TOPIC 1

INTRODUCTION TO VARIOUS ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF

STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTION

OBJECTIVE:

To understand the uses and applications of cast in place

method and other alternative prefab methods of structural
construction.

OVERVIEW:

- FOUNDATION SYSTEM
- PRE-CAST CONCRETE
- CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
- PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTION METHOD

The procedures and techniques utilized during construction.

Construction operations are generally classified according to
specialized fields. These include preparation of the project
site, earth-moving, foundation treatment, teel erection,
concrete placement, asphalt paving, and electrical and
mechanical installations. Procedures for each of these fields
are generally the same, even when applied to different
projects, such as buildings, dams, or airports. Construction
Industry is repeatedly criticized for being inefficient and slow
to innovate. The basic methods of construction techniques,
and technologies have changed a little since Roman times.
But the application of innovation in the construction
industry is not straightforward.

What are the Different Methods of Construction?

The methods of construction have always been influenced

by prevailing technology, techniques, skills, and even the
political and economic climate. This is why eras are
characterized by certain construction trends as shown by the
history of the buildings. Before the discovery of modern History of construction in the Philippines
materials like stone and clay, buildings were even made of
leaves and branches. - The bahay kubo and bahay na bato employ
traditional post and lintel construction/ platform
There are different factors as to why you should choose framing. The pre-Hispanic bahay kubo utilizes
certain construction methods, namely: building materials that are abundant and
immediately available (e.g. timber, bamboo, palm
•size of the building
fronds and grass), creating a light structure suited
•location of the construction
to the tropics. The simple construction and use of
•purpose of the building
local materials facilitate the dwelling’s easy
•budget for the project
reconstruction and/or repair following earthquakes,
•environmental factors
typhoons or floods.
Ancient humans built their homes to protect them from
climate and the environment. The following are some of the
FOUNDATION SYSTEM
methods of construction that evolved from that need.
The foundation system transfers the lateral loads on the
ALTERNATIVE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
superstructure to the ground. The horizontal component of
It covers a wide range of modern techniques and practices these lateral forces is transferred largely through a
that encompass the latest developments in materials combination of soil friction on the bottom of footings and
technology, design procedures, quantity surveying, facilities the development of passive soil pressure on the sides of
management services, structural analysis, and design and footings and foundation walls.
management studies. Incorporating alternative construction
Foundation systems are classified into two broad
methods into practice can increase levels of quality,
categories:
efficiency, safety, sustainability, and value for money.
However, there is often a conflict between traditional ▪ shallow foundation
construction methods and innovative new practices, and ▪ deep foundation
this is often blamed for the relatively slow rate of technology
transfer within the construction industry. 01. Shallow Foundation
- Shallow are employed when stable soil of adequate
The adoption of an alternative construction method requires
bearing capacity occurs relatively near the ground
an appropriate design, commitment from the whole project
surface. They are placed directly below the lowest
team, suitable procurement strategies, good quality control,
part of a superstructure and transfer building loads
appropriate training, and care commissioning.
directly to the supporting soil by vertical pressure.
Types of shallow footings
 1. Individual or isolated footings are spread less than 2” and should be somewhat more for the
footings supporting free standing columns lower layers.
and piers.
2. Strip footings are the continuous spread
footings of foundation walls.
3. Stepped footings are strip footings that
change levels to accommodate a sloping
grade and maintain the required depth at all
points around a building.
4. Combined footing supports two or more
columns. This type of 02. Deep Foundation
footing is used where - Deep foundations are
it is not possible to employed when the soil
center the footing underlying a shallow
beneath its foundation is unstable or of
supported column as inadequate soil bearing
in the case of capacity. They extend down
columns located at or through unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to
very near the a more appropriate bearing stratum of rock or
property line. In such case, the nearest interior dense sand and gravel well below the
column is selected and a combined footing superstructure.
constructed under both columns. The footing 1. PILE FOUNDATION
is so designed so that the center of gravity of
A pile foundation is a system of end bearing or friction
the combined loads passes through the center
piles, pile caps, and tie beams for transferring building
of gravity of the footing area. loads down to a suitable bearing stratum.
5. Cantilevered footing may be used in place of
a combined footing under the same ▪ WOOD PILES
conditions. In this type of construction, the
footings of the exterior and interior columns ▪ CONCRETE PILES
are connected by a tie-beam or strap which is
- PRE-CAST PILES
so extended to support the exterior column.
- CAST-IN-PLACE PILES
The top of the beam or strap is usually placed
- STEEL PILES
level with the top of the footings. - COMPOSITE PILES
6. Continuous footing 2. CAISSON FOUNDATIONS
- supports a line of columns
- supports all of the columns by strips at right angles Caissons are cast-in-place, plain
to each other or reinforced concrete piers
- inverted slab or inverted tee formed by boring with a large
auger or excavating by hand a
7. Mat or Raft Foundations Mat foundations,
shaft in the earth to a suitable
like continuous footings are used on soil of low
bearing stratum and filling the
bearing power where there is a tendency
shaft with concrete. For this reason, they are also
towards unequal settlement due to unequal
loading of soil. In this type of foundation all referred to as drilled piles or piers.
parts of the foundation are so tied together so
that they will act as one and assist each other Foundation Wall

in keeping level and plumb. Foundation wall provide support for the superstructure
above and enclose a basement wall or crawl space partly or
wholly below grade. In addition to the vertical loads from the
superstructure, foundation walls must be designed and
constructed to resist active earth pressure and anchor the
8. STEEL GRILLAGE FOUNDATION superstructure against wind and
- When it is desired to avoid the deep excavation seismic forces.
required for concrete and masonry footings, and
when the load has to be distributed over a wide
area of support, steel rails or beams are used to give
the required moment of resistance with a REINFORCED CONCRETE
minimum of depth.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
- For steel-grillage foundations the foundation bed
COLUMNS
should first be covered with a layer of concrete not
less than 6” in thickness and so mixed and Short columns – occur when the unsupported height is not
compacted as to be nearly impervious to moisture greater than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the
as possible. The beams are placed on this layer, the
cross section.
upper surface brought to a line and the lower
flanges carefully grouted so as to secure an even Long columns – occur when the unsupported height is
bearing. Subsequently, concrete should be placed more than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the
between and around the beams so as to
cross section.
permanently protect them. The beam must not be
spaced so near as to prevent the placing of
TYPES OF REINFORCED COLUMNS
concrete between them. The clear space between
the flanges of the top layer of beams should not be
 1. Tied Columns. These are
columns with longitudinal bars
and lateral ties. The ratio of the
effective cross-sectional area of
vertical reinforcement to the
gross column area should not
be less than 1% nor more than 8%, and should
consist of at least 4 bars of a minimum size of #5.
2. Spiral Columns. These are
columns with longitudinal bars
and closely spaced continuous
spiral hooping. For spiral columns,
the ratio of the area of the vertical
reinforcement to the gross
column area shall not less than 1%
nor more than 8%. The minimum
number of bars shall 6, and the minimum bar size
shall #5.
3. Composite Columns – where structural steel
columns are embedded into the concrete core of a
spiral column.
4. Combined Columns – where structural steel is
encased in concrete of at least 7 cm thick,
reinforced with wire mess surrounding the column
at a distance of 3 cm inside the outer face of the
concrete cover.
5. Lally Columns – are fabricated steel pipes provided
with flat steel plates which holds a girder or girt, In Pre-tensioning, steel wires are tensioned before concrete
and is filled with grout or concrete to prevent is placed and hardened. In Post-tensioning, steel wires are
corrosion. stretched out once the concrete is settled and hardened.

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

A beam may be defined as a structural member, resting on

support usually at its ends, which supports transverse loads.
The loads that act on the beam, as well as the weight of the
beam itself, tend to bend rather than lengthen or shorten it.
A girder is a term applied to a beam that supports one or
more smaller beams, as concentrated loads.

CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE

FLOOR SYSTEM AND SLAB SYSTEM

SLAB A slab can be defined as a flat, horizontal structural

element made of reinforced concrete that acts as a load
distribution point; for example, the slab receives a load from
the beams through the columns to the footings and
Simple Beams- These are beams having a single span with a ultimately to the soil below. Structures that bear loads are
support at each end, there being no restraint at the supported by slabs and structures which bear loads are
supports. supported by frames.

Cantilever Beams- These are beams that are supported at Slab construction differs from one method to another
one end only, or they may be that portion of beams depending on the type of slab to be constructed. Slabs can
projecting beyond one of its supports. be used for floors or roofs, depending on what they are used
for. In contrast to the live load acting on the roof slabs, the
Continuous beams- These are beams resting on more than
living load acting on the floor slabs is considerably greater.
two supports. The term “semi-continuous” is also frequently
used in reinforced-concrete. It refers to a beam having two Flat Slab A simple flat slab is typically reinforced by concrete
spans with little or no restraint at the two extreme ends of and supported by caps and columns without beam support.
the beam. The end span of a continuous beam, where little The simple flat slab can be constructed easily and requires
or restraint is provided at the end support, is referred to as a only a small amount of formwork. Thus, the building loads
semi-continuous beam. are transferred into the columns for an effective balance.
These simple flat slabs are suitable for spans ranging from
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
6m-9m. The span here refers to the distance between the
two intermediate supports of the given structure. Similarly,
the flat slabs are the perfect option for live loads weighing
around 7kN/m2.
Flat Slab Plate A column head is
the reinforced concrete
enlargement at the top of the
column, which acts as an integral
part of the system. These column
heads can be designed at any angle
for architectural purposes. However, if you need designs on
the concrete, it is advisable to place the concrete at 45°on on
both sides of the vertical column.
Ribbed Type
Ribbed Slab A one-way joist floor
slab consists of a series of small, It is the most economical wall system. This wall system is
reinforced concrete T beams that more economical than wood, concrete or masonry
are connected with girders that in alternatives.
turn carried by the building
column. T beams are known as
joists which are formed by setting steel pan at a constant
spacing. Concrete is cast between those spacing to make
those ribs, and in this way, the slab also cast and the slab
becomes the flange of T beam.

Waffle Floor Slab A waffle slab is a

two way concrete slab reinforced by
ribs in two directions. Waffle slabs
are able to carry heavier loads and
span longer distances than flat
slabs.
Window Type
Lift Slab Lift-slab is technique
It is achieved by placing glazing between a building's
whereby concrete floor slabs are
concrete slabs, using the slabs as structural support.
poured on the ground, one on top of
the other, and then lifted into place
on top of columns by hydraulic jacks.
Used for very tall multistory
buildings, this method offers substantial savings in
formwork.

Span-Stress Floor System

A construction method which

utilizes span-stress prestressed T- Tilt-up Wall Panel System
Joist that can be used with filler
blocks or collapsible steel forms, It is a technique of site casting
or plywood forms. The system has concrete walls or elements,
the stiffness of a conventional slab since the concrete was typically done on a horizontal
poured monolithic and is connected with the structure by surface and once cured, it is
providing connection reinforcement that will transfer the tilted vertically into place using a
lateral forces to the lateral load mobile crane.
resisting members.

Slip Form Method Slipform

construction technique is an
alternative for conventional
formwork system which helps in
continuous vertical and horizontal construction. The slipform
helps to conduct continuous pouring of the concrete to the
moving formwork. The process stops only when the required
length of casting is completed.

WALL PANEL SYSTEM PRE-CAST CONCRETE

Flat Type TYPE OF CONNECTION:

It is a single piece of material, usually flat and cut into a o Beam to Column Connections
rectangular shape, that serves as the visible and exposed
covering for a wall. o Column to Floor Connection

o Panel to Panel Connection

Elements in Precast Concrete

Precast concrete members are manufactured in factory The Five Types of Construction
under controlled conditions to keep standard dimensions
and tolerances. Residential: Residential housing is for society including
individual homes, apartments, condominium, and
Structural elements used in the construction of precast townhouses.
concrete buildings include:
Commercial: This refers to construction dealing with the
o Precast Concrete Wall needs of commerce, trade, and government. Some
examples may be school, banks, hospitals, theaters, and
o Precast Slab government buildings.

o Precast Beam and Girder Heavy Civil: This type of construction greatly impacts society
since it deals with transportation. Some examples are roads,
o Precast Columns
bridge, railroad, dams, tunnels, and airports.
o Precast Stairs
Industrial: Industrial is connected will buildings that are
Large Panel System used for different types of production. Some examples are
chemical plants, steel mills, oil refineries, manufacturing
Large panel systems are useful for the plants, and pipelines.
construction of apartments and hotels. It
consists of large walls and floor concrete Environmental: Environmental used to be part of heavy civil,
panels connected in vertical and horizontal but it now has its own section since it deals with projects
directions. Both horizontal and vertical that improve the environment. Some examples are sanitary
panels withstand gravity loads. There are sewers, waste management, and clean water.
three arrangements of large panel system
What is COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION?
based on wall layouts which include cross-wall system,
longitudinal-wall system, two-way system. Composite construction refers to any members composed
of more than one material. It refers to two load-carrying
Frame System structural members that are integrally connected and
deflect as a single unit. This has become a standard type of
It is suitable for the construction of car parks, construction in high rise buildings selected by many
stadia, and offices. Precast frames can be Architects, Engineers and Developers.
constructed using either linear elements or
spatial beam-column sub assemblages. Composite floor systems are considered by many to be the
Precast beam-column sub-assemblages have highest quality type of construction. A steel beam which is
the advantages that the connecting faces made composite by using shear connectors, composite
between the sub-assemblages can be placed metal decking and concrete is much stronger and stiffer
away from the critical frame regions. However than the base beam alone
linear elements are generally preferred
because of the difficulties associated with forming, handling ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Speed + Performance + Value
and erecting spatial elements.
o Architectural
Slab Column Systems with Shear Wall
o Longer spans
In this system, gravity loads
o Thinner slabs
supported by slab-column
o Slender column
structure whereas shear
o More generous opportunities for design
walls withstand lateral
loads. There are two types of o Economical
slab-column system with shear walls namely; lift slab system
with walls and pre-stressed slab-column system. o Reduction of height reduces the total of the
building
o (saving area of cladding)
o Longer spans with the same heigh
o (column free rooms)
TOPIC 2 o Additional storey with the same total height of
building
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
o Quicker time of erection:
OBJECTIVE: o Saving costs, earlier completion of the building
o Lower financing costs
To understand the concepts, uses and application process of o Ready for use earlier thus increasing rental
composite construction method. income

OVERVIEW: o Functionality

oLight Frame o Fire protection by using principles of reinforced

concrete in which the concrete protects the steel
oComposite Deck/Slab
o Service and Flexibility
oComposite Column
o Adaptable structures
oShear Connections
o Modification during the life of the
oCambering building
o Modify services without violating the
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
 privacy of other occupants installation, time, life-cycle costs, and overall performance.
o Accommodation of service facilities Steel deck provides the best value in with high performance.
o in the ceiling
o within a false floor Steel The design properties of metal deck allow the EOR to
o in a coffer box running along the walls maximum steels strength and efficiency. Deck products and
applications have an extremely high strength toweight ratio
o Assembly and thus total costs of construction can be lower than with
other building systems with less total weight.
o Working platforms of steel decking
o Permanent shuttering Speed of Construction Steel deck is capable of being
o Reinforcement of profiled steel sheeting installed or erected in most weather conditions. Specifying
o Speed and simplicity of construction steel deck can eliminate delays that may occur with other
o Quality controlled products ensure greater types of building systems.
accuracy
USE OF METAL DECKS
01. LIGHT FRAME
LIGHT WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION Roof Decking Metal roof deck transfers wind loads to
System of construction that is made up of dimensional vertical elements of lateral force
lumber that is closely spaced and assembled by nailing to resisting systems through
create floor, wall, stair and roof assemblies. As they are diaphragm action which is what
fastened together the wood components form the structure makes the properties of roof deck
specification unique. Steel roof
of a building, much like a skeleton.
decks differ in their way of resisting horizontal force, also
called shear diaphragm from composite decks or form deck.
LIGHT METAL FRAME CONSTRUCTION
Metal frames, also known as structural steel framing, are Floor Decking Floor decking is
durable, reliable, cost-effective, and sustainable option for used for pouring a concrete floor
low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise building projects and and support for concrete during
typically refers to building frame systems where the vertical the curing process. Roof decking
and horizontal structural elements are formed by a system of doesn’t have the ability to provide
structural steel beams and columns. We’ve mentioned the same support as floor decking.
before that it is somewhat the skeletal makeup of a A floor deck purpose is for supporting concrete while roof
structure, and that is true on many accounts. decking can be used for many different things. While they
share similarities such as originating from the same
02. COMPOSITE DECK/SLAB materials, are designed to be lightweight, and manufactured
in the same manner. There are two types of floor decks.
STEEL AND CONCRETE
Composite decking which includes embossments which
o Concrete is efficient in compression and steel in tension creates composite slab action, and form decking which is
o Concrete encasement restrain steel against buckling merely a Permanente form for concrete but does not have
o Concrete provides protection against corrosion and fire composite action.
o Steel bring ductility into the structure

What is METAL DECKING?

Steel decking, also known as

metal decking, is a sheet of
high-performance galvanized
steel used in the construction of composite concrete floor
slab. It can also be used as a structural feature in roof
construction. When specified as metal roof decking it is used
to support insulating membranes.

Composite metal decking is perfect for use in both floor Technical Details of Steel Decking in Composite Floor
and roof construction because it has a high Slabs
strength-to-weight ratio. Other advantages of metal deck
include uniform quality, proven durability including excellent The practice in which steel decks are used is known as
fire performance and cost efficiency. Steel is also sustainable; composite floor decks. The basic building block of this
it is one of the world’s most recyclable application is further known as a composite floor slab.

COMPOSITE DECKING There are three (3) materials used in constructing a

composite floor slab; steel decks, reinforcing bars and
• Composite decking works together with the concrete fill to concrete. All these are tied
make a stiff, light-weight, economical floor system together to make up for a single
• Compare the composite decking (above left), non- composite floor slab. For
composite decking (above center), and the form decking building the composite slabs
(above right) there are three things we need
• Composite decking is available in various profiles and to consider.
thicknesses
1. The thickness of the concrete slab
BENEFITS OF METAL DECKING 2. Diameter of the reinforcements bars that will be
use.
Value Metal decking’s lower total cost of ownership and 3. Spacing between reinforcement bars
value when combining material costs, erection and
INSTALLATION OF DECKING
• Metal decking is placed on the structural steel at columns can support an enormous amount of weight and
predetermined points in the erection sequence are used for high-rise buildings, industrial construction, and
• Metal decking may be installed by the steel erection even in some residential applications.
contractor or a separate decking contractor
• As an alternative to welding, powder actuated tools may be
used to attach metal decking
• Powder actuated tools use the expanding gases from a
powder load, or booster, to drive a fastener
• A nail-like fastener is driven through the metal deck into
the steel beam
• The powder actuated tool, powder load, and fastener must
be matched to the thickness of the structural steel beam
flanges

03. COMPOSITE COLUMN TYPES OF COMPOSITE COLUMN

WHAT IS COLUMN? In steel composite construction, the cross-sectional types

shown in the figure have prevailed. For all types, the steel
Column is a vertical member which transfers loads of a cross-section serves as formwork for the concrete, i.e. an
structure from beam and slab to the foundation. The additional formwork is not necessary. The concrete is
effective depth of a column exceeds three times the lateral arranged in such a way that it protects the steel from
dimension. Generally, columns carry axial loads in heating, allowing for high fire resistance. Regarding the left
compression. Columns are very important components of a cross-section, the concrete between the flanges protects the
structure. Failure of columns results in the collapse of the web from heating too quickly in the event of a fire and the
structure. fire protection reinforcement replaces the flanges directly
exposed to the fire. The concrete-filled hollow profile in the
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS
middle of the picture is architecturally interesting and
Short columns – occur when the unsupported height is not almost corresponds to a reinforced concrete support in the
greater than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the event of a fire because the external steel hollow profile fails
cross section. quickly. The hollow profile with the embedded profile at the
right side of the picture is particularly suitable for heavy
Long columns – occur when the unsupported height is bending around one axis.
more than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the
cross section. Advantages of composite columns

TYPES OF REINFORCED COLUMNS 1. Steel composite columns have a number of

advantages over pure steel and reinforced concrete
Tied Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and
columns due to the skillful combination of both
lateral ties. The ratio of the effective cross-sectional area of
materials:
vertical reinforcement to the gross column area should not
2. High fire resistance possible thanks to the concrete
be less than 1% nor more than 8%, and should consist of at
3. High degree of prefabrication and steel
least 4 bars of a minimum size of #5.
connections allow quick assembly
Spiral Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars 4. •Compact cross-sections with a high load-bearing
and closely spaced continuous spiral hooping. For spiral capacity
columns, the ratio of the area of the vertical reinforcement to 5. Increased usable space and thus increased
the gross column area shall not less than 1% nor more than profitability
8%. The minimum number of bars shall 6, and the minimum
bar size shall #5.
04. SHEAR CONNECTION
TYPES OF REINFORCED COLUMNS
SHEAR CONNECTOR
Composite Columns – where structural steel columns are
embedded into the concrete core of a spiral column. • Depending on the welding process used, the tip of the
shear connector may be placed in a ceramic ferrule (arc
Combined Columns – where structural steel is encased in shield) during welding to retain the weld
concrete of at least 7 cm thick, reinforced with wire mess
• Shear connectors create a strong bond between the steel
surrounding the column at a distance of 3 cm inside the
beam and the concrete floor slab which is poured on top of
outer face of the concrete cover.
the metal decking

Lally Columns – are fabricated steel pipes provided with flat • This bond allows the concrete slab to work with the steel
steel plates which holds a girder or girt, and is filled with beams to reduce live load deflection.
grout or concrete to prevent corrosion.
USE OF SHEAR CONNECTOR
COMPOSITE COLUMN
The shear flow between
Composite columns are used in construction for their steel beam and reinforced
combination of tensile and compressive strength. The concrete deck slab is a
reinforcing steel gives the column tensile strength while the natural consequence the
concrete gives the column compressive strength. requirement for composite
action. If there were no
Composite columns can be either cast-in-place or pre-cast
connection, a beam and slab would bend as illustrated
depending on the requirements of each application. These
diagrammatically. The presence of a shear connection
prevents the slip between the two components and achieves
a much stiffer and stronger beam.

INSTALLATION OF SHEAR CONNECTOR

1. The electrical arc process is commonly used for

stud welding
2. An arc is drawn between the stud and the base
metal
3. The stud is plunged into the molten steel which is
contained by the ceramic ferrule
4. The metal solidifies and the weld is complete
5. The ferrules are removed before the concrete is
poured

TYPES OF SHEAR CONNECTOR

o Headed Studs 05. CAMBERING

INTRODUCTION TO CAMBERING
o Oscillating Perfobondstrip
Cambering forms an
o T-Rib Connectors upwards curve in a linear
product relative to its
o Waveform Strips
center. Camber is the
o T-Connectors amount of deflection
induced in the opposite direction of its load. When a beam is
o Channel Connector subjected to vertical downward loads, it has a tendency of
deflecting downwards. In building construction, adding
TYPES OF SHEAR CONNECTION camber to flooring components prevents bowing or sagging
over time and relieves stress on other supporting frames.
The most common types are the angle/plate connections,
which either use an angle bracket or a plate to connect the •Camber in a beam can be designed to compensate for
flange of the parent to the web of the child member. Shear either
connections do not resist much moment forces as they are • A certain percentage of the dead load deflection
allowed some looseness to rotate. It is one of the main • The full dead load deflection
differences between a shear and a moment connection. It is • The full dead load deflection as well as a percentage of the
worth noting that welded shear connections resist higher live load deflection
moment loads than bolted ones. • Camber is usually designed to compensate for deflections
caused by pre-composite dead loads
According to the connection elements:
DISADVANTAGES OF CAMBERING
•Bolted (only)
• The use of cambered beams will, to a certain degree, be
•Welded (only)
limited by other aspects of the design for a structure
•Combined
• Due to the complexity in detailing, fabrication, and fit-up
associated with moment connections (above left), camber
should not be used in moment connected beams

• Beams with simple framing connections (above right) may

be cambered because the end rotational resistance of a
simple connection is small in comparison to that of a
moment connection
 - Made of small strips of
wood-trands that are
placed in a dense, angled
pattern, LSL is a high
quality engineered wood product that can be an
even higher density and stronger than LVL. It is
composed of about 95% wood fiber and 5% resin.
LSL is very resistant to weight and torsion because
of the angled pattern in which the wood strips are
placed. LSL is also expensive-it's about 3x the cost of
dimensional lumber.
3. ORIENTED STRAND BOARD
- This type of sheet wood is formed by combining
wood strands or flakes with adhesives and then
compressing them. It is manufactured in wide mats
and is good for load-bearing applications such as
flooring and roof decking. All OSB isn't created
equal-some is sanded (like Advantech or Legacy
premium subfloor), and other boards are not. Some
OSB is moisture resistant, other boards are not.
Make sure that you are using premium grade OSB if
there's any chance of it experiencing weather.
4. PLYWOOD
- A sheet wood
manufactured from thin
layers (or "plies") or wood
veneer that are glued
together. Plywoods have several benefits to
builders, since they are made by binding resin and
wood fiber sheets to form a composite material
whose "cross graining" property provides
dimensional stability and makes the strength of the
panel consistent in all directions.
- A plywood sheet has two face veneers, so if you see
a sheet graded as "AB" that means it is A-quality on
one side and B on the other.
A: This is the highest quality plywood with
a smooth surface free of knots and repairs.
B: This grade is largely free of knots,
though some tight ones (under 1 inch) are
acceptable.
TOPIC 3 C: C grade plywood may include knots up
to 1.5 inches and knotholes under 1 inch.
Pre-Engineered Materials & Structures D: The lowest grade can have knots and
knotholes up to 2.5 inches. In general, any
A Brief Course on Prefabricated Materials for defects have not been repaired with D
Architectural and Structural Use grade plywood.
X: An X is used to indicate exterior
Engineered Wood
plywoods. A grade of CDX would mean a
- Engineered wood boards are generally made from plywood is C grade on one veneer, D on
the same hardwoods and softwoods used to the other, and designed for outdoor use.
manufacture lumber, but mixed with additives like
adhesives. This type of wood often utilizes waste
5. MEDIUM DENSITY FIBERBOARD (MDF)
wood from sawmills, and are treated through
- MDF is made by breaking down hardwood and
chemical or heat processes to produce wood that
softwood pieces into fibers, which are combined
meets size requirements that are hard to find in
with wax and resin binders, and formed into panels
nature.
by applying high temperatures and pressure. It is
- Engineered wood is used in a variety of
usually more dense than plywood, and is more
applications, from home construction to
dense than oriented strand board, but just like OSB,
commercial buildings to industrial products.
there are grades that can withstand water and
Popular Types of Engineered Wood weather and other grades that cannot.
6. CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER
1. LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER - This wood panel product is made from gluing
- Made of wood veneers that are compressed together layers of solid
together with resins and glues, LVL is a high density sawn lumber. It is
engineered wood product used in framing, LVL is strengthened by layering
very strong, but has only one strength axis, because each board perpendicular
its veneers are stacked with the grain running in to the next and glued on
the same direction. This means you can only load the wide faces of each board. The thicknesses of the
LVL in one direction. panels can easily be increased, which makes it a
2. LAMINATED STRAND LUMBER
 design-flexible material. It can be a good insulator, - Rotary cutting - a log is fixed in lathe and rotated
since it's made of multiple layers of wood. against a knife so that the veneer is peeled from the
log in continuous sheet.
Wood Composite
Building Boards: Hardboard
- Wood composite is manufactured from a variety of
materials. They usually contain the same woods - Hardboard is made from
that are used in lumber, but they are combined to processed wood chips.
make them stronger and more durable. It is also They are uniform, hard,
known as engineered wood. grainless sheets, smooth and
- Wood composite is a mixture of several with overlaps. They are used in
components that may include wood, plastic and interior panels and durable sidings
straw. The particles and fibers from different woods - Unlike solid wood, hardboard is very homogenous
are combined, and adhesives keep them bound with no grain. A wood veneer can be glued onto it
together. A veneer is often applied to the outside in to give the appearance of solid wood. Other
order to make the composite wood appear more overlays include Formica, laminated papers,
attractive. ceramics, and vynils.
a. Composite Decking
- Composite decking, also referred to as Formica Laminate
wood-plastic composite (WPC) decking, is
- Formica Laminate is a laminated composite
gaining popularity as it conserves natural wood and
material invented at the Westinghouse Electric
is environmentally friendly.
Corporation in the United States in 1912. Originally
b. Wood Plastic Composite
used to replace mica in electrical applications, it has
- Wood plastic composite is panel or lumber
since been manufactured for multiple applications.
product made from recycled plastic and small
It has been produced by Formica Group
wood particles or fibers. Wood plastic composites
manufacturing sites across the globe since.
are relatively new products as compared to the
Formica Group are best known for the company's
long history of natural lumber or traditional wood
classic product: a heat-resistant, wipe- clean
composites such as particleboard or fiberboard.
laminate of paper with melamine resin.
Types of Composite Decking
Building Boards: Hardboard
1. Solid Composite Decking
Grades of Hardboard:
- Solid composite boards are heavy boards used
commonly to make permanent floors for houses, • Standard - light, flexible to be
offices, and hotels. quite easily bent, light brown
- Solid composite deck boards are strong and in color and not suitable for
durable. They are used for swimming pool decks, exterior work
pathways of houses, etc.
2. Hollow Composite Decking • Tempered hardboard - brittle and stiff but
- Hollow composite decking boards or blank resistant to water penetration, dark
composite boards are lightweight decking brown in color, ideal for exterior use.
materials often used for installing tables, cladding,
siding, etc. They are less resistant to impacts. They • Low density - not as strong and
durable as standard and tempered,
require caps or fascia boards on their edges.
for decorative boards and often
3. Capped Composite Decking
used as blackboards.
- Capped composite deck board consists of a core
and a cap. The core is made from organic wood Building Boards: Insulating Fiberboard
filler and recycled plastic material, while the cap is
made from a synthetic material to increase the - Insulating fiberboard is made from
resistance to stain, scratch, and discoloration. three types of fiber - wood, sugar
- Capped composite boards are used for garden cane, asbestos, and binder formed
areas, swimming pool decks, outdoor pathways, into a board.
etc., for areas exposed to extreme wear and tear or
Two basic grades:
weather conditions.
Insulating grade - made up for insulating,
Building Boards decorative panels and ceiling tiles, V-notch plaster
base, and roof insulation
- Building boards are a group of building materials
often faced with paper or vynil, suitable for use as a Sheathing Grade - surfaces and
finished surface on walls, ceiling, etc. edges are coated with asphalt
- Building boards are flat, relatively thin in section, and/or with fibers impregnated
and have been made to standard sizes - usually 4 x with asphalt during manufacture.
8 feet.
Kinds of insulating fiberboard:
Building Boards: Plywood
• Wood fibers -
- Plywood is made by bonding together thin layers produced by pressing
of wood in a way that the grain of each layer is at logs against a
right angles to the grain of the adjacent layer. grindstone which
- Each layer of a plywood is called a veneer, and breaks down the wood
commonly made by rotary cutting. into fibers.
 • Mineral fiberboard - made from asbestos mixed resin, compressed and formed into sheet from 1-6
with cementing agent ideal for fireproofing and inches thick, and baked under pressure into rigid
acoustical purposes. boards.
- Used exclusively as thermal insulating material and
• Cane fiberboard - shredded cane and processed
for vibration control.
into fibers

Building Boards: Chipboard

- Chipboard is made from building board particles

and a binder (phenolic resin/urea formaldehyde
glue) often faced with veneer.
- It is often used both for interior and exterior which
Building Boards: Paperboard
include sheathing for walls and roof, subflooring,
and fence paneling. - Paperboard is paper pulp pressed into boards B/16"
or 1/4" thick wide, and 4' wide, and 6'-8' long. Usually
Subtypes are:
one surface is primed for easier finishing.
• Plain - may be unsanded, sanded on one side only, or - It can also be a layer of stiff paper folded on
sanded on two sides corrugated form and faced on both sides with thick
paper backing, cemented to the core.
Patterned - have one grooved surface either evenly or
random Building Boards: Mineral fiberboard

Building Boards: Particle board - Mineral fiberboard is a thick

mat of mineral fibers (glass
- A particle board is a hardboard made from
with rock wool) covered with a
relatively small particles, graduated from coarse at
backing of stiff paper on one
the center of the board to fine at the surface to
or both sides to form rigid
produce a product with a smooth dense surface.
boards, ranging in thickness
- The particle board is also called a chipboard. from 12 to 2 inches.
- The usual board size is 24"x48" and are used for roof
Building Boards: Gypsum board deck insulation and are cemented to the deck with
asphalt adhesive.
- Gypsum board is a panel made
from gypsum plaster pressed
between two thick sheets of
paper. It is used to make interior
walls and ceilings.
Building Boards: Plastic foam boards
Building Boards: Strawboard
- Plastic foam boards are usually polystyrene and
- Strawboard is hardboard made polyurethane plastics formed by a patented process
of compressed wheat straw, to about 40 times their original volume.
processed at 350°F - 400°F with - This foamed material is molded into boards from
tough Kraft paper. 1/2-3" thick, 12" or 24" wide and from 4ft to 12 ft long.
- A strawboard is a kind of Envirowall panel made of - Plastic foam boards are used for perimeter
insulation for concrete slabs, for wall and roof-deck
100% I waste straw
insulation, and for roof decks when properly
supported.
Grades of Strawboard:
- These plastic boards have high insulation value and
• Structural bond - used for non-bearing partitions, relatively high compressive strength, and are
plaster base, insulating purposes, exterior sheathing, flexible enough to fit over curved surfaces.
roof decking, and inner form face for concrete
basement wall. Pre-engineered Structures/Buildings

• Insulation grade - intended primarily for roof deck - Pre-Engineered Building is a metal building
insulation. enclosure system that often involves a structural
framework andalso involves roofing and wall
Building Boards: Asbestos Cement Board cladding and is built and assembled in the factory
premises.
- Asbestos cement board is a
- PEB is manufactured using the raw materials
dense, rigid board containing
available from all sources and manufacturing
high proportion of asbestos
methods that can effectively meet awide range of
fibers bonded with Portland
structural and esthetic design requirements.
cement.
- Pre-Engineered Buildings (PEBS) are extremely
- Resistant to fire, flame and weathering, and has low
durable, weather as well as termite proof. Due to
resistance to heat flow.
their longer life of utility and affordable cost,
- It is used as building material in sheet form and
manufactured homes can be used for permanent,
corrugated sheeting. All types must be drilled for
semi-permanent or temporary applications.
insertion of screws, bolts, and other fasteners.
Pre-engineered Structures/Buildings: Types of PEBs
Building Boards: Corkboard
• Prefabricated Workshops and Shelters
- Corkboard is made from the outer bark of the cork
oak tree, cork granules are mixed with synthetic • Prefabricated Homes
Advantages - They are the visible and exposed covering for a wall,
that either hang (by support frames) or rest on the
- Low cost if choosing manufacturer's standard structure.
package/inventory and no add-on.
- Open clear span Parts of a Wall Panel System
- Can be easily expanded to grow with needs
- Self-supporting ready-made components are used, 1. Wall Panel
so the need for formwork, shuttering, and 2. Eave Strut - secondary
scaffolding is greatly reduced. steel framing members
- On-site construction and congestion is minimized. used for support.
- Time spent due to bad weather or hazardous 3. Thermal Block -
environments at the construction is minimized. insulating material
made of high-density
Disadvantages rigid polyurethane foam.
4. Girt - provides lateral support to the wall panel to
- May not include all construction/fit-up needed for resist wind loads.
the building to serve the intended purpose. 5. Blanket insulation - widely used type of insulation;
- Usually no internal finished walls consists of flexible fibers (fiberglass).
- Leaks can form at joints in prefabricated
component Functions of a Wall Panel System
- Large prefabricated sections require heavy-duty
cranes and precision measurement from handling - Decoration
in place to position. - Insulation
- Larger group of buildings from the same type of - Soundproofing
prefabricated elements tend to look drab and - Uniform appearance
monotonous. - Durability
- Ease of replaceability
PEBs vs. Conventional Structures
Flat Type Wall Panel
- Prefab structures are fabricated in workshop System
which reduces the required construction time.
However, in case of conventional structure there is - The flat type wall
no precise control over construction time. In the panel system
PEBs, ready-made components are used, so the creates flute and
need for formwork, shuttering and scaffolding is seamless
greatly reduced. appearance on
- However, in conventional construction, building the surface of a
components constructed at site requiring structure.
formwork, shuttering and scaffolding. There is - It uses a concealed fastener
minimal effect of climatic or weather conditions in system (no visible hardware)
case of REBs while in conventional construction, to achieve the clean and
time spent due to bad weather or hazardous smooth finish.
environments at the construction site increases the
Two Kinds of Flat Type Wall Panel System
construction cost and project completion time.
- In the PEBs, fabrication unit can be located where 1. Shiplap Wall
skilled labour is readily available and costs of labour, - gives clean visual lines
power, materials, space and overheads are lower. - able to run both
However in conventional construction, construction vertically &
cost depends upon location, zone, climatic horizontally
condition & availability of material & man power. - have variety of
- Prefab structures are designed lighter section in “reveals” (gaps)
comparison to conventional structure. 2. V-Groove Wall
- appears like wood or
Pre-engineered Structures/Buildings: Components
vinyl plank sliding
- Primary framing (main frames) - gives texture and
- Secondary framing (Z and C sections depth at space
- Roof and wall panels - available in wide
- Structural subsystems (canopies, partitions, etc.) range of width
- Floor systems (catwalks, platforms)
Ribbed Wall Panel System
- Other building accessories (sliding doors, roll up
doors, windows, etc.) - A ribbed metal panel has ribs
with sloping sides. It forms
TOPIC 4 trapezoidal-shaped voids at the
side lap. The way the panel’s
Wall and Skylight Construction: Construction Methods
profile is raised provides much
Dealing with General Aesthetics and Views
if its bending strength. The ribs
WALL PANEL SYSTEM on these panels create strong
bold lines that are aesthetically
- A wall panel is usually installed on pleasing and offer a unique approach to traditional
exterior non-load bearing walls, and metal panels.
are usually flat and rectangular in
shape. Metal Cladding / Metal Wall Panel System

Single Skin
Features of Single Skin Metal Wall - Window height from FFL: >0.90m
Panels include: - Total height of windows must be 50% of
the width of the workroom
- Lightweight; easier & lower
cost of installation
- 100% recyclable
- can be installed in most
environments
- available in various shapes
& profiles
- most popular metal wall panel option in
commercial building applications
- capable of handling thermal expansion and
contraction better that IMPs or MCMs.

Metal Composite Material Panels (MCM0

- Metal
composite
material CURTAIN WALLS
(MCM) panels
are formed by - A curtain wall is a glazed wall
joining 2 system hung off a concrete
sheets of slab using anchors. Curtain
painted or walls are self-supporting and
natural metal give a building’s exterior the
sheets look of top to bottom glass.
(typically - Most often used on
aluminum but commercial buildings, curtain
can also utilize alls are typically installed from the outside of a
other materials like steel, zinc, copper, stainless building using cranes or rigs. Curtain wall
steel, or titanium) and bonding them to a installation is a complex process and can be more
polyethylene center. expensive than other systems.

Insulated Metal Panels (IMP) Kinds of Curtain Walls

● Insulated metal panels may be Unit System

the right choice for certain
building applications because: - The unit system is a curtain wall
○ they require less system consisting of
maintenance than preassembled framed wall units
some other exterior which may be preglazed or
wall cladding or siding. glazed after installation.
○ they are less expensive
to install because of
the lightweight nature
of the panels, need fewer fasteners, and
provide greater wall coverage.
○ IMPs are typically factory assembled, not
roll-formed on-site, and relatively
inexpensive to ship to job sites.

WINDOW SIZES

- If daylight is considered
essential for the use to
Stick System
which a room will be put,
then windows are an - The stick system is a curtain wall
unavoidable necessity. system in which tubular metal
- Every work area needs a mullions and rails are assembled
window leading to the piece by piece on-site to frame
outside world. The window vision glass and spandrel glass.
area which transmits light - Spandrel glass - an
must be at least 1/20 of the opaque glass for
surface of the floor in the concealing the structural elements in
workspace. curtain wall construction, produced by
- The total width of all windows must amount to at fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface
least 1/10 of the total width of all the walls. of tempered or heat-strengthened glass.
- For workrooms which are 3.5m or higher, the light
transmission surface of the window must be at Column-Cover-and-Spandrel System
least 30% of the outside wall surface.
- For workrooms of general size, the following rules - The column-cover-and-spandrel
shall be applied: system is a curtain wall system in
- Minimum glass surface height: 1.3m which vision glass assemblies and
spandrel units are supported by
 spandrel beams between exterior columns clad hallmark of this type of system. Since there is no
with cover sections. on-site glazing, another major benefit of using a
unitized system is the speed of installation.
Unit-and-Mullion System

- The unit-and-mullion system is

a curtain wall system in which
one-or two-storey-high mullions
are installed before
preassembled wall units are
lowered into place behind the
mullions. The framed wall units
may be preglazed or glazed after
the installation.

WINDOW WALLS

- Window walls sit

between floor slabs and
are anchored at the sill
and the head. They’re
installed on the interior of
the building and extend
to the outside of the
building. They span floor
to floor, are typically not more than 12 feet and are
non-load bearing.
- Window walls are pre-fabricated and come ready to
install. There is no need to fire-stop because
window walls sit between floor slabs. In addition,
noise transmittance isn’t a huge concern. Window
walls can be a cost-effective and stylish option for
getting the ground-to-roof window appearance
without a hefty price tag or operationsl concerns.
- If a continuous exterior facade look is desired, a slab
bypass cover can be provided to provide a seamless
transition between floors.

Window Walls vs. Curtain Walls

The Difference between the two;

Window Walls are built one floor at a time and are

supported by the slabs above and below them. In other
words, window walls are built within the slab edge.

Curtain walls are structurally independent and don’t require

support on every floow. They tend to span multiple stories
and are built outside the slab edge.

- Both systems are built to be an all-in-one cladding

system that acts as the building’s envelope barrier.
They also both provide some insulation and can
transfer their load to the building structure.
- However, curtain walls are more expensive window
walls and tend to be more dangerous and difficult
to install. In addition, curtain walls aren’t typically
operable, whereas window walls can be. There is
also the issue of fire-stopping and noise pollution.
With window walls, you don’t have to worry about
either issue.

UNITIZED SYSTEM

- Unitized curtain systems

are composed of large
glass units that are
created and glazed within
a factory and then sent to
the construction site.
Once on site, the units
can then be hoisted onto anchors connected to the
building.
- High quality, due tot tight tolerances of fabrication
in a climate-controlled environment, is only one