COUSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO NURSING INFORMATICS

COURSE CODE: GNS 113

TOPIC: Human Computer Interface

Introduction

Human Computer Interface (HCI) was previously known as the man-machine studies or
man-machine interaction. It deals with the design, execution and assessment of computer
systems and related phenomenon that are for human use.

HCI can be used in all disciplines wherever there is a possibility of computer installation.
Some of the areas where HCI can be implemented with distinctive importance are
mentioned below

 Computer Science − For application design and engineering.

 Nursing Profession – For improvement of accessibility for patients' health information

and delivery of care services.

 Psychology − For application of theories and analytical purpose.

 Sociology − For interaction between technology and organization.

 Industrial Design − For interactive products like mobile phones, microwave oven,
etc.

Historical Evolution

From the initial computers performing batch processing to the user-centric design, there
were several milestones which are mentioned below −

 Early computer (e.g. ENIAC, 1946) − Improvement in the H/W technology

brought massive increase in computing power. People started thinking on innovative
ideas.

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 Visual Display Unit (1950s) − SAGE (semi-automatic ground environment), an air
defense system of the USA used the earliest version of VDU.

 Development of the Sketchpad (1962) − Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad and

proved that computer can be used for more than data processing.

 Douglas Engelbart introduced the idea of programming toolkits (1963) −

Smaller systems created larger systems and components.

 Introduction of Word Processor, Mouse (1968) − Design of NLS (oNLine

System).

 Introduction of personal computer Dynabook (1970s) − Developed smalltalk at

Xerox PARC.

 Windows and WIMP interfaces − Simultaneous jobs at one desktop, switching

between work and screens, sequential interaction.

 The idea of metaphor − Xerox star and alto were the first systems to use the concept
of metaphors, which led to spontaneity of the interface.

 Direct Manipulation introduced by Ben Shneiderman (1982) − First used in

Apple Mac PC (1984) that reduced the chances for syntactic errors.

 Vannevar Bush introduced Hypertext (1945) − To denote the non-linear structure

of text.

 Multimodality (late 1980s).

 Computer Supported Cooperative Work (1990’s) − Computer mediated

communication.

 WWW (1989) − The first graphical browser (Mosaic) came in 1993.

 Ubiquitous Computing – Currently, the most active research area in HCI. Sensor
based/context aware computing also known as pervasive computing.

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Shneiderman’s Eight Golden Rules

Ben Shneiderman, an American computer scientist consolidated some implicit facts about
designing and came up with the following eight general guidelines −

 Strive for Consistency.

 Cater to Universal Usability.

 Offer Informative feedback.

 Design Dialogs to yield closure.

 Prevent Errors.

 Permit easy reversal of actions.

 Support internal locus of control.

 Reduce short term memory load.

These guidelines are beneficial for normal designers as well as interface designers. Using
these eight guidelines, it is possible to differentiate a good interface design from a bad one.
These are beneficial in experimental assessment of identifying better GUIs.

Norman’s Seven Principles

To assess the interaction between human and computers, Donald Norman in 1988 proposed
seven principles. He proposed the seven stages that can be used to transform difficult tasks.
Following are the seven principles of Norman −

 Use both knowledge in world & knowledge in the head.

 Simplify task structures.

 Make things visible.

 Get the mapping right (User mental model = Conceptual model = Designed model).

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  Convert constrains into advantages (Physical constraints, Cultural constraints,
Technological constraints).

 Design for Error.

 When all else fails − Standardize.

Heuristic Evaluation

Heuristics evaluation is a methodical procedure to check user interface for usability

problems. Once a usability problem is detected in design, they are attended as an integral
part of constant design processes. Heuristic evaluation method includes some usability
principles such as Nielsen’s ten Usability principles.

Nielsen's Ten Heuristic Principles

 Visibility of system status.

 Match between system and real world.

 User control and freedom.

 Consistency and standards.

 Error prevention.

 Recognition rather than Recall.

 Flexibility and efficiency of use.

 Aesthetic and minimalist design.

 Help, diagnosis and recovery from errors.

 Documentation and Help

The above mentioned ten principles of Nielsen serve as a checklist in evaluating and
explaining problems for the heuristic evaluator while auditing an interface or a product.

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Interface Design Guidelines

Some more important HCI design guidelines are presented in this section. General
interaction, information display, and data entry are three categories of HCI design
guidelines that are explained below.

General Interaction

Guidelines for general interaction are comprehensive advices that focus on general
instructions such as −

 Be consistent.

 Offer significant feedback.

 Ask for authentication of any non-trivial critical action.

 Authorize easy reversal of most actions.

 Lessen the amount of information that must be remembered in between actions.

 Seek competence in dialogue, motion and thought.

 Excuse mistakes.

 Classify activities by function and establish screen geography accordingly.

 Deliver help services that are context sensitive.

 Use simple action verbs or short verb phrases to name commands.

Information Display

Information provided by the HCI should not be incomplete or unclear or else the application
will not meet the requirements of the user. To provide better display, the following
guidelines are prepared −

 Exhibit only that information that is applicable to the present context.

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  Don't burden the user with data, use a presentation layout that allows rapid
integration of information.

 Use standard labels, standard abbreviations and probable colors.

 Permit the user to maintain visual context.

 Generate meaningful error messages.

 Use upper and lower case, indentation and text grouping to aid in understanding.

 Use windows (if available) to classify different types of information.

 Use analog displays to characterize information that is more easily integrated with
this form of representation.

 Consider the available geography of the display screen and use it efficiently.

Data Entry

The following guidelines focus on data entry that is another important aspect of HCI −

 Reduce the number of input actions required of the user.

 Uphold steadiness between information display and data input.

 Let the user customize the input.

 Interaction should be flexible but also tuned to the user's favored mode of input.

 Disable commands that are unsuitable in the context of current actions.

 Allow the user to control the interactive flow.

 Offer help to assist with all input actions.

 Remove "mickey mouse" input.

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Interactive System Design

The objective of this chapter is to learn all the aspects of design and development of
interactive systems, which are now an important part of our lives. The design and usability
of these systems leaves an effect on the quality of people’s relationship to technology. Web
applications, games, embedded devices, etc., are all a part of this system, which has become
an integral part of our lives. Let us now discuss on some major components of this system.

Concept of Usability Engineering

Usability Engineering is a method in the progress of software and systems, which includes
user contribution from the inception of the process and assures the effectiveness of the
product through the use of a usability requirement and metrics.

It thus refers to the Usability Function features of the entire process of abstracting,
implementing & testing hardware and software products. Requirements gathering stage to
installation, marketing and testing of products, all fall in this process.

Goals of Usability Engineering

 Effective to use − Functional

 Efficient to use − Efficient

 Error free in use − Safe

 Easy to use − Friendly

 Enjoyable in use − Delightful Experience

Usability

Usability has three components − effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction, using which,
users accomplish their goals in particular environments. Let us look in brief about these
components.

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  Effectiveness − The completeness with which users achieve their goals.

 Efficiency − The competence used in using the resources to effectively achieve the
goals.

 Satisfaction − The ease of the work system to its users.

Usability Study

The methodical study on the interaction between people, products, and environment based
on experimental assessment. Example: Psychology, Behavioral Science, etc.

Usability Testing

The scientific evaluation of the stated usability parameters as per the user’s requirements,
competences, prospects, safety and satisfaction is known as usability testing.

Acceptance Testing

Acceptance testing also known as User Acceptance Testing (UAT), is a testing procedure
that is performed by the users as a final checkpoint before signing off from a vendor. Let
us take an example of the handheld barcode scanner.

Let us assume that a supermarket has bought barcode scanners from a vendor. The
supermarket gathers a team of counter employees and make them test the device in a mock
store setting. By this procedure, the users would determine if the product is acceptable for
their needs. It is required that the user acceptance testing "pass" before they receive the
final product from the vendor.

Software Tools

A software tool is a programmatic software used to create, maintain, or otherwise support

other programs and applications. Some of the commonly used software tools in HCI are as
follows −

 Specification Methods − The methods used to specify the GUI. Even though these
are lengthy and ambiguous methods, they are easy to understand.

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  Grammars − Written Instructions or Expressions that a program would understand.
They provide confirmations for completeness and correctness.

 Transition Diagram − Set of nodes and links that can be displayed in text, link
frequency, state diagram, etc. They are difficult in evaluating usability, visibility,
modularity and synchronization.

 Statecharts − Chart methods developed for simultaneous user activities and external
actions. They provide link-specification with interface building tools.

 Interface Building Tools − Design methods that help in designing command

languages, data-entry structures, and widgets.

 Interface Mockup Tools − Tools to develop a quick sketch of GUI. E.g., Microsoft
Visio, Visual Studio .Net, etc.

 Software Engineering Tools − Extensive programming tools to provide user

interface management system.

 Evaluation Tools − Tools to evaluate the correctness and completeness of

programs.

HCI and Software Engineering

Software engineering is the study of designing, development and preservation of software.

It comes in contact with HCI to make the man and machine interaction more vibrant and
interactive.

Let us see the following model in software engineering for interactive designing.

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The Waterfall Method

Interactive System Design

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The uni-directional movement of the waterfall model of Software Engineering shows that
every phase depends on the preceding phase and not vice-versa. However, this model is not
suitable for the interactive system design.

The interactive system design shows that every phase depends on each other to serve the
purpose of designing and product creation. It is a continuous process as there is so much to
know and users keep changing all the time. An interactive system designer should
recognize this diversity.

Prototyping

Prototyping is another type of software engineering models that can have a complete range
of functionalities of the projected system.

In HCI, prototyping is a trial and partial design that helps users in testing design ideas
without executing a complete system.

Example of a prototype can be Sketches. Sketches of interactive design can later be

produced into graphical interface. See the following diagram.

The above diagram can be considered as a Low Fidelity Prototype as it uses manual
procedures like sketching in a paper.

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A Medium Fidelity Prototype involves some but not all procedures of the system. E.g.,
first screen of a GUI.

Finally, a Hi Fidelity Prototype simulates all the functionalities of the system in a design.
This prototype requires, time, money and work force.

User Centered Design (UCD)

The process of collecting feedback from users to improve the design is known as user
centered design or UCD.

UCD Drawbacks

 Passive user involvement.

 User’s perception about the new interface may be inappropriate.

 Designers may ask incorrect questions to users.

Interactive System Design Life Cycle (ISLC)

The stages in the following diagram are repeated until the solution is reached.

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Diagram

GUI Design & Aesthetics

Graphic User Interface (GUI) is the interface from where a user can operate programs,
applications or devices in a computer system. This is where the icons, menus, widgets,
labels exist for the users to access.

It is significant that everything in the GUI is arranged in a way that is recognizable and
pleasing to the eye, which shows the aesthetic sense of the GUI designer. GUI aesthetics
provides a character and identity to any product.

HCI Analogy

Let us take a known analogy that can be understood by everyone. A film director is a person
who with his/her experience can work on script writing, acting, editing, and
cinematography. He/She can be considered as the only person accountable for all the
creative phases of the film.

Similarly, HCI can be considered as the film director whose job is part creative and part
technical. An HCI designer have substantial understanding of all areas of designing. The
following diagram depicts the analogy −

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Interactive Devices

Several interactive devices are used for the human computer interaction. Some of them are
known tools and some are recently developed or are a concept to be developed in the future.
In this chapter, we will discuss on some new and old interactive devices.

Touch Screen

The touch screen concept was prophesized decades ago, however the platform was acquired
recently. Today there are many devices that use touch screen. After vigilant selection of
these devices, developers customize their touch screen experiences.

The cheapest and relatively easy way of manufacturing touch screens are the ones using
electrodes and a voltage association. Other than the hardware differences, software alone
can bring major differences from one touch device to another, even when the same
hardware is used.

Along with the innovative designs and new hardware and software, touch screens are likely
to grow in a big way in the future. A further development can be made by making a sync
between the touch and other devices.

In HCI, touch screen can be considered as a new interactive device.

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Gesture Recognition

Gesture recognition is a subject in language technology that has the objective of

understanding human movement via mathematical procedures. Hand gesture recognition is
currently the field of focus. This technology is future based.

This new technology magnitudes an advanced association between human and computer
where no mechanical devices are used. This new interactive device might terminate the old
devices like keyboards and is also heavy on new devices like touch screens.

Speech Recognition

The technology of transcribing spoken phrases into written text is Speech Recognition.
Such technologies can be used in advanced control of many devices such as switching on
and off the electrical appliances. Only certain commands are required to be recognized for
a complete transcription. However, this cannot be beneficial for big vocabularies.

This HCI device help the user in hands free movement and keep the instruction based
technology up to date with the users.

Keyboard

A keyboard can be considered as a primitive device known to all of us today. Keyboard

uses an organization of keys/buttons that serves as a mechanical device for a computer.
Each key in a keyboard corresponds to a single written symbol or character.

This is the most effective and ancient interactive device between man and machine that has
given ideas to develop many more interactive devices as well as has made advancements
in itself such as soft screen keyboards for computers and mobile phones.

Response Time

Response time is the time taken by a device to respond to a request. The request can be
anything from a database query to loading a web page. The response time is the sum of the
service time and wait time. Transmission time becomes a part of the response time when
the response has to travel over a network.

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In modern HCI devices, there are several applications installed and most of them function
simultaneously or as per the user’s usage. This makes a busier response time. All of that
increase in the response time is caused by increase in the wait time. The wait time is due to
the running of the requests and the queue of requests following it.

So, it is significant that the response time of a device is faster for which advanced
processors are used in modern devices.

Design Process & Task Analysis

HCI Design

HCI design is considered as a problem solving process that has components like planned
usage, target area, resources, cost, and viability. It decides on the requirement of product
similarities to balance trade-offs.

The following points are the four basic activities of interaction design −

 Identifying requirements

 Building alternative designs

 Developing interactive versions of the designs

 Evaluating designs

Three principles for user-centered approach are −

 Early focus on users and tasks

 Empirical Measurement

 Iterative Design

Design Methodologies

Various methodologies have materialized since the inception that outline the techniques for
human–computer interaction. Following are few design methodologies −

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  Activity Theory − This is an HCI method that describes the framework where the
human-computer interactions take place. Activity theory provides reasoning,
analytical tools and interaction designs.

 User-Centered Design − It provides users the center-stage in designing where they

get the opportunity to work with designers and technical practitioners.

 Principles of User Interface Design − Tolerance, simplicity, visibility, affordance,

consistency, structure and feedback are the seven principles used in interface
designing.

 Value Sensitive Design − This method is used for developing technology and
includes three types of studies − conceptual, empirical and technical.

o Conceptual investigations works towards understanding the values of the

investors who use technology.

o Empirical investigations are qualitative or quantitative design research

studies that shows the designer’s understanding of the users’ values.

o Technical investigations contain the use of technologies and designs in the

conceptual and empirical investigations.

Participatory Design

Participatory design process involves all stakeholders in the design process, so that the end
result meets the needs they are desiring. This design is used in various areas such as
software design, architecture, landscape architecture, product design, sustainability,
graphic design, planning, urban design, and even medicine.

Participatory design is not a style, but focus on processes and procedures of designing. It is
seen as a way of removing design accountability and origination by designers.

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Task Analysis

Task Analysis plays an important part in User Requirements Analysis.

Task analysis is the procedure to learn the users and abstract frameworks, the patterns used
in workflows, and the chronological implementation of interaction with the GUI. It
analyzes the ways in which the user partitions the tasks and sequence them.

What is a TASK?

Human actions that contributes to a useful objective, aiming at the system, is a task. Task
analysis defines performance of users, not computers.

Hierarchical Task Analysis

Hierarchical Task Analysis is the procedure of disintegrating tasks into subtasks that could
be analyzed using the logical sequence for execution. This would help in achieving the goal
in the best possible way.

"A hierarchy is an organization of elements that, according to prerequisite relationships,

describes the path of experiences a learner must take to achieve any single behavior that
appears higher in the hierarchy. (Seels & Glasgow, 1990, p. 94)".

Techniques for Analysis

 Task decomposition − Splitting tasks into sub-tasks and in sequence.

 Knowledge-based techniques − Any instructions that users need to know.

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‘User’ is always the beginning point for a task.

 Ethnography − Observation of users’ behavior in the use context.

 Protocol analysis − Observation and documentation of actions of the user. This is

achieved by authenticating the user’s thinking. The user is made to think aloud so
that the user’s mental logic can be understood.

Information Search & Visualization

Database Query

A database query is the principal mechanism to retrieve information from a database. It

consists of predefined format of database questions. Many database management systems
use the Structured Query Language (SQL) standard query format.

Example

SELECT DOCUMENT#

FROM JOURNAL-DB

WHERE (DATE >= 2004 AND DATE <= 2008)

AND (LANGUAGE = ENGLISH OR FRENCH)

AND (PUBLISHER = ASIST OR HFES OR ACM)

Users perform better and have better contentment when they can view and control the
search. The database query has thus provided substantial amount of help in the human
computer interface.

The following points are the five-phase frameworks that clarifies user interfaces for textual
search −

 Formulation − expressing the search

 Initiation of action − launching the search

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  Review of results − reading messages and outcomes

 Refinement − formulating the next step

 Use − compiling or disseminating insight

Multimedia Document Searches

Following are the major multimedia document search categories.

Image Search

Preforming an image search in common search engines is not an easy thing to do. However
there are sites where image search can be done by entering the image of your choice.
Mostly, simple drawing tools are used to build templates to search with. For complex
searches such as fingerprint matching, special softwares are developed where the user can
search the machine for the predefined data of distinct features.

Map Search

Map search is another form of multimedia search where the online maps are retrieved
through mobile devices and search engines. Though a structured database solution is
required for complex searches such as searches with longitude/latitude. With the advanced
database options, we can retrieve maps for every possible aspect such as cities, states,
countries, world maps, weather sheets, directions, etc.

Design/Diagram Searches

Some design packages support the search of designs or diagrams as well. E.g., diagrams,
blueprints, newspapers, etc.

Sound Search

Sound search can also be done easily through audio search of the database. Though user
should clearly speak the words or phrases for search.

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Video Search

New projects such as Infomedia helps in retrieving video searches. They provide an
overview of the videos or segmentations of frames from the video.

Animation Search

The frequency of animation search has increased with the popularity of Flash. Now it is
possible to search for specific animations such as a moving boat.

Information Visualization

Information visualization is the interactive visual illustrations of conceptual data that

strengthen human understanding. It has emerged from the research in human-computer
interaction and is applied as a critical component in varied fields. It allows users to see,
discover, and understand huge amounts of information at once.

Information visualization is also an assumption structure, which is typically followed by

formal examination such as statistical hypothesis testing.

Advanced Filtering

Following are the advanced filtering procedures −

 Filtering with complex Boolean queries

 Automatic filtering

 Dynamic queries

 Faceted metadata search

 Query by example

 Implicit search

 Collaborative filtering

 Multilingual searches

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  Visual field specification

Hypertext and Hypermedia

Hypertext can be defined as the text that has references to hyperlinks with immediate
access. Any text that provides a reference to another text can be understood as two nodes
of information with the reference forming the link. In hypertext, all the links are active and
when clicked, opens something new.

Hypermedia on the other hand, is an information medium that holds different types of
media, such as, video, CD, and so forth, as well as hyperlinks.

Hence, both hypertext and hypermedia refers to a system of linked information. A text may
refer to links, which may also have visuals or media. So hypertext can be used as a generic
term to denote a document, which may in fact be distributed across several media.

Object Action Interface Model for Website Design

Object Action Interface (OAI), can be considered as the next step of the Graphical User
Interface (GUI). This model focusses on the priority of the object over the actions.

OAI Model

The OAI model allows the user to perform action on the object. First the object is selected
and then the action is performed on the object. Finally, the outcome is shown to the user.
In this model, the user does not have to worry about the complexity of any syntactical
actions.

The object–action model provides an advantage to the user as they gain a sense of control
due to the direct involvement in the design process. The computer serves as a medium to
signify different tools.

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COUSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO NURSING INFORMATICS

COURSE CODE: GNS 113

Some Differences between Data and Information in ICT

Data and information are two related but distinct concepts in the field of information and
communication technology (ICT). Here are some key differences between data and
information:

Definition: Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts and figures. Information refers to data that
has been processed and organized in a way that is meaningful and useful.

Quality: Data can be incomplete, incorrect, or inconsistent, while information is reliable

and accurate.

Purpose: Data is collected for the purpose of being processed into information. Information
is used for decision making, communication, and other purposes.

Format: Data can be in any format, such as numbers, text, images, or audio. Information is
often presented in a structured format, such as a table or report.

Context: Data has no meaning on its own and must be interpreted in the context of a
particular problem or question. Information is presented in a context that makes it
meaningful and useful.

Value: Data has little value until it is processed into information. Information has value
because it helps people make better decisions and take appropriate actions.

In summary, data is the raw material that is transformed into useful information through
processing and organization. Information is valuable because it helps people understand
and make sense of the world around them.

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Here are some additional differences between data and information:

Data is objective, while information is subjective. Data consists of facts and figures that
can be measured or observed, while information includes interpretation and analysis of
data.

Data is collected and stored, while information is shared and communicated. Data is
typically collected through various methods, such as surveys, experiments, or observations,
and is stored in databases or other storage media. Information is shared with others through
various communication channels, such as reports, presentations, or conversations.

Data can be quantifiable, while information is qualitative. Data consists of numerical values
that can be measured and compared, while information includes descriptions and insights
that are more difficult to quantify.

Data is raw, while information is processed. Data is collected in its raw form and requires
processing and organization to be turned into useful information. Information has been
processed and organized in a way that makes it meaningful and useful.

Data is the foundation of information. Information is derived from data, and without data,
there can be no information. Data provides the raw material that is transformed into useful
information through processing and analysis.

In summary, data and information are related but distinct concepts in the field of ICT. Data
is raw, unprocessed facts and figures, while information is data that has been processed and
organized in a way that is meaningful and useful. Data is the foundation of information and
is collected and stored, while information is shared and communicated.

Similarities Between Data and Information In ICT

While data and information are distinct concepts in the field of information and
communication technology (ICT), there are also some similarities between the two:

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Both data and information can be stored and accessed digitally. In the digital age, data and
information are often stored in computers, servers, or other electronic devices, and can be
accessed through various methods, such as a web browser or application.

Both data and information can be shared and communicated. Data and information can be
shared with others through various communication channels, such as email, social media,
or messaging apps.

Both data and information can be protected. Data and information can be sensitive or
confidential, and as such, they may need to be protected from unauthorized access or
tampering. This can be done through various methods, such as encryption, password
protection, or access controls.

Both data and information can be analyzed. Data and information can be analyzed to
uncover insights, trends, or patterns that may not be immediately apparent. This can be
done through various methods, such as statistical analysis, machine learning algorithms, or
visualization tools.

Both data and information can be used to inform decision making. Data and information
can be used to make informed decisions or take appropriate actions. For example, data and
information can be used to evaluate options, assess risks, or determine the best course of
action.

In summary, data and information are related in that they can both be stored and accessed
digitally, shared and communicated, protected, analyzed, and used to inform decision
making. While data is raw and unprocessed, and information is data that has been processed
and organized in a meaningful way, both play important roles in the field of ICT.

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