Assignment 2

Name: NASEER AHMED MOHAMMED AL-SUMAIDAEE

Answer the following questions: ID: 20202101026

1) What is a data communication?

Data communication refers to the process of transmitting and receiving data between two or more devices
or systems. It involves the exchange of information in the form of bits, bytes, or packets over a
communication medium such as cables, wireless connections, or optical fibers.
Data communication enables the transfer of various types of data, including text, images, audio, video, and
other digital formats, between devices such as computers, servers, smartphones, tablets, and other
network-enabled devices.

2)What is a PAN and SAN?

Personal Area Network (PAN): A Personal Area Network refers to a network that connects devices in close
proximity to an individual, typically within a range of a few meters. PANs are designed for personal use and
provide connectivity between personal devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, smartwatches, and
other wearable devices. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are common technologies used for establishing PANs.
Storage Area Network (SAN): A Storage Area Network is a specialized network architecture designed for
high-speed data storage and retrieval. SANs are dedicated networks that connect multiple storage devices,
such as disk arrays or tape libraries, to servers or other computing systems. The primary purpose of a SAN
is to provide block-level storage access over a high-speed network.

3) Explain a token Ring?

Token Ring is a network topology and access method that was commonly used in local area networks
(LANs) during the early days of computer networking. In a Token Ring network, devices are connected in
a ring-like structure, and data is transmitted in a sequential manner using a special control token.
Here are the key characteristics of a Token Ring network:
1- Ring Topology: Devices in a Token Ring network are connected in a closed loop or ring. Each device is
connected to its neighboring devices, forming a physical ring. The data travels around the ring in a
unidirectional manner.
2- Token Passing: Token Ring networks use a token-passing mechanism to regulate access to the network.
A control token, which is a special data packet, circulates around the ring. Only the device holding the token
has the right to transmit data onto the network.
3- Sequential Data Transmission: When a device has the token, it can send data onto the network. The data
travels from one device to the next in a sequential manner, following the order of the devices in the ring.
Each device reads the data addressed to it and passes the token to the next device.
4- Priority Scheme: Token Ring networks typically employ a priority scheme for determining the order in
which devices gain access to the token. Higher-priority devices may have a better chance of acquiring the
token and transmitting their data first.
5- Token Release: Once a device finishes transmitting its data, it releases the token back onto the ring,
allowing the next device in the sequence to obtain it. This ensures fair access to the network for all devices.
6-Physical Medium: Token Ring networks commonly used twisted-pair copper cables, usually with a star-
wired ring topology. Each device is connected to a central wiring hub, which facilitates the ring structure.
Token Ring networks were popular in the 1980s and 1990s but have largely been replaced by Ethernet,
which offers higher data rates and simpler implementation. Ethernet's widespread adoption and
advancements in technology led to Token Ring's decline in popularity.
It's important to note that while Token Ring networks were once prevalent, they are now considered legacy
technology, and most modern networks utilize Ethernet or other more advanced networking technologies.

4) What is a Client and Servers?

Client: A client is a device or software application that requests services or resources from another device
or server. Clients are typically end-user devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets, or IoT devices.
They interact with servers to access data, services, or perform specific tasks.
Clients initiate communication by sending requests to servers, which can be in the form of data retrieval,
file transfers, database queries, or any other type of service or resource access. The client's role is to send
the request, receive the response from the server, and process it to present the desired outcome or
information to the user.
For example, when you browse the internet using a web browser, the browser acts as a client. It sends
requests to web servers to retrieve web pages, images, or other content. Email clients, file transfer clients
(FTP clients), and instant messaging applications are also common examples of client software.

Server:A server is a device or software application that provides services or resources to clients. Servers
are typically more powerful and have higher processing capabilities than clients. They are designed to
handle multiple client requests simultaneously and provide the requested services or resources efficiently.
Servers store and manage data, files, applications, or other resources that clients may need access to. They
respond to client requests by processing the requests, retrieving the requested information or performing
the necessary computations, and sending the response back to the client.
There are various types of servers, each dedicated to specific tasks or services. Some common examples
include web servers that host websites and deliver web pages, file servers that store and provide file access,
email servers that handle email communication, database servers that manage and provide access to
databases, and application servers that deliver software applications or services.
5) what is the difference between IPv4 and IPv6?

IPv4 IPv6
Address 32 bits 128 bits
Length
Address Dotted Decimal Notation Eight groups of four hexadecimal digits (e.g.,
Notation (e.g., 192.168.0.1) 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)

Address Space Limited address space Vast address space (~3.4×10^38 addresses)
(~4.3 billion addresses)

Address Manual configuration, Automatic address configuration using

Configuration DHCP for dynamic stateless or stateful address autoconfiguration
assignment protocols (e.g., DHCPv6)

Address Types Unicast, Broadcast, Unicast, Multicast, Anycast

Multicast

Header Fixed 20-byte header Variable-length header with simplified format

Format with options and extension headers

Fragmentation Routers perform End-to-end fragmentation is not performed

fragmentation (path MTU discovery is used)

Security IPsec is optional and not IPsec is an integral part of the protocol suite
widely used

Quality of Limited support for QoS Improved support for QoS mechanisms and
Service mechanisms flow labeling

Network Commonly used due to Less reliance on NAT due to the larger address
Address address scarcity space
Translation
(NAT)

It's important to note that IPv6 was developed to address the limitations of IPv4, such as the limited
address space and the need for additional features. IPv6 offers a significantly larger address space,
improved scalability, enhanced security features, and better support for new technologies and services.
However, IPv4 is still widely used today, and both IPv4 and IPv6 coexist in many networks during the
transition period.
6) Packet switched and circuit switched comparison?
Packet-Switched Networks Circuit-Switched Networks
Connection Data is divided into packets and sent A dedicated communication path is
Method individually over the network established before data
transmission

Resource Shared network resources, dynamic Dedicated resources, fixed

Allocation allocation of bandwidth allocation of bandwidth

Efficiency Efficient utilization of network Inefficient utilization of network

resources, as packets can take resources, as dedicated resources
different routes and share the remain idle during periods of
network capacity inactivity

Data Data is transmitted in discrete Data is transmitted in a continuous

Transmission packets, which may take different stream, maintaining order
routes and arrive at the destination
out of order

Latency Variable latency as packets may Consistent latency as the dedicated

experience different network path remains constant
conditions and routes

Connection No dedicated path setup required, Dedicated path setup required

Setup packets are routed dynamically before data transmission

Usage Well-suited for bursty and data- Suitable for real-time applications
oriented applications, such as that require a continuous and
internet browsing, email, and real- dedicated connection, such as voice
time communication calls

Overhead Additional overhead due to packet Lower overhead, as no packet

headers and routing information headers or routing information is
required once the connection is
established

Scalability Highly scalable due to shared Limited scalability due to fixed

network resources and dynamic resources and dedicated paths
allocation

Examples Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such Traditional telephone networks

as the internet (Public Switched Telephone
Network - PSTN)
7) Difference between CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD

CSMA/CA CSMA/CD
Collision Handling Collision avoidance Collision detection mechanism
mechanism

Medium Usage Medium usage efficiency is Medium usage efficiency is higher

Efficiency lower

Collision Detection No collision detection Collision detection is performed

Retransmission Retransmission is performed Retransmission is performed

after a backoff after collision detection

Priority Mechanism May incorporate priority No inherent priority mechanism

mechanisms

Contention Random backoff based on Random backoff based on

Resolution contention window exponential backoff algorithm

Usage Commonly used in wireless Historically used in wired

networks (e.g., Wi-Fi) Ethernet networks

Full-Duplex Supports half-duplex and full- Designed for half-duplex

Communication duplex communication communication

Network Topology Typically used in networks Typically used in point-to-point

with shared medium networks

Late Collisions Not applicable Detects collisions that occur later

in the transmission

Examples Wi-Fi networks Traditional Ethernet networks

(not commonly used today)

It's important to note that CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD are designed for different network environments and
have specific use cases. CSMA/CA is commonly used in wireless networks to manage access to shared
wireless channels, while CSMA/CD was historically used in early Ethernet networks for shared medium
access. With advancements in technology, modern Ethernet networks predominantly use full-duplex
communication and switches, making CSMA/CD less prevalent in current networking implementations.
8) Difference between Logical topology and physical topology

Logical Topology Physical Topology

Definition Describes the path of data flow Describes the actual physical layout
in a network of devices

Focus Data communication and Physical connections and device

network protocols placement

Representation Typically shown in network Shown in physical diagrams or

diagrams blueprints

Examples Bus, ring, star, mesh, tree Bus, ring, star, mesh, tree topologies
topologies

Connection Virtual connections Physical connections

Method
Implementation Software-based Hardware-based

Network Logical segments can span Physical segments define network

Segmentation multiple physical segments boundaries

Scalability Easily scalable and can be May require physical changes for
reconfigured scalability

Performance Can affect network performance Can impact data transfer speed and
Impact and throughput latency

Network Logical topology is managed by Physical topology is managed

Management network protocols and routing through physical infrastructure
management

Examples of Use Routing protocols, VLANs, Cables, switches, routers, access

subnets points

9) which are the different factors that affect the performance of network?
Several factors can affect the performance of a computer network. Here are some of the key factors:
1. Bandwidth: The available bandwidth of the network connection is a critical factor. Higher
bandwidth allows for faster data transmission, resulting in improved network performance.
2. Network Congestion: Network congestion occurs when there is a high volume of data traffic on the
network, causing delays and reduced performance. Congestion can result from inadequate
bandwidth, a large number of connected devices, or heavy data usage.
3. Latency: Latency refers to the time it takes for data packets to travel from the source to the
destination. High latency can lead to delays and slow network performance, particularly for real-
time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
 4. Network Infrastructure: The quality and design of the network infrastructure, including switches,
routers, cables, and wireless access points, can impact network performance. Outdated or poorly
configured equipment may limit network speeds and reliability.
5. Network Protocols: The choice and configuration of network protocols can influence performance.
Efficient protocols and optimized protocol settings can enhance network performance, while
inefficient or misconfigured protocols can introduce overhead and delays.
6. Network Security: Network security measures, such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and
encryption, can impact network performance. Intensive security processing or network monitoring
can consume resources and potentially slow down the network.
7. Network Traffic Management: Effective traffic management mechanisms, such as Quality of Service
(QoS) policies, can prioritize specific types of traffic and allocate bandwidth accordingly. Proper
traffic management helps ensure optimal performance for critical applications.
8. Network Topology: The network topology, including the arrangement of devices and the routing
paths, can influence network performance. Well-designed and optimized topologies minimize
bottlenecks and promote efficient data flow.
9. Network Configuration: Proper network configuration, including IP addressing, subnetting, and
routing configurations, is crucial for efficient network performance. Misconfigurations can lead to
routing issues, suboptimal data paths, or IP conflicts, impacting overall performance.
10. Network Management: Effective network monitoring and management practices contribute to
identifying and resolving performance issues promptly. Network administrators need to regularly
monitor network health, troubleshoot problems, and optimize configurations to ensure optimal
performance.

10) What is the general purpose of Ethernet cables? What are the main types of Ethernets? How
does Ethernet transmit data? HOW DOES ETHERNET WORK?
- Ethernet cables are commonly used in computer networks to transmit data between devices. They
provide a physical medium for data transfer, connecting devices such as computers, routers, switches, and
other network-enabled devices. The general purpose of Ethernet cables is to facilitate fast and reliable
communication between network devices.
- There are several main types of Ethernet standards, which define the specifications for Ethernet
communication. The most common types include:
1. Ethernet (10BASE-T): The original Ethernet standard, also known as 10BASE-T, uses twisted-pair
copper cables and operates at a maximum data rate of 10 Mbps (megabits per second).
2. Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T): Fast Ethernet, also known as 100BASE-T, supports data rates of up to
100 Mbps. It still uses twisted-pair copper cables but employs a more advanced signaling technique.
3. Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-T): Gigabit Ethernet, or 1000BASE-T, provides data rates of up to 1
Gbps (gigabit per second). It uses all four pairs of twisted-pair cables for transmission.
4. 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GBASE-T): 10 Gigabit Ethernet allows for data rates of up to 10 Gbps. It
typically utilizes specialized cabling, such as Cat6a or Cat7, to support the higher speeds.
5. 40 Gigabit Ethernet and 100 Gigabit Ethernet: These Ethernet standards support even higher data
rates of 40 Gbps and 100 Gbps, respectively. They often require specialized cabling and are
commonly used in data centers and high-performance computing environments.
- Ethernet transmits data using a method called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD).
- how Ethernet works:
1. Physical Connection: Ethernet uses physical connections, such as twisted-pair copper cables or fiber
optic strands, to establish a link between devices.
2. Data Framing: Data is divided into frames, which consist of a header (containing source and
destination MAC addresses), payload (actual data), and error-checking information.
3. Media Access Control (MAC): Ethernet employs the MAC sublayer of the data link layer to address
and control access to the shared network medium. Each device has a unique MAC address.
4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD): Devices listen to the network
medium to ensure it is not in use before transmitting data. If collisions occur (multiple devices
transmitting simultaneously), collision detection and backoff mechanisms are employed to
retransmit data.
5. Switching and Routing: Switches forward frames within a local network based on MAC addresses,
while routers route data between different networks based on IP addresses.
6. Ethernet Standards: Ethernet has different standards (e.g., 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T)
that define data transfer rates, cable types, and encoding methods.
7. Network Topologies: Ethernet can be deployed in various network topologies, such as bus, ring, star,
mesh, or tree, depending on network requirements.