Urban Transportation & Planning 15CV751

MODULE : 2
Collection of data

The first stage in the formulation of a transportation plan is to collect data on all factors that are likely to
influence travel pattern. The work involves a number of surveys so as to have,
 An inventory of existing travel pattern
 An inventory of existing transport facilities
 An inventory of existing land-use and economic activities.

This stage of planning process entails voluminous work and involves huge cost and immense time
period. Standardised procedures and guidelines have already established for the smooth progress of
data collection.

Organization of surveys and analysis

Study area

To collect all information like travel pattern, land use, economic activities and transport facilities, one
need to know the boundary for the study area or planning area, and hence it is essential to define the
study area first.

Transportation planning can be at the national level, the regional level or at the urban level. For planning
at the urban level the study area should embrace the whole contribution, containing the existing and
potential continuously built up areas of the city.

The imaginary line representing the boundary of the study area is termed as the external cordon line.
The area inside the external cordon line determines the travel pattern to a large extent and as such, it is
surveyed great detail. The land use pattern and the economic activities are studied intensively and
detailed survey (such as the home-interview) are conducted in this area to determine the travel
characteristics. On the other hand, the area outside the cordon line is not studied in such details.

Selection of External Cordon Line

1. The selection of the external cordon line for urban transportation planning should be done carefully
with due to consideration to the following factors:
2. The external cordon line should circumscribe all areas, which are already built up, and those areas,
which are considered likely to be developed during the planning period.
3. The external cordon line should contain all areas of systematic daily life of the people oriented
towards the city center and should in effect be the commuter shed.

4. The external cordon line should-be continuous and uniform in its courses so that movements cross it
only once. The line should intersect roads where it is safe and convenient for carrying out traffic survey.

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5. The external cordon line should be compatible with the previous studies of the areas studies planned
for the future.
Zoning

The defined study area is sub-divided into smaller areas called zones. The purpose of such a sub-division
is to facilitate the spatial quantification of land use and economic factors which influence travel pattern.
The data collected on individual household basis cannot be conveniently considered and analysed unless
they are aggregated into small zones.

Sub-division into zones further helps in geographically associating the origins and destinations of travel.
Zones within the study area are called internal zones and those outside the study area are called
external zones. In large study projects, it is more convenient to divide the study area into sectors, which
are sub-divided into smaller zones.

A convenient system of coding of the zones will be useful for the study. One such system is to divide the
study area into 9 sectors. Each sector is sub-divided into 10 zones. A sub-zone bearing a number 481
belongs to sector 4 and to zone 8 in that sector and is sub-zone 1 in that zone.
Zones are modelled as if all their attributes and properties were concentrated in a single point called the
zone centroid. The centroids are connected to the nearest road junction or rail station by centroid
connectors. Both centroid and centroid connectors are notional and it is assumed that all people have
same travel cost from the centroid to the nearest transport facility which is the average for a zone. The
intersection from outside world is normally represented through external zones. The external zones are
defined by the catchment area of the major transport links feeding to the study area.

The following points are kept in view when dividing the area into zones:

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1. Land use is the most important factor in establishing zones for a transportation survey. The traffic
generated within the zones can be predicted, quantified and measured accurately; only when origin and
destination reflects the land use properly.
2. The zones should have a homogenous land use so as to reflect accurately the associated trip making
behavior.
3. Anticipated change in land use should be considered when sub-dividing the study area into zones.
4. It would be advantages, if the subdivision follows closely that adopted by other bodies ( e.g. census
department) for data collection. This will facilitate correlation of data.
5. The zones should not too large to cause considerable errors in data. At the sometime, they should not
be too small either to cause difficulty in handling and analyzing the data. As a general guide, a
population of 1000-3000 may be the optimum for a small area, and a population of 5000-10000 may be
the optimum for large urban areas. In residential areas, the zones may accommodate roughly 1000
households.
6. The zones should preferably have regular geometric form for easily determining the centroid, which
represent the origin and destination of travel.
7. The sectors should represent the catchment of trips generated on a primary route
8. Zones should be compatible with screen lines and cordon lines.
9. Zone boundaries should preferably be watersheds of trip making.
10. Natural or physical barriers such as canals, rivers, etc. can form convenient zone boundaries.

In addition to the external cordon lines, there may be a number of internal cordon lines arranged as
concentric rings to check the accuracy of survey data. Screen lines running through the study area are
also established to check the accuracy of data collected from home- interview survey. Screen lines can
be conveniently located along physical or natural barriers having a few crossing points.

Examples of such barriers are river, railway lines, canals, etc.

Types and sources of data

Types of Movements
The basic movements for which survey data are required are:
1. Internal to internal.
2. External to internal.
3. Internal to external.
4. External to external.

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For large urban areas, the internal to internal travel is heavy whereas for small areas having a small
population (say less than 5000) the internal to internal travel is relatively less. Most details of internal to
internal travel can be obtained by home interview survey. The details of internal-external, external-
internal and external-external travels can be studied by cordon surveys.

Data Collection

The data can be collected:

1. At home.
2. During the trip end.
3. At the destination of the trip.

When collected at home, the data can be wide ranging and can over all the trips made during a given
period. The data collected during the trip is necessary of limited scope since the procedure yields data
only on the particular trip intercepted.
At the destination end, the direct interview types of surveys provide data on demand for parking
facilities and or the trip ends at major traffic attraction centers such as factories, offices and commercial
establishments.

Type of Surveys

The following are the surveys that are usually carried out:
1. Home-interview survey.
2. Commercial vehicles surveys.
3. Intermediate public transport surveys.
4. Public transport surveys.
5. Road–side–interview surveys.
6. Post-card-questioner surveys.
7. Registration-number surveys.
8. Tag-on-vehicle surveys.

1. Home-interview survey
Home-interview survey is one of the most reliable type of surveys for collection of origin and destination
data. The survey is essentially intended to yield data on the following information:

 Household information - information on household characteristics includes type of dwelling unit,

number of residents, age, sex, race, vehicle ownership, number of drivers, family income and so
on.
 Journey data - information on the travel pattern includes number of trips made, their origin and
destination, purpose of trip, travel mode, time of departure from origin and time of arrival at
destination and so on.

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Based on these data it is possible to relate the amount of travel to household and zonal characteristics
and develop equations for trip generation rates.
It is impractical to interview all the residents of the study area. Since travel patterns tend to be uniform
in a particular zone. The size of the sample is usually determined on the basis of the population of the
study area. And the standards given by the Bureau of Public Roads as shown in below table.

Following techniques are generally adopted for Home Interview Survey.

 Person to person full interview technique - Full interview technique involves interviewing as
many members of the household as possible and directly recording all the information.
 Home questionnaire technique - In the Home questionnaire technique, the interviewer collects
only details of the household characteristics, leaving forms for household residents to complete
in regard to travel information. The completed forms are collected by the interviewer after a day
or two.
 Telephone survey - In the former the questionnaire is sent out by post before the survey data
and the replies are elicited by telephone. This method can be successful only in areas of high
telephone ownership.
 Postal survey - In the postal survey method, the questionnaire is mailed and the households are
requested to send their replies by post in reply-paid envelopes.

Advantage of Home Interview Survey:

 Relatively easy to administer.

 Higher accuracy rate can be obtained by this type of survey
 Numerous questions can be asked about a subject, giving extensive flexibility in data analysis.
 In general, higher response rates may be obtained from personal interview surveys than from
other surveys
 The home interview survey allows for considerable flexibility in the type of information
collected. Attitudes, opinions, open-ended verbal answers and other non-quantitative

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information are much more readily collected in a personal interview survey than in a
questionnaire survey.
 The presence of an interviewer means that explanations can be given regarding the meaning of
questions or the method in which answers are to be given.

Disadvantage of Home Interview Survey:

 It is relatively time consuming.

 Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given answer because of lack of
memory on the subject, or even boredom.
 If sample is selected in an unbiased way, the survey data is not correct.
 This type of survey is more expensive than other survey type
 In some case there is scarcity of skilled manpower.

A typical survey format and the structured questionnaire is shown below.

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2. Commercial vehicle surveys

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Commercial vehicle surveys are conducted to obtain information on journey made by all commercial
vehicles based within the study area. The addresses of the vehicle operators are obtained and they are
contacted. Forms are issued to drivers with a request that more they record particulars of all the trips
they would make. A typical questionnaire which elicits information on the origin and destination of each
trip is given in the following table:

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Advantage of Commercial vehicle surveys:

 Commercial vehicles should be categorized with this survey for providing schedule time for
different sectors to avoid traffic congestion.
 Easily estimate the commercial vehicle of a specific area.
 Estimate the percentage of commercial vehicle and non-commercial vehicle.
 Individual counting of commercial vehicles are helpful to find out inadequate amount of
individual categorized vehicle.

Disadvantage of Commercial vehicle surveys:

 It is a time-consuming survey.
 Field classification becomes hard during signal.
 Sometimes people don’t want to give personal information.

3. Taxi Survey
Large urban areas usually have a sizeable amount of travel by taxis. In such cases, a separate taxi survey
is necessary. The survey consists of issuing questionnaire’s or log sheets to the drivers and requesting
them to complete the same.

4. Road-side interview survey:

Road-side interview survey is one of the methods of carrying out a screen-line or cordon survey. The
road side interview survey can be done either by directly interviewing drivers of the vehicles at selected
survey points or by issuing prepaid post cards containing the questionnaire to all or a sample of the
drivers.

 The survey points are selected along the junction of the cordon-line or screen-line with the
roads. The cordons may be in the form of circular rings, radial lines of rectangular grids.
 For small towns, population less than 5000, single circular cordon at the periphery of the town
should suffice. The internal travel being light, the external cordon survey in that case will give
the origin-destination data.

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 A population in the range 5,000 to 75,000 two cordon lines is necessary, the external cordon at
the edge of the urban development and the internal cordon at the limits of the central business
district. Road side interviews at the intersection of roads with these two cordon lines should be
able to fairly assess the patterns of travel in such cities.
 For large cities, the cordon-lines and screen lines may be more complicated, and the home-
interview technique cannot be dispensed with. Cordon line and screen line surveys by the road
side interview technique serve to check the accuracy of the home interview survey data.
 For dual carriageways or roads with very little traffic the traffic in both the directions is dealt
with simultaneously. In other cases the traffic in two directions will be interviewed at different
times. If the survey covers most of the day it may be sufficient to interview traffic in one
direction only and to assume that the journeys in the opposite direction are the same as in the
direction interviewed.
It is impractical to stop and interview all the vehicles. Convenient sampling methods to be adopted, for
instance, one in a fixed number of vehicles (every tenth, or fifteenth or twentieth) or select the nest
vehicle as soon as each interview is completed.
Some of the layouts of the road side interview are shown below. One has to ensure that the vehicles are
stopped in the interview bay without obstructing flow of traffic and with prior indication of warning
signs.

The period and duration of the survey are important matters that need careful prior thought. A
24 hours count will not normally be needed, and the survey is often restricted to 16 hour (0600-
2200 hours) or 12 hours (0700—1900 hours) in a day. For the remainder of the day, vehicular
counts are, however, made. In order to eliminate bias due to unusual conditions on any
particular day, it is the practice to obtain data for each week day (Monday-Friday).

For complete and reliable data to be obtained by the survey, it is necessary to frame and design
the questions with care. The enumerators must also be given adequate training and instructions
to avoid ambiguity in the answers and to ensure uniform pattern of data from different
enumerators. Pre-printed forms are used to record the answers. A sample form is shown below.

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Advantage of Road-side interview survey:

 Road side interview is an economic method of survey and yields accurate and reliable data.
 Direct and accurate information is obtained.
 Well suited to conditions where personnel are limited.
 Stopping of drivers can create congestion and antagonize the public.
 Only the information about vehicular trips is obtained.

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Disadvantage of Road-side interview survey:

 It is impractical to stop and interview all the vehicles. Sampling in, therefore is necessary. For
this reason, accurate results sometimes cannot be achieved.
 The number of samples depends on the number of interviewers and the traffic using the road. It
may become necessary to vary the sampling rate at the traffic flow changes.
 Since interviews may last for several minutes, vehicles must be stopped in an interview bay so
that traffic flow is not obstructed.
 The interviewers have no statutory powers to stop the vehicles and question the drivers. This
makes it necessary to seek the help of the police to control and direct the traffic for being
interviewed. But sometimes it becomes hard to get those helps from them.
 Vehicles are delayed when being interviewed.

5. Post-card Questionnaire

In this method, reply-paid questionnaires are handed over to each of the drivers or a sample of them at
the survey points and requesting them to complete the information and reply by post. The method
avoids delay caused to the drivers by the direct roadside interview method but suffer from the
disadvantage that the response may not be good. For this reason, its use is not generally recommended
for developing countries. It is possible to get a good amount of information from this method. The
method is simpler and cheaper than many others.

As regards the selection of survey points and questions asked, the method is similar to the direct road
side interview technique. A good amount of publicity is needed before the actual survey in order to get
favourable response. It is reported that well planned and publicized post card questionnaire surveys
have yielded returns of 50% or more.

The postcard survey is designed to capture the origin, destination, purpose, and frequency of each
surveyed motorist’s trip as well as the number of people in the vehicle and other routes typically used to
make a similar trip.
Advantage of Post-card Questionnaire:
 It saves time.
 It is a low-cost method.
 The method avoids delay caused to the drivers by the direct roadside interview method.
 It is possible to get a good amount of information from this method.
 The method is simpler and cheaper than many others.

Disadvantage Post-card Questionnaire:

 Response is not good.

 Sometimes it makes delay to reach the destination.
 It contains doubt about the accuracy level.
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6. Registration-number surveys

Registration number plate survey consists of noting the registration numbers of vehicles entering or
leaving an area at survey points located on the cordon line. By matching the registration numbers of
vehicles at the points of entry and exit from the area, one is enabled to identify two points on the paths
of the vehicles. The method neither gives the origin or the destination of the trip nor yields any other
useful information such as trip purpose.
The area to be surveyed is defined, and the roads intersecting the cordon line, are identified. At each
survey point, one or two observers are stationed to record the data in each direction of travel. If two
observers are available at each point, one can call out the registration number of the vehicle and the
other can record. Time should be recorded at regular intervals. If the actual times at entry and exit are
noted, an estimate of the journey speed of the vehicles can also be had. The types of vehicles (car,
commercial vehicle, bus etc.) as well as the full registration number (letters and figures) are noted. If
some sampling is necessary because of heavy traffic, only numbers ending with pre-selected digits are
recorded.
Manual method is organized by allotting data from each survey point to different persons who sit
around a table. The registration numbers of vehicles are called in turn and the persons having the survey
data at exit point match them with their entries. When a number is thus matched, the passage of that
vehicle in between the two points now known is entered on a suitable form. If any number is not
matched, the reason may be that the particular vehicle entered the survey area, but did not move out
during the survey period, or the number itself was recorded wrongly in the field. When the movements
of all the sampled vehicles have been thus determined the true traffic movement is determined by
applying the appropriate expansion factor.
Advantage of Registration Number Plate Surveys:

 The work does not interfere with the traffic in any way.
 It identifies the entry and exit points of traffic passing through the city.
 The registration number surveys can also provide journey time information for through traffic.
 It provides information on journeys using a network to serve a large conurbation.
 It is useful for checking movements using alternative routes or to provide entry and exit
information for small junction or road improvement schemes.
 The drivers are not inconvenienced and there is a lower unit cost of observation.

Disadvantage of Registration Number Plate Surveys:

 A large number of observers are needed for this survey

 The journey information lacks detail about purpose and O-D of the trip.
 The processing of the information and analysis of the results can be complicated
 This method is time and cost consuming.
 The procedure of this method is cumbersome if done manually and hence the use of electronic
computer is often sought.

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7. Public transport surveys

In order to assess the number of bus passengers passing through an external cordon, the survey can
either be by direct interview with the passengers or by issuing post-card questionnaires. An external
cordon rail survey can be carried out by interviewing the passengers on trains. Alternatively, pre-paid
questionnaires may be distributed to persons residing at stations outside the survey area. These
questionnaires may also be collected at the stations inside the survey area.
Advantage of Public Transport Survey:

 Interviewers get information by direct interview through this method.

 It helps to provide different types of mode which is needed to the public.

 It helps in transportation planning by people’s participation.

Disadvantage of Public Transport Survey:

 Direct interview is likely to result in large delays.

 It requires a large number of interviews which is difficult.
 Post-card questionnaires also eliminate delays.
 Post-card questionnaires contain an element of bias.
 It is likely to evoke poor response.

8. Tag-on-vehicle surveys

In this method, at each point where the roads cross the cordon line, vehicles are stopped and a tag is
affixed, usually under a windscreen wiper. The tags for different survey stations have different shapes
and/or color to identify the survey station. The vehicles are stopped again at the exit points where the
tags are removed. The times of entering and leaving the area may be marked on the tags in order to
enable the journey times to be determined. If it is not possible to handle all the vehicles, sampling may
be resorted to. Regular sampling (such as every second, third, fifth ... vehicle) will make it easier to
determine the expansion factor. Otherwise, an additional observer may be stationed at each survey
point to take a classified count of the traffic. The parking areas are surveyed at the end of the study
period and the tags on parked vehicles collected.
Advantage of Tag Surveys:

 The analysis of this method is simple.

 Errors are not very large in this survey.
 The method can also be extended to cover vehicles that enter the area but are parked in the
area during the rest of the study period.

Disadvantage of Tag surveys:

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 It is a time-consuming method.
 It is never possible to survey all vehicles.

Sampling:
All the surveys discussed above require a careful sampling strategy. Sampling is the process of selecting
units (e.g., people, households, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the
sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.
The selection of a proper sample is an obvious prerequisite to a sample survey. A sample is defined to be
a collection of units which is some part of a larger population and which is specially selected to
represent the whole population.
Four aspects of this definition are of particular importance:
 First, what are the units which comprise the sample?
 Second, what is the population which the sample seeks to represent?
 Third, how large should the sample be; and
 Fourth, how is the sample to be selected?

SAMPLING UNITS
The survey population is composed of individual elements. The selection of a sample from this
population was based on the selection of sampling units from the population. Sampling units may or
may not be the same as elements of the population; in many cases, they are aggregations of elements.

In more general situations, sampling units may typically include such entities as:

(a) Individuals
(b) Households
(c) Companies
(d) Geographic regions (zones, cities, states, nations)
(e) Vehicles
(f) Intersections or road links

SAMPLING FRAME

Depending on the population and sampling units being used, some examples of sampling frames which
could be used for various transport surveys include:

(a) Electoral rolls

(b) Block lists (lists of all dwellings on residential blocks)
(c) Lists by utility companies (e.g. electricity service connections)
(d) Telephone directories

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(e) Mailing lists

(f) Local area maps
(g) Census lists (if available)
(h) Society membership lists
(i) Motor vehicle registrations
Each of these sampling frames, however, suffers from one or more of the deficiencies outlined below:

Inaccuracy : All sampling frames will generally contain inaccuracies of one sort or another. Lists of
individuals will contain mis-spelt names and incorrect addresses. Maps will often have incorrect
boundary definitions, will not be true to scale and will have streets and other features which simply do
not exist.

Incompleteness: As well as having incorrect entries, sampling frames may simply not have some valid
entries at all.

Duplication: Entries may also be duplicated on some sampling frames. For example, telephone
directories may list individuals and companies more than once under slightly different titles

Inadequacy: A sampling frame is said to be inadequate if it simply does not provide a close
correspondence with the desired survey population, but has been adopted for the sake of convenience.

Out-of-date: Whilst a sampling frame may once have been adequate, accurate, complete and with no
duplications, this situation may not last forever. Conditions change and, with these changes, sampling
frames go out-of-date.

The sampling methods are as follows:

1. Random sampling: This is the simplest method of sampling and involves selecting a random sample
from a population, using a sampling frame with the units numberedUsing a suitable random number,
source numbers are selected at random and the members of the population are chosen to form the
sample.
2. Stratified sampling: In this method, based on the prior information, the population/households are
divided into homogeneous groups or strata, based on some measure or combination of measures that
can be used to group subjects. The grouping should result in those subjects in a group being similar to
one another in relation to measures of interest to the survey, while the groups are dissimilar to one
another. For example, assuming that car ownership affects trip making and that a survey of trip making
is to be performed; grouping the population according to whether a household has no cars, one car, two
cars, or more than two cars should result in creating groups such that households in a car ownership
group have more similar trip-making characteristics than the households in other groups.
3. Cluster sampling: This is a non-random-sampling method that is often adopted in face-to-face
household surveys, because it offers a potential of considerable cost savings for this type of survey. In
cluster sampling, the units of interest in the survey are aggregated into clusters representing some type
of proximity that affects survey economics. For example, if the survey is of households, households may

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be aggregated into blocks, where a block is defined by all the houses in a spatial area that is bounded by
streets, but not cut by a street.
4. Systematic sampling: This is a non-random sampling method that is particularly important for
roadside interviews and for sampling from very lengthy lists. It involves selecting each n th entry from a
list or each nth unit from a passing stream of units. Selecting the first unit at random is quite a useful
idea, but does not result in making the systematic sample random.
5. Choice-based sampling: This sampling is not strictly random. It applies to any form of sampling where
those who are sampled are sampled because they have already made a choice of relevance to the study.
The sample may be drawn from within this subset of the total population using any of the preceding
methods. For example any type of on-board transit survey, a roadside survey, and an intercept survey.

Accuracy and Reliability

A trip generation model should be accurate and reliable. Accuracy means that the model should replica t
e as closely as possible the actual number of trips origin a tin g or ending in zones and that there should
be no bias (which is a systematic under- or overestimating of trips). Reliability means that the amount of
error is minimized.
These criteria have two implications which are somewhat at odds. First, we have to choose models that
replicate as closely as possible the number of trips originating or ending in a zone. In general, this would
be a model that had the highest overall predictability. But, second, we have to choose models that
minimize total predict ion errors.

This allows a model to replicate the number of trips for as many zones as possible. The two criteria are
somewhat contradictory because crime trips are highly skewed. That is, a handful of zones will have a lot
of crimes origin a tin g or ending in them while many zones will have few or no crimes. The zones with
the most crimes will have a disproportionate impact on the final model. Thus, a model t ha t obtains as
high a prediction as possible (i.e., highest log likelihood or R2) may actually only predict accurately for a
few zones and may be very wrong for the majority.

Inventory of Land Use and Economic Activities (Use of secondary data)

Inventory of Land Use

Since travel characteristics are closely related to the land use pattern, it is of utmost important that an
accurate inventory of land-use be prepared.
Data on intensity of usage of land for different purposes, such as residential, industrial, commercial,
recreational, open space, etc. in each of the traffic zones are to be collected from concerned
departments/organization. Town and country planning authorities, master plans which are prepared for
the survey area, aerial photography can be used as source of land use data.

Inventory of Economic Activities

Data on economic activities should be collected to include the following:

1) Population of the planning area and various zones.

2) Age, sex, and composition of the family.

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3) Employment statistics.
4) Housing statistics.
5) Income.
6) Vehicle ownership.

Some of the data pertaining to economic activities can be collected from periodic census. The gaps in
the census data are later filled in by home interview surveys.
The population data helps in the estimation of the future trip making behaviour. Population maps
indicating the density, school enrolment, institutional population and sociological factors will facilitate
presentation of results and a better understanding of the travel pattern.

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