will have been exhausted with 100 years.
(non renewable source of energy)

Hydrocarbons are divided into:

Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) Un-Saturated hydrocarbons (Alkenes and
Alkynes)
1- They are Inactive compounds They are active compounds
2- They contain single bonds only They contain at least one double of
triple bond between two carbon atoms
3- They react very slowly They react very rapidly
4- They cannot decolorize bromine water They can decolorize bromine water
5- They react by substitution giving two They react by addition giving one
products product only

1C Meth
2 Cs Eth
Naming organic compounds 3Cs Prop
4Cs But
- Alkanes names end with –ane 5Cs Pent
- Alkenes naming end with –ene 6Cs Hex
- 7Cs Hept
8Cs Oct
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  Functional groups:
It is part of the molecule that is responsible for the characteristic
reactions of the compound.

Example: - Alkenes have a double bond, alcohols have a –(OH) group

 General formula:
It is a chemical formula used for a homologous series that differ from each
other by a constant unit. each member of any homologous series differ from
the consecutive member by a CH2
Example: Alkanes CnH2n+2

Alkenes CnH2n
 Homologous series:
It is a family of organic compounds with the same functional groups, same
general formula and similar chemical properties. (Have different
physical properties)

Example: alkanes, alkenes, alcohols.

 Structural formula:
It is the formula of a compound that shows all the bonds between atoms
as lines. Example:

Methane ethane
H H

H H C C H

H C H
H H

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 ALKANES
- General formula (CnH2n+2).

- Because they are hydrocarbons, they contain ONLY carbon and hydrogen atoms.
- Functional group: The atoms are joined only by single covalent bonds.

One covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two (one pair) electrons between two atoms.

Carbon atoms form the spine of hydrocarbon molecules. Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds; each
hydrogen forms one covalent bond.

When the carbon atoms are joined only by single covalent bonds, the molecule contains the maximum possible
number of hydrogen atoms for its particular number of carbon atoms. The molecule is said to be saturated.

Alkanes are SATURATED hydrocarbons.

The first five alkanes are:

H H H

methane (CH4) H C H ethane (C2H6) H C C H

H H H

H H H
Note that each carbon
propane (C3H8) H C C C H atom has formed four
single bonds and is joined
H H H to four other atoms. Each
hydrogen atom has formed
H H H H one bond.

butane (C4H10) H C C C C H

H H H H

H H H H H
pentane (C5H12)
H C C C C C H

H H H H H

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Physical Properties:
1- They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
2- Boiling point increases as the no. of carbon increase, So, Volatility decreases.
As the chain length of the alkanes increases, so does the attraction between the molecules. This means that more
energy will be needed to overcome these forces of attraction and the boiling point increases. The table below
shows this. (Note: Volatility is how easy a liquid evaporates)/ (Volatile: a liquid that easily evaporates at low
temperature)

Alkane Formula Boiling point (oC)

Methane CH4 -164
Ethane C2H6 -87
Propane C3H8 -42
Butane C4H10 -0.5
Pentane C5H12 36

So: `The first four members (C1 to C4) are gases.

The next members (C5 to C17) are liquids.
The heavy members (> C18) are either viscous liquids or solids at room temperature.
3- Density increases as the no. of carbons increase.
4- Viscosity increases as the no. of carbons increase.
5- Flammability decreases
6- Volatility decreases

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons, and the properties of each substance in a mixture are unchanged. This
makes it possible to separate substances in a mixture by physical methods including fractional distillation.

The many hydrocarbons in crude oil can be separated into: fractions: each of which are group of
hydrocarbons contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, similar (narrow) range of boiling
points, similar (narrow) range of densities. This is done by:

1- Evaporating the oil, by heating the crude oil is heated to about 400oC.
2- They are separated into different fractions according to the difference in boiling points. The smaller,
less dense fractions, with lower boiling point will rise up a greater distance in the column.
3- Then allowing it to condense at a number of different temperatures.

This process is called fractional distillation. This takes place by pumping the crude oil vapour
into a tall tower called a fractionating column. Most of the hydrocarbons have been converted to
gases by the heating and start to rise up the column. The lower the boiling point of a hydrocarbon,
the further it will rise up the column before it cools enough to condense. In this way, the different
fractions are collected at different points up the column. The number of different fractions which
are collected and the amount of each which is produced depends on the source of the crude oil.

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Most of the fractions from crude oil are burned as fuels.

The hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil vary in size. The larger the molecules (the greater the number of carbon
atoms) in a hydrocarbon:
. the higher its boiling point
. the less volatile it is
. the less easily it flows (the more viscous it is)
. the less easily it ignites (the less flammable it is).
This limits the usefulness of hydrocarbons with large molecules as fuels.

CRACKING
Some of the heavier fractions obtained from crude oil are not very useful.

Cracking: Breaking down larger hydrocarbon molecules ("cracked") to produce smaller, more useful smaller
hydrocarbon molecules by heating and catalyst.

This process involves heating the hydrocarbons to vaporise them and passing the
vapours over hot Alumina or Silica catalyst (about 450oC) for a few seconds. This is a type of
a THERMAL DECOMPOSITION reaction.

C10H22 → C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4

Decane → Pentane + Propene + Ethene

Some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels (Alkanes). Other products of cracking are alkenes which
these compounds have carbon-carbon double bonds (they are unsaturated) and can be used to make plastics
(polymers) such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene).

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FRACTIONAL Used as fuel for
DISTILLATION REFINERY (bottled gases) homes
GASES

100oC

 b.p.decreases
GASOLINE
(fuel for cars)
 Mr decreases

NAPHTHA
 size of molecule (feedstock for
decreases petrochemicals
)KEROSINE
 viscosity (fuel for jet aircraft)
decreases 200oC

Diesel OIL
 volatility (diesel: fuel for cars
increases & large vehicles)

 easier to ignite
(Flammability vapour FUEL OIL
increases) 300oC
CRUDE (fuel for ships &
OIL industrial heating)
VAPOUR
liquids
LUBRICATING
OIL & WAXES

360oC

BITUMEN
(road surfacing)

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Chemical Properties of alkanes:
1- They are saturated hydrocarbons which means that they are relatively inactive (compared to alkenes)
2- They consist of neutral covalent molecules. (PH=7)
3- They undergo 3 main chemical reactions:

1- Combustion:
a- Complete Combustion
When alkanes burn in a plentiful supply of air or oxygen, complete combustion takes place, forming carbon
dioxide and water.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O H = -890 kJ.mol-1

C8H18 + 121/2O2 8CO2 + 9H2O H = -5512 kJ.mol-1

b- Incomplete Combustion
When the supply of air or oxygen is limited, incomplete combustion of alkanes takes place, forming water
together with carbon monoxide or carbon.

CH4 + 11/2O2 CO + 2H2O

Sometimes, incomplete combustion of alkenes produce carbon when combustion is incomplete (the
luminous flame obtained when the air hole is closed is sooty).

CH4 + O2 C + 2H2O

2- Photochemical reactions (Substitution Reaction of Alkanes)

Alkanes are not very reactive; however, in the presence of UV light methane reacts with chlorine and bromine.

1- Example 1:

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Methane + Chlorine Chloro methane + Hydrogen chloride

A hydrogen atom in methane has been replaced by a chlorine atom. This is an example of a substitution
reaction. It does not happen in the dark but in sunlight can be explosive.

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 2- Example 2:

methane + bromine → methylbromine + hydrogen bromide

CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr

This reaction is a substitution reaction because one of the hydrogen atoms from the methane is replaced by a
bromine atom.

3- Example 3:

Structural Isomerism in Alkanes:

For a given molecular formula, there may be more than one possible structure, giving rise to isomerism.

STRUCTURAL ISOMERS are compounds with the same molecular formula but with
different structural formulae.

1- Chain Isomers
These isomers differ only in the arrangement of the carbon skeleton of the molecule.
Examples of chain isomers (of C4H10) are butane and methylpropane.
H H H H H H H

H C C C C H H C C C H

H H H H H CH3 H
butane methylpropane

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 For the molecular formula C5H12, there are three chain isomers:

H H H H H H H H H

H C C C C C H H C C C C H

H H H H H H H C H

H H H
pentane (b.p. 36oC) 2-methylbutane (b.p. 28oC)

H H H

H C H

H C C C H

H C H

H H H

2,2-dimethylpropane
(b.p. 10oC)

2- Isomerism because of halogens:

Cl H H H H Cl H H
| | | | | | | |
H- C - C - C - C -H H- C - C - C - C -H
| | | | | | | |
H H H H H H H H

1-chlorobutane 2-chlorobutane

4- CRACKING
Some of the heavier fractions obtained from crude oil are not very useful.

Cracking: Breaking down larger hydrocarbon molecules ("cracked") to produce smaller, more useful smaller
hydrocarbon molecules, by heating and catalyst.

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This process involves heating the hydrocarbons to vaporise them and passing the vapours over hot
Alumina or Silica catalyst (about 450oC) for a few seconds. A THERMAL DECOMPOSITION reaction then
occurs
C10H22 → C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4
Decane → Pentane + Propene + Ethene

Some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels (Alkanes). Other products of cracking are alkenes; these
compounds have carbon-carbon double bonds (they are unsaturated) and can be used to make plastics
(polymers) such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene).

ALKENES
- General formula (CnH2n)

- Functional group: The alkenes are another group of hydrocarbons that contain at lease one double
bond between two carbon atoms (C=C ).

Alkenes are UNSATURATED hydrocarbons.

Because:

1- The alkenes are another group of hydrocarbons that contain at lease one double bond between two
carbon atoms (C=C ).
1- The molecule no longer contains the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms for its particular
number of carbon atoms. The molecule is said to be unsaturated.

The first three alkenes are:

H H H H H

ethene (C2H4) C C propene (C3H6) C C C H

H H H H
Note that each carbon
atom has formed four
H H H H bonds, but they are not all
joined to four other atoms,
But-1-ene (C4H8)
because of the double
C C C C H bond. Each hydrogen atom
has formed one bond.
H H H

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Structural Isomerism in Alkenes:
Note the name of the 3rd alkene has a number in it. This is because the double bond can exist in different
positions and therefore more than 1 structure is possible.

H H H H H

H C C C C H C C C C H

H H H H H H H H
but-1-ene but-2-ene
(drawn the other way round
to the top of this page)

Physical Properties of Alkenes:

They are trending the same way as the alkanes.

Preparation of Alkenes:

Cracking of long chain hydrocarbons:

1- Cracking of decane:
C10H22 → C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4

2- Craking of ethane

Ethane → ethane + hydrogen

C2H6 → C2H4 + H2

Chemical Properties of Alkenes:

1- Burning:
Alkenes burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and watervapour
with smoky yellow flame.

C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 +2H2O

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Carbon=carbon double bonds are weaker and are more easily broken than carbon-carbon single bonds. When
the double bond breaks, the carbon atoms are able to join with more atoms. A double bond in a molecule is
therefore a sign of chemical reactivity. Alkenes are REACTIVE.

2- Addition Reactions:
The double bond of alkenes make them more reactive than alkanes. The double bond breaks to form
single bonds with other reactants.

a- Addition of bromine:

- When an alkene reacts with bromine, it turns one of its double (unsaturated) bonds into a single
bond so it can bond with the bromine atoms.

- For example, ethane will bond with bromine to form 1,2 dibromoethane.(Br is on molecules 1 and
2, there are 2 of them, and the rest is ethane.)

This is a good way to test for alkenes, since there is always a colour change (bromine
water turns from brown to colourless) whenever alkenes are put in it.

It will not decolorize immediately with alkanes because they are saturated.

b- Addition of hydrogen: (in the presence of heat and nickel catalyst)

Alkene + Hydrogen Alkane
Ethene + Hydrogen Ethane
C2H4 + H2 C2H6

c- Hydration of Ethene
By the addition of steam to ethene:
1- at high temperature (~300oC)
2- High pressure (60-70 atm)
3- in the presence of a strong acid catalyst(phosphoric acid), to form ethanol.

C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH

ethene ethanol

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Test for Alkenes (Alkenes decolorize bromine water)

The difference in reactivity between alkanes and alkenes provides a useful way of distinguishing between them.

If bromine water is added to an alkene, the initial brown colour of the bromine water is lost
and the mixture becomes colourless. There is no reaction with an alkane, and the mixture
stays brown.

This test with bromine water is a test for unsaturation.

But why does this happen? Bromine actually reacts with the double bond in the unsaturated molecule and ‘adds’
on to it.

H H H H H H
+ Br2
C C C H H C C C H

H H Br Br H

Page 190 of 205

 ALCOHOLS

1- General formula CnH2n+1OH.

2- functional group –OH, which is called a hydroxyl group.

The first members of the series are:

H H H H H H

H C OH H C C OH H C C C OH

H H H H H H

methanol ethanol propan-1-ol

ETHANOL C2H5OH
Ethanol can be produced in two ways:
 by the fermentation of sugars
 by the hydration of ethene.

1. Fermentation of Sugars
Fermentation is used to produce ethanol as an industrial chemical.

1- The raw material: glucose, is dissolved in water to make a solution containing about 15% by
mass of glucose.

2- Yeast
Yeast is a living organism which contains the enzyme, zymase. Enzymes are biological
catalysts.

3- Temperature 25 to 40oC for 3 to 5 days.

Under these conditions, the sugar reacts to form ethanol and carbon dioxide.

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

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- The carbon dioxide is allowed to escape.
- A ir is prevented from entering the fermentation vessel, (to
prevent the oxidation of ethanol into ethanoic acid)

When the fermentation is complete,

(1) the yeast is filtered off
(2) the ethanol is separated from the reaction mixture by
fractional distillation.

fermentation
2. Hydration of Ethene mixture
By the addition of steam to ethene:
1- at high temperature (~300oC)
2- High pressure (60-70 atm)
3- in the presence of a strong acid catalyst(phosphoric acid), to form ethanol.

C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH

ethene ethanol

COMPARISON OF THE TWO PROCESSES

Fermentation
Disadvantages:
 a slow reaction (3 to 5 days)
 the product is a mixture containing only about 15% ethanol, from which the ethanol
is separated by distillation
 the process is a batch process

Advantages
 the raw material (glucose) is renewable
 the process is low-tech: it needs only inexpensive equipment and unskilled labour

Hydration
Advantages:
 a fast reaction (seconds)
 the product is pure
 the process is a continuous process

Disadvantages
 the raw material (ethene) is obtained from crude oil, which is non-renewable
 the process is high-tech: it requires expensive equipment and semi-skilled labour

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PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL:

1- Colorless, flammable liquid with antiseptic or disinfectant smell.

2- Soluble in water
3- Volatile (has a very low boiling point) thus used as a solvent in perfumes, inks and
glues.
4- It is neither acidic nor alkaline, it is neutral.
5- It is a good solvent that dissolve many substances that don't dissolve in water.
6- It burns in oxygen to produce carbondioxide water and energy thus used as a fuel

USES OF ETHANOL:

1- Used as a solvent
2- Ethanol is a fuel and burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.

C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

Ethanol is mixed with petrol in biofuels. The impact on the environment of burning a biofuel is
less than burning a fossil fuel as the carbon dioxide produced during combustion is equal to
that which was taken in by the plant during photosynthesis.

3- In alcoholic drinks
4- Antiseptic or disinfectant in wounds.

Reactions of Alcohols:

1- Combustion:

Ethanol is a fuel and burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.

C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

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 2- Oxidation:

a- This happens by the oxygen in the air .

This explains why wine which has been left without a cork in it for some time, tastes sour.
The ethanol has been oxidised to ethanoic acid which is the acid present in vinegar.

b- On an industrial scale, alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acids much more quickly by
using oxidising agents; mainly using acidified potassium permanganate solution (KMnO4)

C2H5OH + 2 [O] CH3COOH + H2O

Here [O] is used to show oxygen gained from an oxidising agent.

3- Reaction with Sodium:

When Sodium is added to alcohols, effervescence of hydrogen gas is

observed.

4- Dehydration of Alcohols using hot/ Concentrated sulfuric acid:

Alcohols Alkenes + Water

C2H5OH H2SO4 C 2H 4 + H 2O
Heat

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Carboxylic acids

1- General formula CnH2nO2.

2- They contain the functional group –COOH, which is called carboxyllic acid group.

The first members of the series are:

H H H
O O O
H C H C C H C C C
OH OH OH
H H H

Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid

Properties of Carboxylic acids:

1- Carboxylic acids are colourless and ethanoic acid has a vinegar smell.

2- Carboxylic acids react in the same way as the mineral acids you are familiar with i.e. they

react with metals to produce salts and hydrogen gas.

CH3COOH + Na CH3COONa + H2

2CH3COOH + Mg Mg(CH3COO) 2 + H2

This means that they will also react with carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon
dioxide:

3- They are weak acids and so have fewer H+ ions in solutions and hence reactions are not as
vigorous as strong acids of equal concentration. Weak acids typically have a pH of around
3-4.

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 4- Preparation of arboxylic acids:
Carboxyllic acids are made by oxidising alcohols.

a- This happens by the oxygen in the air .

This explains why wine which has been left without a cork in it for some time, tastes sour.
The ethanol has been oxidised to ethanoic acid which is the acid present in vinegar.

b- On an industrial scale, alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acids much more quickly by
using oxidising agents; mainly using acidified potassium permanganate solution (KMnO4)

C2H5OH + 2 [O] CH3COOH + H2O

Here [O] is used to show oxygen gained from an oxidising agent.

Esters
- General formula: CnH2nO2.

- Functional group: -COO-

To name an ester:

1. change the name of the parent alcohol to end in –yl

2. change the name of the parent acid to end in –oate
3. alcohol name goes to the front, acid name to the back

For example:

Uses:
Esters are used as food flavourings (many fruity sweets contain esters) and as solvents.

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Preaparation of Esters:
To make an ester: (Condensatiom reaction)

- Preparation:
Esters are made by reacting carboxylic acids with alcohols using heat and a conc.
sulphuric acid catalyst.

- A hydrogen atom must be removed from the hydroxyl group (–OH) of the alcohol.
- The –OH portion of the acid's carboxyl group must also be removed.
- The hydrogren atom and the -OH combine to form a water molecule (H2O).

Conditions for the condensation reaction:

1- Heat
2- Concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst

This same change can be represented using shortened structural formulae:

This is a condensation reaction since a small molecule, in this case water, is also produced.

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Naming Esters using Structures:
When looking at the structure of an ester, you can easily name it. Remember that the C=O part
of the molecule came from the acid.

In the molecule below, the ester link (-COO) separates the two parts of the molecule.

Since the
C=O came from the parent acid, there were four carbon atoms in the acid molecule (butanoic
acid) and two carbon atoms in the parent alcohol (ethanol).

This ester is called ethyl butanoate.

The names and structures of some other esters are shown below.

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 POLYMERIZATION
Polymerisation is the joining together of a large number of small molecules, called
monomers, to form one very large molecule, called a polymer.

Monomer: It is a small molecule that can be joined up to form a giant macromolecule

(Polymer).

Polymer: It is a macromolecule formed by the linking of small molecules.

There are two main types of polymerization:

1- Addition polymerization.
2- Condensation polymerization.

Addition Condensation
It produces one product It produces 2 products one of them is water
Linking is by breaking double bonds Linking is by removal of water

ADDITION POLYMERISATION

When unsaturated monomers (Alkenes) join together to form a polymer with no other
substance being produced in the reaction, the process is called ADDITION
POLYMERISATION.

Alkenes join together as shown in the equations by breaking the double bond leaving a
single bond and the monomers linked together.

All the common plastics are polymers.

1. Poly(ethene), also called polythene

H H H H

n C C ( C C
)n
H H H H

ethene poly(ethene)
(monomer, unsaturated) (polymer, saturated)

n is a very large number, often greater than 10,000

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2. Poly(propene)
H CH3 H CH3

n C C ( C C
)n
H H H H

propene poly(propene)
(monomer, unsaturated) (polymer, saturated)

3. Poly(chloroethene), also called p.v.c.

H Cl H Cl

n C C ( C C
)n
H H H H

chloroethene poly(chloroethene)
(monomer, unsaturated) (polymer, saturated)

Uses of polymers (Plastics):

- Poly(ethene) : plastic bags .
- Poly (propene) : crates, ropes and sterilized bottles.
- PVC : Insulator for electrical wires.
- Nylon : Making clothes, ropes and strings.
- Terylene : Making clothes

Advantages of Plastics:

- Heat and electric insulator.

- Doesn’t rust.
- Unreactive with good strength.

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The problem with plastics
1- Many polymers made from fossil fuels are non biodegradable. If unwanted
polymers are put in landfill (buried in the ground) they cause accumulation of
waste and visual pollution.

Non biodegradable: This means that decomposers (bacteria and fungi) will not break them
down into simpler substances.

2- Polymers produce toxic materials (poisons) when they are burnt hydrogen
chloride, hydrogen cyanide, in addition to the expected products of combustion of
hydrocarbons, which are water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and carbon
(soot).

Yet, Products from plant material (wood, paper, cotton etc.) are biodegradable. When
buried,bacteria and fungi break them down into useful nutrients for further plant growth.
Nature recycles its own products!

Solutions to the disposal of unwanted polymers:

1- Recycling.
2- Making Biodegradable Polymers.
3- Bio-Polymers (Scientists are currently working on growing polymers inside plants or
bacteria. This is not a natural process but involves the plants being genetically
modified)

Condensation polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation involves linking lots of small monomer molecules together to
form polymers by eliminating a small molecule (often water).

Unlike addition polymerisation, there are two different monomers involved. The monomers
are molecules with a functional group at either end.

The polymer is formed by the removal of an H from one monomer, and an OH from the
other, the 'spare bonds' then link up to form the polymer chain.

A- Synthetic Polymers:

1- Nylon (a polyamide) is formed by condensation polymerisation, the structure of

nylon represented below where the rectangles represent the rest of the carbon
chains in each unit.

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This is the same linkage (-CO-NH-) that is found in linked amino acids in naturally occurring
macromolecules called proteins, where it is called the 'amide' linkage.

2- Terylene (a polyester) is formed by condensation polymerisation and the

structure of Terylene represented as

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 This is the same kind of 'ester linkage' (-COOC-) found in fats which are combination of long
chain fatty carboxylic acids and glycerol (alcohol with 3 -OH groups, a 'triol').

Condensation polymers such as these,are biodegradable since the reactions by which they
were formed can be undone and so the very long chains fall apart.

B- Natural polymers (The macromolecules in food):

Much of the food we eat contains very large molecules (macromolecules). Examples are
complex hydrocarbons, proteins and fats.

1- Starch (Carbohydrates):

Monomer: Sugar molecules are often simplified to

Polymer: Starch can then simply be represented as

Dil acid/ Heat Conc. Sufuric acid/ Heat

N.B. These bonds can be broken down inside the body by hydrolysis (reaction with water) to
produce the sugars which your body needs for energy.

2- Proteins:

Monomer: different amino acids

Polymer: Proteins

Separation of amino acids: by chromatography using a suitable locating agent (e.g. ninhydrin)

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Dil acid/ Heat Conc. Sufuric acid/ Heat

3- Fats: These are the natural forms of polyesters.

N.B. These peptide bonds can be broken down inside the body by hydrolysis to produce
amino acids which your body needs for growth and repair.

Page 204 of 205

 The Periodic Table of Elements
Group
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 2

H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1 4
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
7 9 relative atomic mass 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 – 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
lanthanoids
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

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caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
133 137 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116
actinoids
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
– – – – – – – – – – – – –

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
139 140 141 144 – 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232 231 238 – – – – – – – – – – –

The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).