 Alternating Current:-

An alternating current (a.c.) is a current

which continuously, changes in magnitude and periodically reverses in direction.`

i = I 0 sin ωt = I 0 sin (2π/T) t

Here I 0 is the peak value of a.c.
(a) Current, I =I 0 sin ωt
(b) Angular frequency, ω= 2πn (n is the frequency of a.c.)
(c) I =I 0 sin 2πnt
 Mean value of A.C or D.C. value of A.C.:-
Mean value of a.c. is that value of steady current which sends the same amount of charge,
through a circuit, in same time as is done by a.c. in one half-cycle.
(I av ) half cycle = (2/π)I 0
Thus, mean value of alternating current is 2/π times (0.637 times) its peak value.

(V av ) half cycle = (2/π) V 0

 Average value of A.C. over a complete cycle:-
I av = 0
The average value of a.c. taken over the complete cycle of a.c.is zero.
 Root mean square value of a.c. or virtual value of a.c.:-
Root mean square value of alternating current is defined as that value of steady current which
produces same heating effect, in a resistance, in a certain time as is produced by the alternating
current in same resistance in same time. The r.m.s value of a.c.is also called its virtual value.
I rms = I 0 /√2
Root mean square value of alternating current is I/√2 times (or 0.707 times) the peak value of
current.
Similarly, V rms = V 0 /√2
Here V 0 is the peak value of e.m.f.
 Form Factor:-
Form Factor = rms value/average value = (V 0 /√2)/ (2 V 0 /π) = π/2√2
 Current elements:-
(a) Inductive reactance:- X L = ωL
 Here, ω = 2πn, n being frequency of a.c.
L is the coefficient of self-inductance of coil.
(b) Capacitative reactance:- X c = 1/ωC
Here C is the capacity of the condenser
 Capacitor in AC circuit:-

q = CV 0 sinωt
I = I 0 sin(ωt +π/2)
V 0 = I 0 /ωC
X c = 1/ωC
 Inductor in AC circuit:-

V L = L(dI/dt) = LI 0 ω cosωt
I = (V 0 / ωL) sinωt
Here, I 0 = V 0 / ωL
X L = ωL
And the maximum current, I 0 = V 0 /XL
 R-L circuit:-

I = ε/R [1-e -Rt/L ]

V = ε e -Rt/L
 Graph between I (amp) and t (sec):-
 Graph between potential difference across inductor and time:-

 L-C Circuit:-

f = 1/2π√LC
q = q 0 sin (ωt+ϕ)
I = q 0 ωsin (ωt+ϕ)
ω = 1/√LC
 The total energy of the system remains conserved,
½ CV 2 + ½ Li 2 = constant = ½ CV 0 2 = ½ Li 0 2
 Series in C-R circuit:-

V = IZ
The modulus of impedance, |Z |= √R 2 +(1/ωC) 2
The potential difference lags the current by an angle, ϕ = tan -1 (1/ωCR)
 Series in L-C-R Circuit:

V = IZ
The modulus of impedance, |Z |= √[R 2 +(ωL-1/ωC) 2 ]
The potential difference lags the current by an angle, ϕ = tan -1 [ωL -1/ωC)/R]
 Circuit elements with A.C:-
Circuit elements Amplitude relation Circuit quantity Phase of V

Resistor V0 = i0R R In phase with i

Capacitor V0 = i0XC C Lags i by 90°

Inductor V0 = i0XL X L = wL Leads i by 90°

 Resonance:-
(a) Resonance frequency:- f r = 1/2π√LC
(b) At resonance, X L = X C , ϕ = 0, Z = R(minimum), cosϕ = 1, sinϕ = 0 nad current is maximum
(=E 0 /R)
 Half power frequencies:-
(a) Lower, f 1 = f r – R/4πL or ω 1 = ω r – R/2L
(b) Upper, f 2 = f r + R/4πL or ω 2 = ω r + R/2L
 Band width:- Δf = R/2πL or Δf = R/L
 Quality Factor:-
(a) Q = ω r /Δω = ω r L/R
(b) As ω = 1/√LC, So Q ∝ √L, Q ∝1/R and Q ∝ 1/√C
(c) Q = 1/ω r CR
(d) Q = X L /R or Q = X C /R
(e) Q = f r /Δf
 At resonance, peak voltages are:-
(a) (V L ) res = e 0 Q
(b) (V C ) res = e 0 Q
(c) (V R ) res = e 0
 Conductance, susceptance and admittance:-
(a) Conductance, G = 1/R
(b) Susceptance, S = 1/X
(c) S L = 1/X L and S C = 1/X C = ωC
(d) Admittance, Y = 1/Z
(e) Impedance add in series while add in parallel

 Power in AC circuits:-
Circuit containing pure resistance:- P av = (E 0 /√2)×(I 0 /√2) = E v ×I v
Here E v and I v are the virtual values of e.m.f and the current respectively.
Circuit containing impedance (a combination of R,L and C):-
P av = (E 0 /√2)×(I 0 /√2) cosϕ = (E v ×I v ) cosϕ
Here cosϕ is the power factor.
(a) Circuit containing pure resistance, P av = E v I v
(b) Circuit containing pure inductance, P av = 0
(c) Circuit containing pure capacitance, P av = 0
(d) Circuit containing resistance and inductance,

Z = √R 2 +(ωL)
cosϕ = R/Z = R/[√{R 2 +(ωL) 2 }]
 (e) Circuit containing resistance and capacitance:-

Z = √R 2 +(1/ωC) 2
cosϕ = R/Z = R/[√{R 2 +(1/ωC) 2 }]
(f) Power factor, cosϕ = Real power/Virtual power = P av /E rms I rms
 Transformer:-
(a) C p = N p (dϕ/dt) and e s = N s (dϕ/dt)
(b) e p /e s = N p /N s
(c) As, e p I p = e s I s , Thus, I s /I p = e p /e s = N p /N s
(d) Step down:- e s < e p , N s < N p and I s > I p
(e) Step up:- e s >e p , N s >N p and I s < I p
(f) Efficiency, η = e s I s / e p I p
 AC Generator:-
e = e 0 sin (2πft)
Here, e 0 = NBAω