ASSIGNMENT NAME:

1. Describe the term “Digital Signal” and provide an example.

Digital Signal is a signal in which the original information is converted into a string of bits before
being transmitted. A radio signal, for example, will be either on or off. Digital signals can be sent for long
distances and suffer less interference than analog signals.

2. List three types of “Resistive senors” and provide an example of each

A resistive sensor is a resistor which changes according to some physical change in its environment. Three
types of resistive sensor are:
A) Potentiometer; the resistance varies with physical movement.
example,
 dimmer switches for lights,
 brightness controls in televisions,
 And faders in audio equipment.
B) Photo resistor; the resistance varies with light.
Example;
 night lights and photography light meters.
C) Thermistor; the resistance varies with heat.
Thermistors are the most common device used for temperature measurement on a motor vehicle. The
principle of measurement is that a change in temperature will cause a change in resistance of the thermistor,
and hence an electrical signal proportional to the measured can be obtained.
Example
 Negative Temperature Coefficients (NTC Thermistors)
 and those with Positive Temperature Coeff

3. List three “types of Voltage generating sensors” and provide an example of each.
Piezo Electric, example acceleration, strain or pressure into an electrical charge which can then be
measured.
A) Oxygen Sensors;
examples of oxygen sensor.
 Zirconia oxygen sensor.
 Optical oxygen sensor.
 Clark oxygen sensor.
 Infrared oxygen sensor.
 Electro galvanic sensor.
 Ultrasonic oxygen sensor.
 Laser oxygen sensor

B) zirconia-dioxide
Refractory bricks and armour plates are examples of zirconia-based refractory applications.

4. List three types of “Switch sensors” and provide an example of each.

A) Phototransistors example are smoke detectors, laser-ranging finding devices, and optical remote controls.
B) LEDs speed sensors example; ABS (anti-lock braking system) or ESP (Electronic Stability Program)
computer for dynamic vehicle control.
C) G-sensors (Air Bag Impact Sensors) example; airbag systems, dead reckoning capability, emergency
call systems, and driving recorders.

5. List two types of “Actuators” and provide an example of each.

A) stepper motors,

example;
 Textile machines.
 Printing presses.
 Gaming machines.
 Medical imaging machinery.
 Small robotics.
 CNC milling machines.
 Welding equipment
 3D printing equipment

B) Solenoids, example;
 door locking in hotels, offices and secure areas,
 vending machines,
 remote access systems,
 turnstiles, car parks and access barriers.

6. Describe the operation of both types of “thermistors” and draw an example of the
electrical circuit.
Working Principle of Thermistors

The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in resistance due to a change in temperature. When
the ambient temperature changes the thermistor starts self-heating its elements. its resistance value is
changed with respect to this change in temperature. This change depends on the type of thermistor used. The
resistance temperature characteristics of different types of thermistors are given in the following section.

Types of Thermistors

The two basic types of thermistors available are the NTC and PTC types.

NTC Thermistor

NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are ceramic semiconductors that have a high
Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance. The resistance of an NTC will decrease with increasing
temperature in a non-linear manner.

Circuit symbols of NTC and PTC thermistors are shown in the following figure.
PTC Thermistor

PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors and are made of polycrystalline ceramic
materials. The resistance of a PTC will increase with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner. The
PTC thermistor shows only a small change of resistance with temperature until the switching point(TR) is
reached.

The temperature resistance characteristics of an NTC and a PTC is shown in the following figure.

7. Explain the operation of a “Piezo Resistive” sensor.

A Piezo Resistive sensor operates based on the principle of the piezoresistive effect. It consists of a
piezoresistive material, typically a semiconductor like silicon, that changes its electrical resistance in
response to mechanical strain or pressure.

When the piezo resistive material is subjected to a mechanical force or pressure, it undergoes
deformation. This deformation causes a change in the resistance of the material. The change in resistance
is directly proportional to the applied force or pressure.
 To measure the change in resistance, the piezo resistive material is typically incorporated into a
Wheatstone bridge circuit arrangement. The output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge circuit is then
measured and calibrated to determine the applied force or pressure.

8. Explain how a “Piezo Resistive” sensor differs from a “Piezo Electric” sensor.

A Piezo Resistive sensor consists of a material with a resistive element, such as silicon, that changes its
resistance when subjected to pressure or strain. This change in resistance is then used to generate an
electrical signal proportional to the applied force or pressure. These sensors are commonly used in
applications such as pressure sensing, touch screens, and accelerometers.

On the other hand, a Piezo Electric sensor utilizes the piezoelectric effect, where certain materials generate
an electric charge when mechanically stressed or deformed. This electric charge is directly proportional to
the applied force or pressure. Piezo Electric sensors are commonly used for vibration sensing, acoustic
measurement, and in applications such as microphones and ultrasound devices.

9. Describe the operation and construction of the two basic types of Oxygen Sensors.

1. Zirconia-based Oxygen Sensors:

Zirconia-based oxygen sensors operate based on the principle of the oxygen concentration cell. They
consist of a ceramic element made of stabilized zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) with a layer of platinum
electrodes on both sides. The sensor is typically housed in a metal casing.

Operation: The zirconia element in the sensor is designed to have high oxygen ion conductivity at high
temperatures. When exposed to a gas mixture containing oxygen, a voltage is generated across the
platinum electrodes due to the difference in oxygen partial pressure between the ambient and reference
gas.

Construction: The zirconia element is typically in the form of a thimble or rod, with one end exposed to
the ambient gas and the other end connected to a reference gas channel. The reference gas channel is
filled with a known concentration of oxygen, usually provided by an external pump or diffusion process.

2. Titania-based Oxygen Sensors:

Titania-based oxygen sensors, also known as electrochemical sensors, operate based on the principle of
conductivity changes in titania (titanium dioxide) in the presence of oxygen. They consist of a sensing
element made of a thin layer of porous titania coated with noble metal electrodes.

Operation: When exposed to a gas mixture containing oxygen, an electrochemical reaction occurs at the
surface of the sensor. Oxygen molecules interact with the noble metal electrodes, causing a change in the
electrical conductivity of the titania layer. This change is converted into an electrical signal that
corresponds to the oxygen concentration.
Construction: The sensing element of a titania-based sensor is typically a thin, flat substrate coated with a
layer of titania and noble metal electrodes. The titania layer is typically doped with metal oxides to
enhance its conductivity. The sensor may also have an additional protective layer to improve durability
and resistance to contaminants.

10. Outline the construction and common uses of a “Magnetic Inductance” sensor.

A "Magnetic Inductance" sensor, also known as an inductive proximity sensor, is a device that detects the
presence or absence of metallic objects by generating a magnetic field. Here is a description of its
construction and common uses:

Construction:

A magnetic inductance sensor consists of three main components:

1. Oscillator: It generates an alternating current (AC) signal.

2. Coil: It produces a magnetic field surrounding the sensor.

3. Detector: It measures changes in the inductance caused by the presence or absence of a metallic object.

The basic principle behind a magnetic inductance sensor is that when a metallic object comes within the
sensing range, it influences the magnetic field, altering the inductance of the coil, which is then detected
by the detector.

Common Uses:

Magnetic inductance sensors find application in various industries and systems due to their reliability and
ability to function in harsh environments. Some common uses include:

1. Object Detection: Inductive proximity sensors are widely used to detect the presence or absence of
metallic objects on conveyor belts, assembly lines, or in automated processes. They can be used for
positioning, counting, or triggering actions based on object detection.

2. Automotive Industry: Magnetic inductance sensors are used in automotive systems for applications
such as wheel speed sensing, brake pedal detection, gear position detection, and engine speed
measurement.

3. Robotics and Automation: These sensors are extensively used in robotic systems for object detection,
obstacle avoidance, and position sensing.
 4. Industrial Machinery: Magnetic inductance sensors are employed in industrial machinery for
monitoring equipment status, detecting jams, and ensuring proper positioning of moving parts.

5. Security Systems: They are utilized in security systems for detecting the opening or closing of doors,
windows, or access gates.

Overall, magnetic inductance sensors play a crucial role in various industrial and automation applications
that require reliable and non-contact detection of metallic objects.

11. Outline the construction and common uses of a “Phototransistor” switch.

Construction:

A typical phototransistor switch consists of two main components: a light-emitting diode (LED) and a
phototransistor. The LED emits light when activated, and the phototransistor detects the amount of light
reaching it. The LED and the phototransistor are usually housed in a single package to form a compact unit.
The phototransistor is positioned in such a way that it receives the light emitted by the LED.

Common Uses:

1. Object detection: Phototransistor switches are widely used for detecting the presence or absence of objects
in various applications. For example, they can be used in automatic door systems to detect a person's
presence in front of the door, triggering the door to open.

2. Position sensing: Phototransistor switches can also be utilized for position sensing in industrial machinery.
By detecting interruptions in light beams, they can determine the position of moving parts and contribute to
automated control systems.

3. Optical encoders: Phototransistor switches are employed in optical encoders to convert mechanical motion
into electrical signals. They can be used to monitor the rotation and position of shafts in machinery, robotics,
and other applications.

4. Proximity sensing: These switches can be used for proximity sensing in a wide range of devices, such as
touchless switches or proximity sensing faucets, where the presence of an object or a person triggers a
specific action.

Overall, the construction and common uses of a phototransistor switch make it a versatile device for
detecting light and providing input for various control systems.

12. Explain the operation of a “Reed” switch and how they are used.
Construction: A Reed switch consists of two thin, ferromagnetic metal reed contacts encased within a
glass tube. The contacts are typically made of materials such as nickel-iron or nickel-cobalt alloys, which
have high magnetic permeability.

Operation: When a magnetic field is applied to a Reed switch, the reed contacts are attracted towards
each other and make a connection. Conversely, when the magnetic field is removed, the contacts spring
back to their original position, breaking the connection.

Uses: Reed switches have various applications due to their simplicity, small size, and reliability. Some
common uses include:

1. Proximity Sensors: Reed switches are used in proximity sensors to detect the presence of a ferrous
object. For instance, they can be employed in door and window sensors for security systems.

2. Automobiles: Reed switches are used in automotive applications, such as fuel level sensors, seatbelt
reminders, and door sensors.

3. Flow Sensors: In flow meters and water-level control systems, Reed switches are utilized to detect the
flow or the level of a liquid.

4. Security Systems: Reed switches are used in burglar alarms and security systems to detect the opening
or closing of doors and windows.

5. Telecommunications: Reed switches are utilized in telecommunication devices, such as telephones and
modems, as hook switches or for call routing functions.

6. Medical Devices: Reed switches are employed in medical devices like pill bottle caps to monitor
patient adherence to medication schedules.

Overall, Reed switches are versatile in their applications due to their ability to quickly switch on or off in
response to changes in a magnetic field.

13. Describe the basic operation of a “stepper motor” and how they are used.

Operation:

A stepper motor consists of a rotor with multiple teeth (usually permanent magnets) and a stator with
multiple electromagnetic coils. When electrical current flows through these coils in a specific sequence, a
magnetic field is generated, which interacts with the rotor's magnets to produce movement.

Stepper motors operate in discrete steps, each corresponding to an electrical pulse. They can be controlled
to move in either direction and rotate in fractional or whole steps, depending on the number of teeth and
coils.

Common Uses:

1. Robotics and CNC machines: Stepper motors are widely used in various robotic applications, CNC
machines, 3D printers, and other industrial automation systems as they provide precise control over the
position and speed of movement.

2. Textile and printing industry: Stepper motors are essential in machines like textile printers, plotter
cutters, and embroidery machines, where accurate control of movement is required to create complex
patterns.

3. Medical equipment: They are used in medical devices such as infusion pumps, robotic surgery systems,
and DNA analyzers, where precise and controlled motion is crucial for accurate operations.

4. Camera lenses and autofocus systems: Many camera lenses use stepper motors for autofocus, enabling
smooth and precise adjustments in focus position.

5. Automotive applications: Stepper motors are used in vehicle instrumentation, throttle control systems,
and power mirrors, where accurate positioning and control are necessary.

14. Explain two ways in which solenoids can be controlled.

1. Direct Control with a Switch: One way to control a solenoid is by directly activating it with a switch.
When the switch is closed, it allows current to flow through the solenoid, creating a magnetic field that
activates the solenoid. Conversely, when the switch is opened, the current stops flowing, and the solenoid
is deactivated. This method provides manual control over the solenoid and is commonly used in
applications such as door lock systems, valves, and simple electromechanical devices.

2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): PWM is a technique used to control the speed or position of a
solenoid by rapidly switching the power on and off. By varying the width of the pulses (the duration the
solenoid is on), the average power supplied to the solenoid can be adjusted. This allows for fine control
over the solenoid's movement or force. PWM control is commonly used in applications such as robotic
arms, precision positioning systems, and motorized linear actuators. It offers precise control over the
solenoid and enables smooth and accurate movement.