“CHEMISTRY PROJECT”

All India Senior Secondary Certificate Examination

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

CLASS–XII SEC–“BIO”

2023 – 2024

ST. JOHN’S ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL KHARSIA

PROJECT ON:

INVESTIGATION OF THE FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT

WASHING SOAPS AND THE EFFECTS OF SODIUM CARBONATE ON

IT.

GUIDED BY: SUBMITTED BY:

SIR NEELKANTH TARUN KUMAR
BAGHEL DANSENA
(PGT Chemistry) ROLL NO:

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 CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that TARUN KUMAR DANSENA, Roll No. ________________

of St. John’s English Medium School Kharsia, Dist. Raigarh (Chhattisgarh), has

undergone Major Project from session 2023 to 2024 at our organization to fulfill the

requirements for the award of degree of higher Secondary school. He worked on

“Investigation of the foaming capacity of different washing soaps and

the effect of sodium carbonate on it.”project during this period under my

supervision. During his tenure with us we found his sincere and hard working. We

wish him a great success in the future.

Date: ____________ Sir Neelkanth Baghel

(PGT Chemistry)

Fr. Suresh Toppo

(Principal)

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled “Investigation of the foaming

capacity of different washing soaps and the effect of sodium carbonate

on it.” Submitted for my original work and the project has not formed the

basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any other

similar title.

TARUN KUMAR DANSENA

(XII “BIO”)

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 SUBMITTING CERTIFICATE

I Tarun Kumar Dansena here by submitting my Chemistry project as

evidence of my work in the Chemistry laboratory during the academic
session 2023- 2024.

Place- St. John’s English Medium School,

P.O. – Anjoripali, Kharsia (C.G.)

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 BIODATA

Name: Tarun Kumar Dansena

Class: 12TH
Section: Biology
Date-Of-Birth: 30-08-2006
Class Roll No: 24
School: St John’s English Medium School Kharsia

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am highly grateful to the Sir Neelkanth Baghel HOD of Chemistry, St. John’s
English Medium School Kharsia, Dist. – Raigarh (Chhattisgarh), for providing
this opportunity to carry out the Major Project of chemistry.

I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thank Fr. Suresh Toppo
Principal of School, without whose permission, wise counsel and able
guidance, it would have not been possible to carry out my project in this
manner.

The help rendered by Sir Neelkanth Baghel for experimentation is greatly

acknowledged.

Finally, I express my indebtedness to all who have directly or indirectly

contributed to the successful completion of my major project.

TARUN KUMAR DANSENA

(XII “BIO”)

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 WHY A PROJECT

A student, especially a science student is expected to do some experiment and

research on subject other than those taught in the textbook during the course of his
class studies, such effort when organized with definite aim or purpose is called a
project.

The object of the subject is to evoke the scientific thinking and induced the student to
make an orderly analysis of the situation following at hand so as to reach definite
conclusion.

It is of course wrong to consider a project of unsuccessful one, if it doesn’t result of

any useful outcome. What matters is the scientific approach and the logical analysis in
the part of student how he tackled a problem.

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Introduction
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic,
palmitic and oleic acids can be either saturated or unsaturated.They
contain a long hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon with one
carboxylic acid group as the functional group. A soap molecule a tadpole
shaped structure, whose ends have different polarities. At one end is the
long hydrocarbon chain that is non- polar and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble
in water KnowledgeCycle Ready to Serve! but oil soluble. At the other
end is the short polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic i.e., water
soluble but insoluble in oil and grease. Long Hydrocarbon Chain contain
Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic end. When soap is shaken with water it
becomes a soap solution that is colloidal in nature. Agitating it tends to
concentrate the solution on the surface and causes foaming.This helps
the soap molecules make a unimolecular film on the surface of water
and to penetrate the fabric.The long non-polar end of a soap molecule
that are hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt (fat or oil
with dust absorbed in it).The short polar end containing the carboxylate
ion, face the water away from the dirt. A number of soap molecules
surround or encircle dirt and grease in a clustered structure called
‘micelles’, which encircles such particles and emulsify them. Cleansing
action of soaps decreases in hard water. Hard water contains Calcium
and magnesium ions which react with sodium carbonate to produce
insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids.This hardness can be removed
by addition of Sodium Carbonate.

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Commercial Preparation of Soaps
The most popular soap making process today is the cold process
method, where fats such as olive oil react with strong alkaline solution,
while some soapers use the historical hot process. Handmade soap
differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes
used to consume the alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerine is not
removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing soap and not pure
detergent.Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added
‘at trace’ (the point at which the saponification process is sufficiently
advanced that the soap has begun to thicken), after most of the oils have
saponified, so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap.

Fat in Soap
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium Tallowate,
a common ingredient in much soap, is derived from rendered beef fat.
Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and the
product is typically softer. An array of specifiable oils and fats are used in
the process such as olive, coconut, palm, cocoa butter to provide
different qualities. For example, olive oil provides mildness in soap;
coconut oil provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils provide
hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient.
Smaller amounts of unsaponifiable oils and fats that do not yield soap
are sometimes added for further benefits.

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Preparation of Soaps
In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be required for
saponification. Cold-process soap making takes place at a sufficient
temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat being used. Unlike
coldprocessed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away
because the alkali and fat saponify more quickly at the higher
temperatures used in hot-process soap making. Hot-process soap
making was used when the purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-process
soap making requires exact measurements of alkali and fat amounts and
computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the
finished product is mild and skin-friendly.

Hot process:
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled together at 80–100
°C until saponification occurs, which the soap maker can determine by
taste or by eye. After saponification has occurred, the soap is sometimes
precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and the excess liquid
drained off.The hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mould.

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Cold process:
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification value of the
fats being used on a saponification chart, which is then used to calculate
the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in the soap will
result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough alkali
and the soap are greasy.The alkali is dissolved in water.Then oils are
heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature.Once both
substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-43°C), and are
no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined.This alkali-fat
mixture is stirred until “trace”.There are varying levels of trace. After
much stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin
pudding.“Trace” corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential and
fragrance oils are added at light trace. Introduction to the experiment
Soap samples of various brands are taken and their foaming capacity is
noticed. Various soap samples are taken separately and their foaming
capacity is observed.The soap with the maximum foaming capacity is
thus, said to be having the best cleaning capacity.

Introduction to the Experiment

Soap samples of various brands are taken and their foaming capacity is
noticed. Various soap samples are taken separately and their foaming
capacity is observed.The soap with the maximum foaming capacity is
thus, said to be having the best cleaning capacity.The test requires to be
done with distilled water as well as with tap water.The test of soap on
distilled water gives the actual strength of the soaps cleaning capacity.
The second test with tap water tests the effect of Ca and Mg salts on
their foaming capacities.

OBJECTIVE:
To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.

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Theory
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the soap and
its concentration.This may be compared by shaking equal volumes of
solutions of different samples having the same concentration with same
force for the same amount of time.The solutions are then allowed to
stand when the foam produced during shaking disappears gradually.The
time taken for the foam to disappear in each sample is determined.The
longer the time taken for the disappearance of the foam for the given
sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing action.

Apparatus Requirements:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder, test
tube stand, weighing machine, stop watch.

Chemical Requirements:
Five different soap samples, distilled water, tap water.

Procedure
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of
water in each flask and add 8 grams of soap.
2. Warm the contents to get a solution.
3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water. Repeat
the process for each soap solution in different test tubes.

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4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a minute.
Do the same for all test tubes and with equal force.

5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate of disappearance of

2mm of froth.

6. Record the observation in tabular form

Observation
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the experiment

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Result
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the order:

Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has the highest foaming
capacity, in other words, highest cleaning capacity. Lux, on the other
hand is found to have taken the least amount of time for the
disappearance of foam produced and thus is said to be having the least
foaming capacity and cleansing capacity.

The tests show negative results for the presence of the salts causing
hardness in water.The water used does not contain salts of Ca and Mg
.The tap water provided is soft and thus, the experimental results and
values hold good for distilled water and tap water.

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 REFERENCES

Books:
Lab Manual Chemistry-XII
Comprehensive Chemistry – 12

Internet Sources:
1. Ncert.nic.in
2. www.wikipedia.com

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