Equilibrium of Forces

∑Fx = 0; ∑Fy = 0; ∑Fz = 0; ∑MO = 0

Axial Stress Shear Stress
𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑠 =
𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑠

Bearing Stress
𝐹𝑏
𝜎𝑎 =
𝐴𝑏

Factor of Safety Normal Strain Shear Strain

𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙 ∆L 𝜋
𝐹𝑆 = ∈= 𝛾 = − lim 𝜃 ′
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐿 2

Hooke’s Law

E - Modulus of Elasticity
Strain Energy Density Modulus of Resilience
1 𝜎𝑝𝑙 2
𝑢= 𝜎∈ 𝑢=
2 2𝐸
Graph
Modulus of Resilience Modulus of Toughness

Poisson’s Ratio Modulus of Rigidity (G)

∈𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝑣=− 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
∈𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
E, G, v relation Yield Stress – Shear Stress Relation
𝐸
𝐺= 𝑆𝑠 = 0.5𝑆𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
2(1+𝑣)
Axial Loading Displacement
𝐹 (𝑥)𝐿 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝐹𝐿
𝛿=∫ or 𝛿 =
𝐴(𝑥)𝐸(𝑥) 𝐴𝐸

Thermal Stress Displacement

𝛿 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝐿
∆𝐴 = 2𝛼𝐴∆𝑇
∆𝑉 = 3𝛼𝑉∆𝑇
Steel Properties
𝑘𝑔
𝐸 = 30 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐺 = 12 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜌 = 7800 − 7900 𝑚3
Stress Concentration Factor
𝜎
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔
Moment of Inertia
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
Geometric Properties of Areas
Shape Moment of Inertia (y) Moment of Inertia (x)
𝑏ℎ3 𝑏3 ℎ
Rectangle 𝐼= 𝐼=
12 12
𝑏ℎ3
Triangle 𝐼=
36
𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋𝑟 4
Circle 𝐼= 𝐼=
4 4
𝜋(𝑅 4 −𝑟 4 ) 𝜋(𝑅 4 −𝑟 4 )
Hollow Circle 𝐼= 𝐼=
4 4
Shape Polar Moment of Inertia
𝑏ℎ
Rectangle 𝐽 = (𝑏 2 + ℎ2 )
12
𝑏ℎ
Triangle 𝐽 = (𝑏 2 + ℎ2 )
36
𝜋𝑑4 𝜋𝑟 4
Circle 𝐽= =
32 2
𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )
𝐽=
Hollow Circle
32
Parallel Axis Theorem Radius of Gyration
𝐼 𝐽
𝐼𝑥 ′ = 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑑𝑦 2 𝑟=√ ; 𝑟=√
𝐴 𝐴
𝐼𝑦 ′ = 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑑𝑥 2
𝐽𝑜 = 𝐽 + 𝐴𝑑 2
Section Modulus Polar Section Modulus
𝐼 𝐽
𝑧= 𝑧𝑝 =
𝑐 𝑐
c - Farthest distance from centroid
Torque Shear Stress
𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐽
𝜋𝑟 4
𝐽= - Solid shaft
2
𝜋(𝑟𝑜 4 −𝑟𝑖 4 )
𝐽= - Hollow shaft
2
16𝑇 16𝑇𝐷
𝜏= 𝜏=
𝜋𝐷3 𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )

Equivalent Solid and Hollow Shaft

𝐷𝑜 = 1.21𝐷 𝐷𝑖 = 0.978𝐷
Shaft Power
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑛̇ 𝑇
𝐷3 𝑁
𝑃= - main power (hp)
80
𝐷3 𝑁
𝑃= - line shaft (hp)
53.5
𝐷3 𝑁
𝑃= - small, short, counter shafts (hp)
38
Per 0.08O/ft length
𝐷 (𝑖𝑛) 4
𝐻𝑃 = 𝑁( )
4.6
Without bending action With bending
𝐿 (𝑓𝑡) 1.5 𝐿 (𝑓𝑡) 1.5
𝐷=( ) 𝐷=( )
8.95 5.2
Angle of Twist
𝐿 𝑇(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑇𝐿
∅= ∫0 𝐽(𝑥)𝐺(𝑥) or ∅ =
𝐽𝐺
Stress and Angle of Twist for Non-Circular Solid Shafts
4.81𝑇 7.1𝑇𝐿
Square 𝜏= ∅=
𝑎3 𝑎4 𝐺

20𝑇 46𝑇𝐿
Equilateral Triangle 𝜏 = ∅=
𝑎3 𝑎4 𝐺

2𝑇 (𝑎2 +𝑏2 )𝑇𝐿

Ellipse 𝜏= ∅=
𝜋𝑎𝑏2 𝜋𝑎3 𝑏3 𝐺

Thin-Walled Tubes

𝑞 = 𝜏𝐴 𝑡𝐴 = 𝜏𝐵 𝑡𝐵
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇𝐿 𝑑𝑠
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ;𝑞 = ;∅= ∮
2𝑡𝐴𝑚 2𝐴𝑚 4𝐴𝑚 2 𝐺 𝑡
Shear and Moment Diagram

𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝐹
= 𝐹𝑠 (𝑥) = 𝑤(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Slope of Moment at each point Slope of Shear Force at each point
= Shear Force at each point = Distributed Load at each point

Flexural Stress Formula

𝑀𝑐
𝜎=
𝐼
c - Farthest distance from centroid
𝑏ℎ3 𝜋
𝐼= - Rectangle 𝐼 = [𝑅4 − 𝑟 4 ] - Tube
12 4
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑏ℎ3
𝐼= - Circle 𝐼= - Triangle
4 36
Combined Loading (Axial and Flexural Stresses)

𝐹 𝑀𝑐
‘ 𝑆= ±
𝐴 𝐼
Combined Loading (Axial and Torsional Stresses)

Combined Loading (Torsional and Flexural Stresses)

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

- Thickness ≤ 0.1 Ri

Tangential Stress Longitudinal Stress

𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐷
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑖 𝑆𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑖
2𝑡 4𝑡
Thin-Walled Sphere Thick-Walled Cylinder

Wall Thickness Axial Stress

𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑖 𝑆𝑡 +𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 −𝑃𝑜 𝑟0 2
𝑆= 𝑡= [√𝑆 −𝑃 − 1] 𝑆𝑎 = 𝑟0 2 −𝑟𝑖 2
4𝑡 2 𝑡 𝑖
Hoop Stress (Inner)
𝑃𝑖 (𝑟𝑜 2 +𝑟𝑖 2 )−2𝑃𝑜 𝑟𝑜 2
𝑆𝑡𝑖 = 𝑟𝑜 2 −𝑟𝑖 2
Buckling

Critical Load Critical Stress

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋2 𝐸
𝐹𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑐𝑟 = 𝐿
𝐿2 ( )2
𝑟
r – radius of gyration
L/r – slenderness ratio
Keys

𝑇
𝐹 𝑟
𝑆𝑠 = = Key and Shaft of same material
𝐴 𝑤𝐿
𝑇
𝐹 2
𝑟
𝑆𝑐 = = L = 1.18D w = D/4
𝐴 𝑤ℎ
Splines

𝐹 𝐹
𝑆𝑠 = =
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐿𝑊
𝐹 𝐹
𝑆𝑐 = =
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐿ℎ

Couplings

𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑟 𝐹 𝑟
𝑆𝑠 = = 𝜋 2 𝑆𝑐 = =
𝑛𝐴 𝑛 𝑑 𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝑑𝑡
4
Welded Joints

Butt Joint Lap Joint Tee Joint

Corner Joint Edge Joint

Butt Joint Stress

𝐹 𝐹
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑆𝑠 =
ℎ𝑙 ℎ𝑙
Fillet Weld Stress

1.414𝐹
𝑠𝑠 =
ℎ𝑙
Band Brake

Tension Ratio Torque Maximum Stress

𝐹1 𝐹
= 𝑒 𝑓𝜃 𝑇 = (𝐹1 − 𝐹2 )𝑅 𝑆= 1
𝐹2 𝑤𝑡
Differential Brake

𝐹2 𝑎−𝐹1 𝑏
𝐹=
𝐿
Block Brake

𝑇 = 𝑓𝐹𝑟 ℎ
Bearing

Bearing Pressure Frictional Torque

𝐹 𝐹
𝑆= = 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑓𝐹𝑟
𝐴 𝐿𝐷
Frictional Power
𝑃𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑓 𝑁 = 𝑊𝑉
Clutch

Uniform Pressure Disk Clutch

Torque Applied Force Frictional Radius
2 2 1 𝐷3 −𝑑 3
𝑇 = 𝑛𝑓𝐹𝑎 𝑟𝑓 𝐹𝑎 = 𝜋𝑃(𝑅 − 𝑟 ) 𝑟𝑓 = ( 2 2 )
3 𝐷 −𝑑
Uniform Wear Disk Clutch
Torque Applied Force Frictional Radius
2 2 𝐷+𝑑
𝑇 = 𝑛𝑓𝐹𝑎 𝑟𝑓 𝐹𝑎 = 𝜋𝑃(𝑅 − 𝑟 ) 𝑟𝑓 =
4
Cone Clutch
Torque
𝐹𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑓
𝑇= ; 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑛 𝑟𝑓 2 𝑤
sin 𝛼
Width Axial Force
𝑅−𝑟
𝑤= 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝛼
sin 𝛼
Normal Force
𝐹𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑓 𝑤𝑃𝑛
Springs (Helical)
Types of Coil Ends
Type of End No. of Coil Solid Length Free Length
Plain n (n + 1)d np + d
Plain and Ground n nd np
Squared n+2 (n + 3)d np + 3d
Squared and Ground n+2 (n + 2)d np + 2d

Parallel Springs Series Springs

1
𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘𝑇 = 1 1 1
+ +
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
𝛿 = 𝛿1 = 𝛿2 = 𝛿3 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿3
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 𝐹 = 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐹3
Flywheel

Kinetic Energy Velocity

1
∆𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚(𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 ) (kJ) 𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁
Coefficient of Fluctuation Average Speed
𝑉 −𝑉 𝜔 +𝜔
𝐶 = 𝑉22+𝑉11 𝜔 = 2 1 (rad/s)
( ) 2
2
𝑉 +𝑉
𝑉= 2 1
2
Mass Moment of Inertia Mass Moment of Inertia to Torque
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑚𝑘𝑟 2 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑚 𝛼
Weight of Flywheel Weight of Rim
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑎 + 𝑊ℎ + 𝑊𝑟 𝑊𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷𝑚 𝑤𝑡𝜌𝑔
Energy to Punch a Hole Steel Punching
1 𝜋
𝐸 = 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑆𝑑𝑡 2 𝐹 = 80𝑑𝑡 (𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠)
2 2
Brass Punching Equivalent Diameter
1
𝐹 = 65𝑑𝑡 (𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠) 𝑑= 𝑃
3
Belt

Open Belt Cross Belt

Flat Belt V-Belt

Flat Belt Design

Effective Belt Pull Angle of Contact
1 𝐷2 −𝐷1
𝐹 = (𝐹1 − 𝐹𝑐 )(1 − 𝑒 𝑓𝜃) Open 𝜃 = 180 ± 2 sin−1 ( )
2𝐶
𝐷 +𝐷
Closed 𝜃 = 180 + 2 sin−1 ( 2𝐶 1 )
2

Centrifugal Force Length of Belt

𝑉2 𝜋 (𝐷2 −𝐷1 )2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚 Open 𝐿 = (𝐷2 + 𝐷1 ) + 2𝑐 +
𝑟 2 4𝐶
𝜌𝑏𝑡𝑉 2 𝜋 (𝐷2 +𝐷1 )2
𝐹𝑐 = Closed 𝐿 = 2 (𝐷2 + 𝐷1 ) + 2𝑐 +
𝑔 4𝐶
Belt Speed Power
𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑉
V-Belt Design
Effective Belt Pull Angle of Contact
1 𝐷2 −𝐷1
𝐹 = (𝐹1 − 𝐹𝑐 )(1 − 𝑓𝜃 ) Open 𝜃 = 180 ± 2 sin−1 ( )
2𝐶
𝑒 𝛼
sin
𝐷2 +𝐷1
Closed 𝜃 = 180 + 2 sin−1 ( )
2𝐶
Slip
Larger pulley 𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝑁1 (1 − %𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝)
Smaller Pulley 𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝑁2 (1 + %𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝)
Design Power Number of Belts
𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑚 𝑛𝑠𝑓 𝑛𝑏 =
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Chains and Sprockets

Pitch Power Pitch Diameter

𝑝 𝑝
𝑝 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑁 𝐷1 = 180; 𝐷2 = 180
sin sin
𝑇1 𝑇2
Length (pitch unit) Length
𝑇1 +𝑇2 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )2
𝐿 = 2𝐶 + 2 + 4𝜋2 𝐶 𝐿𝑑 = 𝐿𝑝
Center Distance (pitch unit) Center Distance
1 𝑇1 +𝑇2 𝑇1 +𝑇2 2 8(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )2
𝐶 = 4 [𝐿 − + √(𝐿 − ) − ] 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑝
2 2 4𝜋2

Bolts

Applied Load 𝐹 = 𝐶𝐴1.418

Working Stress 𝑆 = 𝐶𝐴0.418
C - 10,000 (bronze)
- 5,000 (carbon steel)
- 1,500 (alloy steel)
Screws

Mean Diameter Lead Lead Angle

𝑟 +𝑟 𝐿
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑜 𝑖 𝐿=𝑃 (single) 𝛼 = tan−1
2 𝜋𝐷𝑚
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑜 − ℎ 𝐿 = 2𝑃 (double)
7
ℎ = 𝑃 (square) 𝐿 = 3𝑃 (triple)
16
1
ℎ = 𝑃 (ACME)
2
Outside Diameter Pitch Linear Velocity
𝐿
𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + 𝑃 = 𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 𝑉 = 𝑁𝐿
2
Torque to overcome Collar Friction
𝐷
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑊 𝑚
2
Torque to Turn Screw
Square Thread
Raising the Load Lowering the Load
𝑊𝐷 tan 𝛼+𝑓 𝑊𝐷 tan 𝛼−𝑓
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚 [ ] 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚 [ ]
2 1−𝑓 tan 𝛼 2 1+𝑓 tan 𝛼
ACME Thread
Raising the Load Lowering the Load
𝑊𝐷 0.968tan 𝛼+𝑓 𝑊𝐷 0.968tan 𝛼−𝑓
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚 [ ] 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚 [ ]
2 0.968−𝑓 tan 𝛼 2 0.968+𝑓 tan 𝛼
Total Torque to Operate the Screw
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 + 𝑇𝑓
Power Efficiency Screw Diameter
tan 𝛼 𝐹𝑉 50𝐻𝑃 1
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑁 = 𝑊𝑉 𝑒= 𝑓 𝐷 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑁 𝑑=( )2.3
tan(𝛼+𝜃𝑓 )+ 𝑐 𝑐 𝐷𝑁
𝐷𝑚

Transmitted Power Shaft Diameter

𝐷 𝐿
𝐻𝑃 = 𝑁( )4 𝐷=( )1.5
4.6 8.95
Gears

Spur Gears
Circular Pitch Diametral Pitch
𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝜋𝐷𝑔 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑔 𝜋 1
𝑃𝑐 = = = 𝜋𝑀 𝑃𝑑 = = = =
𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑔 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑔 𝑃𝑐 𝑀
Addendum Dedendum Outside Diameter
1 1.157
𝑎=𝑃 𝑑= (14.5O, 22.5O) 𝐷𝑜𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 + 2𝑎
𝑑 𝑃𝑑
1.25
𝑑= (20O, 25O) 𝐷𝑜𝑔 = 𝐷𝑔 + 2𝑎
𝑃𝑑
Center Distance Working Depth Pitch Angle
𝐷𝑝 +𝐷𝑔 𝑁𝑝
𝐶= (external) 𝑊𝑑 = 2𝑎 tan ∅ =
2 𝑁𝑔
𝐷𝑔 −𝐷𝑝
𝐶= (internal)
2
Helical Gears
Helix, Normal Pressure, and Tangent Pressure Angle
tan 𝜃𝑛
cos 𝜑 =
tan 𝜃𝑡
Normal Circular Pitch Normal Diametral Pitch
𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑛𝑐 = 𝑃𝑡 sin 𝜑 𝑃𝑑𝑐 =
cos 𝜑
Axial Pitch Radial Force Axial Force
𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑥 = 𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹𝑡 tan 𝜃𝑡 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑡 tan 𝜑
cos 𝜑
Worm Gears
Circular Pitch Diametral Pitch Lead
𝜋𝐷𝑔 𝑁𝑔
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑃𝑥
𝑁𝑔 𝐷𝑔
Lead Angle Separating Force
𝐿 𝐹𝑔𝑡 sin 𝜃𝑛
𝛾 = tan−1 𝐹𝑔𝑠 =
𝜋𝐷𝑤 cos 𝜃𝑛 cos 𝛾−𝑓 sin 𝛾
Tangential Force
cos 𝜃𝑛 sin 𝛾+𝑓 cos 𝛾
𝐹𝑤𝑡 = 𝐹𝑔𝑡 [ ]
cos 𝜃𝑛 cos 𝛾−𝑓 sin 𝛾
Mechanical Advantage
Gears and Belts

𝐷𝑔 𝑡𝑔 𝑁𝑝 𝑇𝑔
𝑀𝐴 = = = =
𝐷𝑝 𝑡𝑝 𝑁𝑔 𝑇𝑝
Pulleys

𝑀𝐴 = 𝑁
Lever Incline

𝐿𝑏 𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐴 =
𝐿𝑎 ℎ
 Wedge Screw

𝐿 2𝜋𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐴 =
𝑡 𝑝
Actual Mechanical Advantage
𝐹
𝐴𝑀𝐴 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐹𝑖𝑛
Mechanical Efficiency
𝐴𝑀𝐴
𝑒=
𝑀𝐴
Rope

Bending Stress Bending Load

𝐸 𝑑 𝐴𝐸 𝑑
𝑆𝑏 = 𝑟 𝑤 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑟 𝑤
𝐷 𝐷
Weight of Rope Ultimate Strength
𝑊𝑟 = 1.58𝑑 2 ℎ 𝐹𝑢 = 76,000𝑑 2
Wr – lbf Fu - lbf
h – ft d - in
d – in