PHY380

CHAPTER 4 : NUCLEAR PHYSICS SCIENTIFIC

INSTRUMENTATION AND
APPLICATION

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INTRODUCTION

• Over a hundred years ago, in 1895, the German

Scientist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays, and a
few years later, French scientists Marie and Pierre
Curie discovered radioactive radium.

• The various types of radiation around us are indicated

in the electromagnetic spectrum below, ranging from
radio waves (low energy), to gamma radiation (high
energy).

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

3
INTRODUCTION

• In general, the radiation is divided into two

types:
a) that with wavelength shorter than 100 nm is
classified as ionising radiation
✓ e.g. x-rays and gamma rays
b) that with wavelength longer than 100 nm is
classified as non-ionising radiation
✓ e.g. microwaves, radiowaves etc.

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4.1 PROPERTIES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Ionizing radiation
• Ionization occurs when an electron in the inner orbit of
an atom receives sufficient energy to escape from the
influence of the nucleus.
• This will cause the formation of a positive ion and a
negative ion.
• As a result of ionization, characteristic radiation (x-
radiation) is emitted when an electron from an outer
shell falls in to take the place of the electron that was
ejected.

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IONIZING RADIATION (2)
• Ionising radiations cause ionisation when they pass
through matter.
• Examples of ionising radiation are alpha and beta
particles, gamma rays and x-rays.
• Alpha and beta particles and gamma rays are emitted
spontaneously from the nuclei of unstable atoms during
radioactive disintegration (radioactive decay).
• In radioactive materials, radiation is emitted
continuously in a regulated manner and there is no way
of stopping it. It cannot be switched off.

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IONIZING RADIATION (3)

• X-rays are produced by the sudden deceleration of the

electron in the strong field of the target nucleus.
• X-ray machines emit radiation, only when the machine
is energised.
• When the high voltage is disconnected, no x-rays are
emitted.

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PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA & GAMMA
RADIATION
✓ Alpha particles
 Strongly ionising but can be stopped by paper or
skin.
 They have a strong positive charge (+2) and a
mass of 4 (i.e. 4 times the mass of a proton)
 An alpha particle is in fact the same as a helium
nucleus - 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

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PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA & GAMMA
RADIATION (2)
✓ Beta particles
 Beta particles are electrons - but they are called
beta particles to identify that they came from the
nucleus of the atom.
How do you get an electron from the nucleus?
 A neutron splits up and becomes a proton and an electron.
 The proton remains behind in the nucleus, the electron is
emitted.
 Are also strongly ionising (perhaps 1 beta particle
will cause 100 ionisations).
 More penetration than alpha particle.
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PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA & GAMMA
RADIATION (3)
✓ Gamma rays
 Very poor at ionising (about 1 to 1) but very
difficult to stop (very penetrating).
 As they are not good ionisers, they are less
dangerous to life.

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PROPERTIES OF IONIZING RADIATION

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PENETRATION OF IONIZING RADIATION

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4.2 RADIATION DETECTION

• Ionizing radiations cannot be detected by the human

senses.
• Appropriate instruments are necessary to detect and
measure them.
• All methods of detection of ionizing radiation are
based on the ability of such radiation to cause
ionization, directly or indirectly.

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a) PORTABLE RADIATION
MONITORS

• These are battery operated hand held meters, such as

Geiger counters and scintillation counters.

• They are used at radiation facilities and work sites to

ensure that the radiation level is within the limits
specified in the Radiation Protection (Ionising Radiation)
Regulations 2000,
“The radioactive source must be return to its safe position or to
check that contamination of surfaces has not occurred.”

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a) PORTABLE RADIATION MONITORS (2)

• Portable radiation monitors usually consist of a probe

or detecting head and the associated electronic
circuitry.
• The probe contains the detector.
 A GM tube, ionization chamber or sodium iodide
crystal.
• Sometimes, it is fitted with a removable shield to allow
measurements in mixed radiation fields.

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a) PORTABLE RADIATION MONITORS (3)

• Most portable survey meters are intended for dose

rate measurements, while some have integrating
facilities, which enable the total dose in a given time to
be recorded.
• Portable radiation monitors must be calibrated at
periodic intervals in a radiation calibration facility.

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b) AREA RADIATION MONITORS

✓ The prime purpose of this type of monitoring instrument

is to give an indication of the external radiation levels
present in an area where ionizing radiations are
present.
✓ In some cases, it sound an alarm if the level exceeds a
predetermined value.
✓ Area radiation monitoring systems usually are designed
to respond to gamma radiation and may use either
GM tubes or ionization chambers in the detecting
heads.

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b) AREA RADIATION MONITORS

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c) PERSONAL DOSIMETERS

 To determine how much radiation is receive by a

radiation worker in the course of his work.

 Can be in the form of:

 a Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) badge,
 a quartz fibre electroscope (QFE) dosimeter or
 a beeper.

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c) PERSONAL DOSIMETERS (2)

The TLD badge

✓ Consists of two Lithium Fluoride (LiF) chips mounted on a
card and encased in a special holder.
✓ Worn like a badge on the body for one month or two
months depending on the nature of work.
✓ During this time, the amount of radiation which the
worker received is recorded on the TLD chips.
✓ After one/two months, the used card is exchanged for
a fresh card.

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c) PERSONAL DOSIMETERS (3)

The TLD badge (2)

✓ The used card is heated up in the TLD Reader and the
amount of light emitted is proportional to the amount of
radiation absorbed by the card.
✓ This is considered to be the amount of radiation to
which the wearer has been exposed.

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c) PERSONAL DOSIMETERS(4)
The QFE dosimeter
✓ For workers involved in Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) work.
✓ The QFE dosimeter or pen dosimeter, contains a quartz
electroscope in a small ionisation chamber.
✓ It is provided with an optical system.
✓ The advantage of this dosimeter is that it gives an
immediate reading of the dose received by the wearer.
✓ It is very useful for individuals who need to enter a radiation
area to do a particular job.

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 Cylindrical and about the size of a
pen, a QFE contains:
C - spring-loaded charging pin
F - quartz fibre
L - lens system
R - repellor
S - reticle

✓ QFE provide convenient direct readings of exposure.

✓ QFE are less accurate than other dosimeters and easily
affected by shock.

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c) PERSONAL DOSIMETERS(5)

The Beeper
✓ Miniature GM tubes in small instruments which are
carried in the pocket.
✓ They produce an audible “beep” warning sound, at a
rate dependent on the radiation level.
✓ When a predetermined dose rate is exceeded, it will
give a warning note which increases in frequency with
dose rate.

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d) MONITORS FOR INTERNAL RADIATION
CONTAMINATION

 Measurements for internal contamination can be done

on body excretions.

• Urine and faeces are

collected to measure
excreted radioactivity.
• Excretion rates are
calculated to determine the
total intake.

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d) MONITORS FOR INTERNAL RADIATION
CONTAMINATION (2)

 Measurements for internal contamination can also be

made directly on the body using a whole body
counter or thyroid monitor, depending on what is
being tested for.

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4.3 RADIATION SAFETY

Occupational Exposure Limits

• The dose limits for radiation workers and for members of
the public, as specified in the Radiation Protection (Ionizing
Radiation) Regulations 2000, follow the Recommendations
of the International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP).

• In recommending individual dose limits, the ICRP recognizes

two categories of persons:
a) adults who are exposed in the course of their work
b) members of the public.
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DOSE LIMIT FOR RADIATION WORKERS

• The dose limit is designed to prevent the incidence of

deterministic effects by keeping the dose limit below the
threshold values for deterministic effects.
• The dose limit recommended by ICRP in 1990, to be 20 mSv
a year, averaged over defined periods of 5 years and with
the further provision that the effective dose shall not exceed
50 mSv in any single year.
• The aim is not to just keep within the dose limit, but to ensure
that protection is optimised and the exposures are all kept As
Low As Reasonably Achievable, economic and social factors
being taken into account (ALARA principle).
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DOSE LIMIT FOR PUBLIC
• For members of the public, the dose limit is 1 mSv per year.
• A higher value of effective dose could be allowed in a year
provided that the average over 5 years does not exceed 1
mSv per year.
• ALARA principle also applies here.
• The occupational dose limit for women who are not pregnant
shall be the same as that of men.
• Once pregnancy has been declared, the equivalent dose
limit to the surface of the woman’s abdomen shall be 2 mSv
for the remainder of the pregnancy.
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RADIATION ACCIDENTS
A radiation accident shall be considered to have occurred if:
a) an unexpected, uncontrolled high level of ionizing radiation
occurs as in the case of loss, by damage, of the radiation
shielding of a sealed radioactive source or of irradiating
apparatus;
b) an individual enters a high radiation field by accident;
c) there is a loss of control of unsealed radioactive material
causing a spillage or leakage of the radioactive material;
d) the skin or clothing of an individual becomes contaminated;
e) radioactive material is accidentally released into the
environment in excess of the discharge level permitted by the
Regulations.
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

When any radiation accident occurs, the licensee, the

radiation safety officer or the individual in charge of the
area at the time shall:
a) evacuate all individuals from the affected area;
b) block off the affected area (including all locations
where the radiation level exceeds 25 Sv/hr), and
post warning signs at all its entrances;
c) take immediate action to reduce the hazards caused by
the radiation accident;

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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES (2)

d) make arrangements to provide temporary shielding,

monitor and decontaminate any affected individual
and the area and take all other actions necessary, to
return the situation to normal;
e) ensure that any contamination in excess of the
permitted limit for skin and clothing of any individual is
removed before the individual leaves the premises;

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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES (3)

f) ensure that any personal clothing or other private

property which is contaminated by radioactive
materials is not taken from the premises or released to
a public laundry until it can be shown that the
contamination does not exceed the permitted
contamination limit; and
g) refer affected individuals for medical observation and
treatment.

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