STEP FOUNDATION

• Definition
o A shallow foundation design with a stepped configuration, reducing
excavation depth while ensuring stability.
• Functions
o Minimizes excavation
o Evenly distributes loads,
o Provides stability on sloped or uneven ground.
• Examples
o Step foundations are commonly used in hilly terrains, areas with
stable shallow soil, and regions prone to landslides.

FOOTING
• Definition
o The structural component of a building that transfers loads from the
superstructure to the underlying soil or rock.
• Functions
o Distributes vertical loads to prevent soil failure.
o Provides a stable surface for the construction of walls or columns.
• Examples
o Footings are found under residential houses, commercial buildings,
bridges, and towers.

RAFT FOUNDATION
• Definition
o A type of foundation where a solid slab covers the entire building
area, supporting all columns and walls.
• Function
o Spreads heavy loads over a large area, minimizing settlement.
o Suitable for weak or compressible soil conditions.
• Examples
o Raft foundations are used in skyscrapers, industrial complexes, and
large-scale infrastructure projects.

BEAM
• Definition
o A horizontal structural element that supports vertical loads and
resists bending.
• Function
o Transfers loads horizontally to columns or walls.
o Provides stability and prevents sagging in floors or roofs.
• Examples
o Beams are essential in buildings, bridges, balconies, and in the
framework of various structures.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP FOR CONSTRUCTION

• Definition
o A detailed map representing the natural and man-made features
of a landscape, crucial for construction planning and design.
• Function
o Helps engineers understand the terrain, aiding in site selection and
design decisions.
o Provides elevation data vital for grading, drainage, and foundation
design.
 • Examples
o Used in urban development, road construction, environmental
impact assessments, and land use planning.

MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE (RC)

• Definition
o The protective layer of concrete covering reinforcement bars in
reinforced concrete structures.
• Function:
o Prevents corrosion
o Ensuring structural integrity and durability.
• Examples:
o RC beams require a minimum concrete cover of 25 mm to protect
the reinforcement from environmental factors.
o RC Column requires a minimum cover of 40mm

SOIL BEARING CAPACITY

• Definition
o The maximum pressure a soil can safely support without undergoing
excessive settlement or shear failure.
• Function
o Determines the type of foundation suitable for a structure.
o Guides structural engineers in designing foundations to prevent soil
failure.

PLANTED COLUMN
• Definition
o A vertical compression member supported on a non-axial bearing
member such as slabs or beams to answer the structural
requirements without sacrificing interior and architectural needs.
• Function
o Provide the appropriate structural strength without compromising
the interior strength.

WALL FOOTING
• Definition
o A continuous strip of concrete wider than the wall it supports,
distributing the wall's load to the underlying soil.
• Function
o Prevents settlement and tilting of load-bearing walls.
• Examples
o Commonly used in residential houses, especially in load-bearing
masonry constructions.

FOOTING TIE BEAM

• Definition
o A horizontal reinforcement beam connecting two or more footings
to enhance stability and distribute loads.
• Function
o Prevents differential settlement between footings.
o Provides lateral support, enhancing the overall stability of the
foundation.
• Examples
 o Utilized in larger structures, such as multi-story buildings and bridges,
where footings are closely spaced.

RETAINING WALL
• Definition
o A structure designed to retain soil, preventing erosion and
supporting changes in ground elevation.
• Function
o Prevents landslides, erosion, and shifting of soil.
o Creates usable space on slopes.
• Examples
o Retaining walls are commonly found in landscaping projects, road
construction, and terraced gardens.

PILE FOUNDATION
• Definition
o A deep foundation method where long, slender columns (piles) are
driven into the ground to support structures.
• Function
o Transfers loads through weak or compressible soil to stable layers or
bedrock.
• Examples
o Pile foundations are used in bridges, high-rise buildings, and offshore
structures where shallow foundations are inadequate.

COMBINED FOOTING
• Definition
o A type of footing that supports two or more columns within the
same footing slab.
• Function
o Distributes loads from multiple columns efficiently.
o Prevents differential settlement.
• Examples
o Commonly used in row houses, where adjacent buildings share a
common footing.

INTERMEDIATE COLUMN
• Definition
o A column placed between other columns in a structure to provide
additional support and stability.
• Function
o Prevents overloading peripheral columns.
• Examples
o Intermediate columns are vital in multi-story buildings, ensuring even
load distribution.

INTERMEDIATE BEAM
• Definition
o A horizontal beam connecting two columns, providing additional
support and stability.
• Function
o Distributes loads from slabs and walls, preventing column buckling.
• Examples
 o Intermediate beams are integral components in large industrial
structures and commercial buildings.

TRUSSES
• Definition
o A framework consisting of beams, bars, and ties, used in structures
to support loads over long spans.
• Function
o Transfers loads efficiently over wide areas.
• Examples
o Trusses are commonly seen in the roofs of large halls, bridges, and
industrial buildings.

PURLINS
• Definition
o Horizontal beams in a roof framework, supporting the roof covering
and transferring loads to the main structural frame.
• Function
o Supports roof loads and prevents sagging.
• Examples
o Purlins are commonly used in metal buildings and traditional timber-
framed structures.

GIRDER
• Definition
o Large, main horizontal support beam, often part of a bridge or
building structure.
• Function
o Distributes heavy loads to columns or piers.
• Examples
o Girders are fundamental elements in bridge construction,
supporting the deck and withstanding traffic loads.

RAFTER
• Definition
o Sloping beams that support the roof and transfer loads to the walls.
• Function
o Provides the main framework for the roof.
• Examples
o Rafters are essential components in traditional pitched roofs,
creating the roof slope and supporting roof coverings.

BORE PILING
• Definition
o A construction method involving drilling holes into the ground and
filling them with concrete and reinforcement to create foundation
supports.
• Function
o Provides stability and support in areas with weak soil or groundwater
issues.
• Examples
o Bore piling is used in high-rise buildings, bridges, and other structures
where deep foundations are required.
EFFECT OF BAR PLACEMENT IN RECTANGULAR FOOTING
• Long Span Over Short Span
o Placing long span bars over the shorter side of a rectangular footing
is more effective.
o It ensures even load distribution, enhances structural stability, and
optimizes load transfer mechanisms.
o This placement reduces the risk of uneven settlements and tilting,
contributing to the overall stability of the structure.

IMPLICATIONS OF LOW SOIL BEARING CAPACITY AND SOLUTIONS

• Low soil bearing capacity can lead to excessive settlement, tilting, or
even structural failure. It necessitates special foundation techniques.
• Solutions
o Methods such as deep foundations (like piles or piers)
o Soil improvement techniques (such as compaction or grouting)
o The use of geotechnical engineering methods (like soil
reinforcement) can be employed to address low soil bearing
capacity.

REASON FOR LOCATING FOOTING/COLUMN ON PROPERTY LINE

• Footings and columns are often located on the property line due to legal
regulations and space constraints.
• Placing them within the property line ensures compliance with property
boundary laws, avoiding legal disputes with neighbors and maximizing
available construction space.

METHODS FOR DEWATERING GROUNDWATER

1. Wellpoint Systems – Utilizes a series of closely spaced wells to lower the
water table.
2. Deep Wells – Involves drilling deep wells to pump out groundwater.
3. Sumping – Uses excavated sumps with pumps to collect and remove
water.
4. Open Ditches and Drains – Diverts groundwater away from the
construction site.
5. Electro-Osmosis – Applies electrical currents to move water through soil,
reducing water content.
6. Vacuum Dewatering – Uses vacuum pumps to lower the water table.
7. Chemical Consolidation – Injects chemicals to solidify the soil and reduce
water flow.
8. Freezing Method – Freezes the ground to create a barrier against water
inflow.
9. Mechanical Dewatering with Pumps – Uses mechanical pumps to remove
groundwater.
10. Geotextiles and Filter Drains – Uses geotextile materials to facilitate water
drainage and prevent soil loss.