Exploring Science series for key stage 3 is developed by a

Exploring
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Exploring Science 8
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© Cambridge University Press

 Preface
Exploring Science
Exploring Science Series for Key
Series for Stage 3 is written
Key Stage is to meet the
written to requirements of new
meet the requirements
National Curriculum. This intends to cover the contents of the Science Syllabus. The
of new National Curriculum. This intends to cover the contents of the Science
series consists of 2 books for grades 7 and 8.
Syllabus. The series consists of books for grades .
The series enables students to acquire knowledge, skills and attitude so as to develop an
informed
The andenables
series critical understanding
students toofacquire
environment, science skills
knowledge, and technological
and attitudeissues.
so as to
develop
The seriesan informed
aims andhumane
to cultivate criticaland
understanding of environment,
responsible attitude scienceof and
and an appreciation the
world in accordance
technological with Islamic principles and values.
issues.
It is envisaged that teachers use this series as an aid to teach science adopting inquiry
The series
approach aims
where to cultivate
students humane to
are encouraged and
be responsible attitude
actively involved and an process.
in the learning
appreciation
We extend our of the world
sincere thanksintoaccordance with Islamic
Cambridge University Pressprinciples and
for partnering values.
with us in this
endeavour. We are indebted to the members of the NIE Curriculum Team for the support
It is envisaged that teachers use this series as an aid to teach science
rendered.
adopting inquiry approach where students are encouraged to be actively
Aminath Ismail
involved in the learning process.
Education Development Officer Coordinator

Gulfishan
We extendShafeeu
our sincere thanks to Cambridge University Press for partnering
Education
with us inDevelopment OfficerWe are thankful to IUCN for the assistance
this endeavour.
Aminath Mohamed
rendered in providing feedback for the initial manuscripts. We are indebted to
Education
the Development
members Officer
of the NIE Curriculum Team for the support rendered.

Aminath Ismail
Education Development Officer Coordinator

Gulfishan Shafeeu
Education Development Officer

Aminath Mohamed
Education Development Officer

© Cambridge University Press

 Contents

1. Making Measurements ���������������������������������������������������������������������������1

1.1 Measuring Length �������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
1.2 Precisions in Measurement ����������������������������������������������������������������4
1.3 Simple Pendulums ������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
1.4 Density ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
2. Living Things and Their Organisations ����������������������������������������������16
2.1 Cells and Their Structure ������������������������������������������������������������������16
2.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms ��������������������������������������������19
2.3 Bacteria, Fungi and Virus������������������������������������������������������������������21
3. Movement of Particles ��������������������������������������������������������������������������25
3.1 Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport ������������������������������������������25
4. Changes in States of Matter�����������������������������������������������������������������32
4.1 Kinetic Theory and Energy Changes ������������������������������������������������32
4.2 Diffusion ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
5. Separating Techniques ������������������������������������������������������������������������43
5.1 Types of Mixtures ������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
5.2 Separation of Mixtures ����������������������������������������������������������������������46
6. Atoms, Elements and Compounds �����������������������������������������������������51
6.1 Structure of Atom ������������������������������������������������������������������������������51
6.2 Periodic Table �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
6.3 Formation of Compounds �����������������������������������������������������������������58

iv

© Cambridge University Press

 7. Force and Motion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
7.1 Motion �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
7.2 Laws of Motion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������67
7.3 Hooke’s Law �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70
7.4 Pressure �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������73
8. Energy, Work and Power ����������������������������������������������������������������������78
8.1 Types of Energy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
8.2 Kinetic and Potential Energy �������������������������������������������������������������82
8.3 Energy Conversions �������������������������������������������������������������������������85
8.4 Work and Power��������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
9. Transfer of Thermal Energy �����������������������������������������������������������������94
9.1 Temperature and Thermometer���������������������������������������������������������94
9.2 Conduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������98
9.3 Convection���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
10. Digestive System in Humans �������������������������������������������������������������106
10.1 Types of Nutrition ��������������������������������������������������������������������������106
10.2 Digestive System in Humans ��������������������������������������������������������109
10.3 Structure of Teeth�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
11. Plant Nutrition�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116
11.1 Photosynthesis������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116
11.2 Leaf and Photosynthesis���������������������������������������������������������������� 119
12. Waves, Light and Sound ��������������������������������������������������������������������125
12.1 Waves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
12.2 Tsunami and Its Impact������������������������������������������������������������������129
12.3 Light – Images on Plane Mirrors����������������������������������������������������131
12.4 Sound��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135

© Cambridge University Press

 13. Ecology and Ecosystems ������������������������������������������������������������������142
13.1 Energy Transfer in an Ecosystem �������������������������������������������������142
13.2 Adaptation of Organisms within an Ecosystem �����������������������������146
14. Reefs and Their Importance���������������������������������������������������������������151
14.1 Formation of Reefs������������������������������������������������������������������������151
14.2 Atoll Formation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������154
14.3 Human Impact on Coral Reefs �����������������������������������������������������155
15. Electricity and Magnetism������������������������������������������������������������������158
15.1 Law of Magnetism �������������������������������������������������������������������������158
15.2 Temporary and Permanent Magnets ��������������������������������������������163
15.3 Magnetising and Demagnetising���������������������������������������������������165
15.4 Static Electricity�����������������������������������������������������������������������������168
15.5 Electric Current������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
15.6 Series and Parallel Circuits������������������������������������������������������������175

vi

© Cambridge University Press

 1 Making Measurements

1.1 Measuring Length

Measurement is the process of measuring the physical quantities.

You will learn
Measurements are expressed as magnitude and a unit of a
• Measuring length
substance (for example, 20kg flour). The derived physical quantities
are expressed in terms of base physical quantities. The quantities
like area, velocity, force and pressure are derived quantities and are expressed using
SI units.

Length
The measurements like width, breadth, height, diameter, depth, distance etc. are considered
as length as they are measured in different directions or dimensions (Figure 1.1).

Mauna Kea 10,000+ metres

above the sea floor

Length Diameter
dth
Wi

Depth

Height Height
(a) Measuring length of (b) Measuring length (c) Measuring the (d) Measuring the height
a table. of a table. depth of a sea. of the mountain above
the sea floor (level).

Figure 1.1: Measuring length of a table measuring sea depth and mountain height.

Measurement of length
Did you know?
Different types of measuring instruments are used to measure Your foot and your
length. The equipment used to measure length varies depending forearm are of the same
on what we want to measure. Figure 1.2 shows some instruments length.
that are commonly used to measure length.

© Cambridge University Press

 Exploring Science

bit
Cu
Hand

(b) A ruler is used to measure small length (c) A trundle wheel is used
primarily in cm, mm and inch. A measuring tape to measure longer length
is used to measure curved length in cm, m and like length of a field. Its
inch. A steel ruler is used to measure long length wheel is pushed along the
Foot like width of a room in mm, cm and m. ground and a click sound
Pace is heard every time it
(a) Foot pace is used to covers one metre.
measure approximate
distances by using
footsteps.

(d) A pedometer is a pocket

instrument used to record the number
of paces and the distance travelled
by a person.
Figure 1.2: (a) Pacing. (b) Rulers and tape. (c) Trundle wheel. (d) Pedometer.

Think Critically
Explain how odometers and speedometers find the distance covered by vehicles.

SONAR method (SOund Navigation And Ranging) are used

to calculate the depth of water by comparing the time taken
by the ultrasonic signal (a special type of sound sent via
echosounder) to reach the bottom and the returning back of
its echo to the ship. Echo
Sound

Echosounders

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

Explore

How were the depths of the sea measured during the earlier days?

Activity 1.1 Measuring length

Measure the length of your school desk using a ruler, measuring tape and hand span. Note down and
compare the readings and results.

Questions
1. Can SONAR be used to identify the whereabouts of sunken or grounded ships?
2. In earlier days, humans used their body parts to measure things. Give some examples.
3. Name the measuring instruments used to measure the following: dimensions of a notebook, park,
height of a tree and length and width of a dhoani?

Summary
• Measurements are expressed as magnitude and a unit of a substance.
• The derived physical quantities are expressed in terms of base physical quantities.
• The measurements like width, breadth, height, diameter, depth, distance etc. are considered
as lengths.
• The different methods and instruments used to measure lengths are pacing, ruler, measuring tape,
trundle wheel, pedometer, SONAR etc.

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 Exploring Science

1.2 Precisions in Measurement

A correct measurement is always accurate and precise. Accurate

You will learn
means the measured reading is close to the true value. Reliability
• Measurements using
means all the readings taken for the measurement are close to
Vernier caliper and
each other. micrometer screw
Selection of suitable measuring device (calibrated and gauge
standardised) with relevant smaller units marked on it will result
in precise measurement. The accuracy and precision can further be improved with the
correct methods of reading, by taking necessary precautions while taking readings and by
repeating the measurement under similar conditions. This can minimise the cause of error.

Micrometer screw gauge Vernier caliper

The smaller the units marked on the measuring instruments, the more chances to get a precise
reading. The measuring instruments like vernier caliper and screw gauge are used to measure
very small lengths, like diameter of a thin wire, thickness of a coin etc., very precisely. Both the
devices are marked with very small units to give correct measurements.

Vernier Caliper
A Vernier caliper accurately measures the internal lengths, external lengths and depths. It
has two scales marked on it (Figure 1.3a), a fixed main scale and a sliding Vernier scale.
Readings on both the scales are added to get exact measurement of the length.
An object is placed within the jaws (internal or external) and sliding Vernier scale is
moved such that the object is tightly held with the jaws. Read the value on the main scale
where ‘zero (0)’ of the Vernier scale coincides with the main scale mark (2.2cm here).
Look for the other mark on the Vernier scale that exactly coincides with other mark on the
main scale (0.07cm). The exact length can be calculated as 2.2cm 0.07cm.

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

Inside jaws used to

measure internal
diameter of an object

Main scale
0 4 8 1/128 in

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 cm

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0,05 mm

Graduation Tail used to

Sliding vernier measure the
scale depth of an
0 5 0 1/128 in object

1 2 3
Outside jaws used to 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
measure external
diameter of an object 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0,05 mm

Reading values on main scale (2.2cm marked with

green arrow) and vernier scale (0.07cm marked
with blue arrow) giving the exact length as 2.27cm.
Figure 1.3a: Parts of vernier caliper for measuring different lengths.

Micrometer Screw Gauge

A screw gauge (Figure 1.3b) is used for the precise measurement of extremely small
dimensions of length as compared to a Vernier caliper. It also has two marked scales –
main scale on the sleeve and a circular scale (micrometre scale) on a rotating thimble.
A main scale on the sleeve is divided into four equal parts of 0.25mm each. Reading on
both the scales will give the precise measurement of the length.

Objects are placed between the anvil and the spindle, and the
spindle is made to move by rotating the rachet knob at the tail end
such that object is tightly held between anvil and the spindle. Read Did you know?
the value on the main scale where circular the scale touches the Sydharb is a unit, which
main scale mark (2.75mm here). Look for the mark on the circular is a rough measurement
for a large volume of
scale that exactly coincides with the centre line on the main scale
water, used in Australia.
(0.01mm). The exact length will be 2.75mm 0.01mm, which is One sydharb is roughly
2.76mm. the amount of water
Micrometer has a precision of 0.01mm while a Vernier caliper in Sydney’s harbour
area (around 562,000
has 0.1mm or 0.05mm. Therefore, micrometer screw gauge is
megaliters during high
more precise. Micrometer screw gauge should be handled very tide).
carefully because it is very delicate.

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 Exploring Science

Datum line/
Anvil Spindle centre line

30
25
20
15

Main scale Ratchet

Thimble
scale

4 5
3
2
1
0
24
0 1 2 23
22
a b c 21
b

Figure 1.3b: Parts of screw gauge. Readings on main scale (a = 2.00mm; b = 0.75mm) and circular scale
(c = 0.01mm).

Questions
1. ‘The smaller the units marked on the measuring instruments, the more valid are the readings’. Justify
the statement with an example.
2. How is Vernier caliper used to measure depths of objects?
3. Explain how the micrometer screw gauge can give more accurate and precise results than a Vernier
caliper?

Summary
• A correct measurement is always accurate and precise.
• The smaller the units marked on the measuring instruments, the more chances to get a valid
reading.
• Measuring instruments like Vernier caliper and micrometer screw gauge are used to measure very
small lengths.
• Vernier caliper accurately measures the internal lengths, external lengths and depths.
• Micrometer screw gauge is used for the precise measurement of extremely small dimensions of
length as compared to a Vernier caliper.

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

1.3 Simple Pendulums

Measurement of time was standardised in 17th century with the

You will learn
invention of pendulums by Galileo Galilei. It was considered as
• Working of a simple
the world’s most accurate time-measuring device until the early
pendulum
20th century. Pendulums were used to keep track of time in the
• Oscillation, period,
clocks.
amplitude in relation
to pendulums
Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is a small metallic ball suspended (at point O)
on a string of fixed length (L) and left to oscillate freely about a point (S) (Figure 1.4).
Point O is the equilibrium or mean Rigid
position of bob as at this point bob is at support

rest and is lying along the line of point S S

of rigid support (S). When the bob is

displaced to point A and released, it
begins to make forward and backward L
movements (from point A to B and back).
These movements of the bob about the
Bob
mean position are called oscillations.
This type of motion in oscillating B A
bob is called oscillatory motion as
O
it is repeating the same pattern.
Due to friction, with time the bob slows A B
down and comes to a rest. Figure 1.4: Simple pendulum: (a) When the bob is at rest.
(b) When the bob is swinging between extreme points.

Think Critically
When a stone is thrown into water, what kind of vibrations are produced?

Length of Pendulum (L) – The distance from point of rigid support (S) to the centre of the bob.
Mean Position (O) – The position of a pendulum when it is at rest.
One Complete Oscillation – The forward and backward movement of a pendulum about
its mean position that is starting from point O to point A; point A to point B and point B to
point O.
Amplitude (OA or OB) – The maximum distance covered by a pendulum from its mean
position.

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 Exploring Science

Time Period (T) – The time taken by a pendulum to cover

one complete oscillation. Did you know?
Oscillatory motion is the common
Time period of the pendulum is independent of the mass
underlying working principle of
of the bob. That is, time period of the pendulum does the adventure sport Bungee
not depend on the mass of the bob or on the material Jumping and Richter scale, which
from which it is made. The pendulum’s time period just is used to measure the intensity of
depends upon the length of the string. A pendulum with earthquake.

long string will have a long time period.

Activity 1.2 Time periods

Take different length pendulums and using a stop watch, calculate the time period for each. Copy and
record the observations in the table. Some more readings can be added to plot a graph between L and T.

Length of pendulum Time taken to complete 10 Time taken to complete one

S. No. (L in cm) oscillations (T’ in seconds) oscillation (T in seconds)
1 10 150 1.50
2 15 — —
3 20 — —

Activity 1.3 Effects of mass of a bob

Study the effects of mass of a bob of a pendulum.
(a) Write your hypothesis.
(b) Identify the variables that you keep constant and the variable that you would change.
(c) Show your plan to the teacher and get it approved.
(d) Conduct the experiment and record your results.
(e) What can you conclude from this?

Frequency of Oscillatory Motion

One complete oscillation taken place in time period T about the mean position is known as
1 cycle. The number of such cycles that take place in 1 second is known as frequency (f) of
the oscillating system.
Frequency is measured as cycles per second and its unit is Hertz (Hz). The SI unit of
frequency Hertz is named after German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Frequency is represented mathematically as the reciprocal of time period (T), that is
1 1
Frequency OR f
Time Period T

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

Explore

Observe two flashing or blinking lights (one is flashing slow and the other fast). Can this be
related to the oscillatory motion? What could you say about their frequencies and time period?

Questions
1. Explain why the pendulum is tied to a rigid support at one end.
2. A decorative flashing light has a time period of 3s, find its frequency.
3. Explore some real-life examples that are based on the principle of oscillation.

Summary
• Pendulums were used to keep track of time in the clocks.
• Oscillatory motion is the back and forth repeating movement.
• The pendulum’s time period depends upon the length of its string.
• Frequency is number of cycles that occur in a second.

Scientist in Focus
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian physicist, astronomer,
mathematician and philosopher. Due to his immense contribution in
scientific revolution in 17th century, he has been given the names ‘Father
of Modern Physics’ and ‘Father of Observational Astronomy’. He gave the
idea that pendulums could be adapted to clocks with weights or springs to
correct the existing defects in clocks.

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 Exploring Science

1.4 Density

Density is one of the derived quantity that is expressed in terms

You will learn
of mass and volume. Density of a material is defined as its mass
• Density
per unit volume. Density depicts how tightly or loosely matter is
arranged together.
Density of substances vary. This can be seen in many examples. Oil is less dense than
water, therefore you would have observed oil floating on water. In an oil spill in the ocean,
the oil rises to the top because it is less dense than water. Likewise, a piece of wood will
float on water, but most rocks are more dense than water, so they will sink.

Oil is floating over sea water

The density is defined as the mass in a unit of volume. So,

Mass (m)
Density (D)
Volume (V)

SI unit of density is kg/m3 and other units include g/cm3 (cm3 also called cc), g/ml, kg/l etc.
For a given volume, the amount of mass varies for various substances. Therefore, we say
that they have different densities, for example in a volume of 1cm3 (Figure 1.5).

Volume of a cube with

8.9g 7.9g 0.6g
side 1cm each
V l b h 1cm 1cm 1cm 1cm3
Copper Iron Wood

1cm3 1cm3 1cm3

Figure 1.5: Densities of different materials.

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

Calculating Volumes

Volume of regular shapes: The volume of regular shapes can be calculated using the
following formulas (Figure 1.6):
Volume of a sphere is 4/3πr 3, where r is the radius of the sphere.
Volume of a cylinder is πr 2h, where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
Volume of a cone is 1/3πr 2h, where r is the radius and h is the height of the cone.

4/3 r 3 r 2h 1/3 r 2h
Figure 1.6: Volume of regular shapes.

Activity 1.4 Volume of irregular objects

Using the formula 4/3πr 3, πr 2h and 1/3πr 2h, calculate the volume of a ball having the radius of 8cm; a
cylindrical pencil with diameter 1cm and height 15cm; a cone of height 1.5feet and radius of base as 6cm.

100 100
Volume of irregular shapes: It can be found using
90 90ml 90
water displacement method (Figure 1.7), where
80 80
a stone (or any other object) with known mass is 30ml
70 70
immersed in a graduated cylinder (a glass cylinder with
60 60ml 60
small units marked on it). The difference between final
50 50
water level and initial water level will give the volume
40 40
of the stone immersed. The density can be calculated
30 30
by dividing the mass of the stone by its volume.
20 20
10 10

Figure 1.7: Volume of irregular

shapes.

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 Exploring Science

Density of water
Did you know?
The density of liquid water is 1g/ml. It can be calculated by following the Water is less dense than
steps mentioned below: corn syrup and therefore
• Take an empty beaker and weigh it (mass of empty beaker water floats over it.

m1). Measurements of mass can be taken in grams.

• Fill the beaker with some water and weigh it (mass of water + beaker, m2).
Measurements of mass can be taken in grams.
• The difference between the two masses will give the mass of water inside the beaker.
• Measure the volume of water using a graduated cylinder (volume can be measured in
millilitres).
Mass (m2 m1)
• So, Density (D)
Volume (V)
Objects whose density is more than that of water (or any other liquid) will sink in it. Whereas
objects whose density is less than the water (or any other liquid) they will float.

Think Critically
Does an object lose its mass in water?

Activity 1.5 Density of objects

Choose different objects of varying mass. Take a beaker of water and drop the object gently into water.
Ensure you use the same amount of water for each object. Predict which objects will sink or float. Note
down your observation. Identify which objects have densities higher than water and which ones are
lower.
Find out the density for some of the objects. Was your prediction right?

Questions
1. Give some more examples to show that density of objects vary.
2. Which is more dense – mayonnaise of 2m3 volume having a mass of 1820kg or 1m3 volume having
mass of 1kg?
3. Calculate the density of a cube with sides 5cm each and a mass of 500g.

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

Summary
• Density is defined as the mass in a unit of volume.
• SI unit of density is kg/m3 and other units include g/cm3 (cc), g/ml, kg/l etc.
• The density of liquid water is 1g/ml and objects denser than water will sink in it.

Scientist in Focus
Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist and
an inventor. Some of his greatest contributions in the field of physics are
principle of lever, designing screw pump and defensive war machines.
He also invented the concept of buoyancy, which is stated as Archimedes
principle that helped in the designing of ships. He laid the foundation for
the study of optics.

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1.5 End of Unit Questions

1.1 Measuring lengths

1. Answer the following questions:
a. Explain why a measuring tape cannot be used to measure thickness of a coin?
b. List one or more measuring instruments for the following quantities:
• mass • volume
• length • time
2. Copy and complete the following sentences:
a. The trundle wheel is pushed along the ground and a _____________________.
b. The measurements like width, breadth, height, diameter, depth, distance etc. are
considered as lengths in physics as they are _________________________________.

3. Let’s apply the knowledge

Does the SONAR method give accurate and precise measurement? Give reasons.

1.2 Improving precisions in measurement

4. Which instrument is used in the following situations?
a. Length of a fabric e. Depth of a well
b. Height of a building f. Distance between Earth and Mars
c. Length of a bridge g. Dimensions of a bench
d. Height of a cupboard

5. Give reasons for the following statement:

Micrometer screw gauge gives more precise measurement than Vernier caliper.
6. Copy and complete the following sentence:
Micrometer screw gauge has two marked scales – ________________________________.
7. Answer the following questions:
a. Why is pacing not considered as accurate?
b. Explain the working of Vernier caliper.

1.3 Simple pendulums

8. Categorise the following having oscillatory motion:
a. A swing e. A rubber band
b. A kite f. A flying bird
c. A spring g. A mobile phone vibrating
d. A boat movement

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 Chapter 1 Making Measurements

9. Copy and complete the following sentence:

Amplitude is the maximum distance ___________________________________.
10. Answer the following questions:
a. According to Galileo, how can pendulums be used as clocks?
b. What is frequency? Give its formula and units.
11. Explain why the mass of a bob plays no role in determining the time of oscillation?
12. What will be the time period of a pendulum if its oscillations have a frequency of 8Hz.

1.4 Density
13. Compare the densities of the following items and mention which one has a higher
density and which one has a lower density:
(a) Honey, milk (d) Iron nail, wooden block
(b) Oil, water (e) Ice, water
(c) Coconut, husk (f) Plastic block, gift wrapping paper
14. Give reasons for the following question:
Explain why water splashes out from the container full of water if a brick is immersed in it?
15. Copy and complete the following sentences:
a. Objects less denser than water _______________________________________.
b. Different mass of different matter can __________________________________.
16. Define density. Express it in terms of base quantities and give its units.
17. Let’s calculate and solve
a. A steel object of mass 30640kg has a volume of 4m3. Calculate its density.
b. A brick has a density of 2300kgm−3. What would be the mass of brick if its volume is
5 × 10−4m3.
18. Practicing Islam
All Muslims give out Fitr Zakaat before the end of Ramazan. During the time of our prophet
(pbuh), he used to give one saa of staple food. A saa is not a weight measurement but is a
measurement of volume, much similar to the large salad bowl. It is made up of four mudds.
A mudd is a smaller container, close to the size of a small salad bowl. Discuss with your peers
and elders, find out how much each person has to pay as Fitr Zakaat and what do you think
are the benefits of this?

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 Living Things and
2 Their Organisations
2.1 Cells and Their Structure

All living things are made up of cells. Multicellular organisms are made up of millions of cells.
The cells of multicellular organisms can vary greatly. In spite of these differences, most cells
share some common characteristics. These differences between cells enable great diversity
of living things on Earth.
Cells in plants and animals have similarities and differences. Both are eukaryotic cells, so
they have several features in common, such as the presence of a cell membrane, nucleus
and other cell organelles (Figure 2.1).

Structure and Functions of Organelles

Cell wall is the outermost Plant cell structure Animal cell structure
thick layer present only in Mitochondrion
plant cells and is made Cell wall
Cell membrane
of cellulose. It protects the
delicate inner parts of the Chloroplast
cell and gives shape to Nucleus
the cell. It allows the free
passage of water and other Nuclear
membrane
chemicals into and out of
Vacuole
the cells.
Cell membrane or plasma
membrane is a living
membrane that surrounds
the cells, and is made of Figure 2.1: A plant cell vs. an animal cell.

proteins and lipids. It separates cells from one another. It functions as a partially permeable
membrane and allows some substances to pass in and out of the cell.
It allows transport of a specific group of molecules in and out of the cell such that there is
a balance between the intracellular and extracellular environment. The plasma membrane
helps essential molecules like glucose, amino acids and lipids to get transported through

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 Chapter 2 Living Things and Their Organisations

the cell. It keeps the metabolic intermediates inside the cell while waste compounds are
expelled from the cell to the extracellular environment
Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present in the cell. It constitutes all the cell organelles in
it. Most of the chemical processes occur here.
Nucleus is an important component of the cell, generally spherical and located in the
centre. It is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear membrane.
It contains genetic material and controls all the activities of the cell.
Vacuole is a large sac-like structure that occupies a large area. It is the temporary storage
centre of the cell.
Chloroplast is found in the cells of all green plants. It absorbs light energy from the Sun
and converts it to chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis.

Magnification of a Microscope
Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast etc. are made up of single cells, whereas multicellular
organisms like human beings are made up of millions of cells. Cells are very small, and
therefore we cannot see them with naked eye. However, we can observe cells and their
structure under a microscope. Microscopes enlarge the size of the objects kept under its lenses.
The process of magnifying a minute object in appearance is called
Did you know?
magnification. Cells can be observed under proper magnifications
A standard compound
of a microscope. microscope can magnify
It has two lenses, known as objective and eyepiece. The total objects about 1000
magnification of a compound microscope is the multiplication times while an electron
microscope can magnify
product of the magnification of objective and eyepiece.
images about two million
M Mo Me times.

Where Mo is the magnification of objective and Me is the magnification of eyepiece.

For example, if the power of the objective is 10X and that of eyepiece is 40X , then the total
magnification of the microscope is 400X .

Activity 2.1 Parts of a plant cell

Materials: Onion, forceps, glass slide, Safranin solution and a microscope.
Remove one of the
Method: Red onion inner fleshy leaves
cut in half
1. Using forceps, peel off the membrane from the underside
(the rough side) from a small piece of onion.
Pull out the
2. Place the membrane flat on the surface of a clean glass membrane
slide, and then add one drop of Iodine or Safranin solution.
3. Using a pin, place a thin glass cover slip onto the slide.
Make sure that there are no air bubbles.

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 Exploring Science

4. Put the slide onto the stage of the microscope under the objective
lens set on low power.
5. Look through the eyepiece lens and turn the focusing knob until you
can see the cells.
6. Change the objective lens for a high powered one so that you can
observe the cells at a greater magnification. Try to locate the nucleus.
Note: Write down your observations.

Activity 2.2 Cell organelles

Copy the table and identify whether the following cell organelles are present or absent.

Organelle Plant cell Animal cell

Vacuole
Chloroplast
Ribosome
Cell wall
Cytoplasm

Questions
1. What is the function of cell wall in plant cells?
2. What is chloroplast? What is its function?
3. Name the additional layer surrounding the cell membrane found in plant cells.
4. If the magnification of objective is 50X and that of eyepiece is 10X, calculate the total magnification
of the microscope.

Summary
• Plant and animal cells have several similarities and differences.
• Cells of plants and animals contain parts such as cell membrane, nucleus, cell wall, chloroplast etc.
• Cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that allows movement of selective molecules
in and out of the cell.
• A microscope can magnify a small object so its structure can be viewed clearly.

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 Chapter 2 Living Things and Their Organisations

2.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms

Living things can either be unicellular or multicellular. A unicellular You will learn
organism is made up of only one cell. A single cell performs all the life
• Unicellular and
functions like taking in food, excretion of waste, gaseous exchange multicellular
and locomotion. Amoeba (Figure 2.2) is an example of a unicellular organisms
organism. They are found in ponds and ditches. They move with the
help of false feet called pseudopodia. These are simple projections of
the cell membrane along with protoplasm in a direction the amoeba wants to move.
Contractile vacuole
Nucleus (excretes water
and waste)
Cell
membrane

Food being
engulfed by
pseudopods

Cytoplasm
Food vacuole
(digests food)

Figure 2.2: An amoeba.

Multicellular organisms are made up of more than one cell. Most of the eukaryotic
organisms are multicellular. They have well-developed body structure, and they have
specific organs to perform specific functions. Examples of multicellular organisms include
almost all well-developed plants and animals (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: Multicellular organisms.

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 Exploring Science

Explore

Find out if a hen’s egg is one cell or a group of cells.

Questions
1. What is the difference between unicellular and multicellular organisms?
2. Give examples of some unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Summary
• Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell.
• Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells.
• The single cell performs all the life functions of the unicellular organism.
• Group of cells become specialised to perform different functions in a multicellular organism.

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 Chapter 2 Living Things and Their Organisations

  2.3 Bacteria, Fungi and Virus

There are over 1.7 million species of living things in our world. You will learn
Some are unicellular while others are multicellular. Unicellular • Bacteria, virus and
organisms can be seen only with the help of a microscope. Such fungi
organisms are called microorganisms and some examples of
microorganisms are bacteria, virus and fungi.

Bacteria
Plasma membrane Did you know?
Nuclear material The ‘smell’ of rain after
a storm is produced
Cytoplasm by the same type of
bacteria that causes
Cell wall water to taste ‘earthy’.

Flagella Pili
A bacterium

Bacteria are the most commonly found single-celled organisms (‘bacteria’ is the plural of
‘bacterium’). They are found everywhere starting from your gut to the oceans. They can
be of different shapes like rod-shaped, spherical etc. Some of them have tail-like structure
called flagella that help them in moving around.
They do not have a proper nucleus, but a nuclear material is found scattered in the cell.
Bacteria are useful for us as they are used in a number of industries like for producing
dairy products like curd, cheese etc. They are also used in manufacturing anti-bacterial
medicines. However, bacteria can be harmful for us as well. They can contaminate our
food and cause serious bacterial diseases like food poisoning, cholera etc.

Fungi
Fungi are found all around the Earth; they are found in water, on land and even in animals
and plants. Around 70,000 species of fungi have been identified so far. They are either
single celled (unicellular) or multicelled (multicellular).
Unicellular fungi include yeast while multicellular fungi comprise moulds and mushrooms.
They grow on moist tree trunk, on damp clothes and on poorly preserved food. They are

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also seen to grow as green spongy Spores

material on stale bread slices.
Fungi are useful for us. Fungus like
yeast is used in making bread; we eat
them as mushrooms. Antibiotics like
penicillin is obtained from various fungi.
But some of them are harmful. Some
Rhizoid Stolon
fungi cause food decay and some cause
Moulds on a piece of bread
diseases like ringworm and athlete’s
foot.

Virus

Bacteriophage Influenza

DNA

Tail

Fibres
Membrane
envelope

Virus

Viruses do not have a regular cell structure. They are just like tiny speck of nuclear
material. Viruses can grow and reproduce themselves only inside the living cells of another
organism. Therefore, they are considered as non-living organisms. They use the energy of
the host cells to multiply themselves and the host cell dies in this process. Viruses infect all
types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria.

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Activity 2.3 Characteristics of bacteria, fungi and virus

Compare the characteristics of bacteria, fungi and virus; you may use the following aspects:
• Size
• Structure
• Mode of nutrition
• Usefulness/harmful
Present your comparison in a tabular format.
Share your answer with the class.

Activity 2.4 Growth of fungus on bread slice

Take some dust from the ground on a cotton swab and rub it on a slice
of bread. Sprinkle a few drops of water on the bread slice. Keep this
bread slice in an airtight bag and seal it. Place this sealed bag in an
empty box and seal the box. Leave it undisturbed for a day or two.
Note down your observation. Share your observation with the class.

Questions
1. What is the most important characteristic feature of a bacterial cell?
2. Give examples of unicellular and multicellular fungi.
3. Why are viruses considered to be non-living beings?

Summary
• The world has over 1.7 millions of unicellular and multicellular organisms. Some of them are so
small that they can be viewed only under a microscope. Such organisms are called microscopic
organisms.
• Bacteria are single-celled organisms and are found everywhere.
• Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular. These organisms are found all around the Earth.
• Viruses are very small and do not have a regular cell structure.

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2.4 End of Unit Questions

2.1. Cell and their structure

I. Answer the following questions:

1. Elaborate the statement ‘cell is the basic structural unit of a living organism’.
2. You are provided with two unlabelled cells. You have been asked to identify the plant cell from
the two. What structures must you look for?
3. Why is it important to stain a cell before viewing it under the microscope?

2.2. Unicellular and multicellular organisms

II. Answer the following questions:

1. How are life processes carried out in a multicellular organism?
2. How does an amoeba move from one place to another?
3. Differentiate between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
4. How does the cell membrane work?

2.3. Bacteria, virus and Fungi

III. Answer the following questions:

1. List at least two features of bacteria, virus and fungi each.
2. Describe one way in which fungi are different from plants.
3. What happens to the host cell when a virus multiplies in it?
4. What is the green spongy material seen on a stale bread slice? Explain.

IV. Practicing Islam

Discovery of the microscope has led to the identification of new living things that are too small to
be seen with the naked eye. People have therefore begun to learn about the existence of these
life forms, indicated in the holy Qur’an many years ago. It states that

… Not even the smallest speck eludes your Lord, either on earth or in heaven.
Nor is there anything smaller than that, or larger, which is not in a Clear Book.
(Surath Al-Yunus 10:61)

The above verse highlights the existence of microorganisms, which are invisible to the naked eye
and generally consist of a single cell. There are 20 times more members of microorganisms, which
is found all over the planet when compared to other organisms on Earth. These microorganisms,
invisible to the naked eye, comprise of bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae and Acarina (mites and ticks).
Discuss how microorganisms contribute to the balance of life on Earth.

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 3 Movement of Particles

3.1 Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport

In a living body, cells have a surrounding environment, which

You will learn
contains certain materials. Substances move in and out of the
• Diffusion, osmosis
cells of the body all the time.
and active transport
The function of the cell membrane is to allow the exchange of
materials between the cell and its surrounding environment. Cells
take in the useful substances and remove the waste substances.
The exchange of materials takes place through three processes: diffusion, osmosis and
active transport.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the random movement of particles down a concentration gradient from a
region of higher concentration to a lower concentration until they are evenly distributed
(Figure 3.1).

High concentration Low concentration

Figure 3.1: Movement of particles from higher concentration to
lower concentration.

The process of diffusion becomes faster as the temperature increases. The difference in
concentration is known as concentration gradient. If the difference in concentration of two
regions is more, diffusion is faster.
In a living a body, substances such as oxygen, nutrients and other molecules move in and
out of the cells through the cell membrane by diffusion.
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Examples of diffusion in a living body:

• Gaseous exchange in lungs: Air (oxygen) is inhaled into the lungs and carbon dioxide is
exhaled out of the body.
• Gaseous exchange in leaves: Carbon dioxide is taken inside the leaf.
• Absorption of digested food in small intestine.

Explore

You witness diffusion in action every day. Can you name a few examples of diffusion in your
day-to-day life?

Osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a place where they are in higher
concentration to a place where the water molecules are in a lower concentration through a
partially permeable membrane.
Osmosis can be defined as the passage of water molecules from a region of high water
potential to a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable membrane.
The water diffuses down a water potential gradient, from a region of low solute
concentration to a region of high solute concentration, until concentrations are equal on
either side of the membrane.
Figure 3.2a illustrates a concentrated sugar solution being separated from dilute sugar
solution by a membrane. There is high concentration of sugar solution on left-hand side and
low concentration of sugar solution on right-hand side. In the absence of the membrane, the
sugar solution would diffuse (a) Semi-permeable (b)
from higher concentration membrane
to lower concentration until
Concentrated Dilute sugar More water is drawn into
they are evenly distributed. sugar solution solution the concentrated solution
The pores or holes in the
membrane are very small
so they do not let the sugar
molecules to pass through.
Osmosis
Figure 3.2b also illustrates
a concentration gradient.
There is high concentration
Sugar molecules Water molecules
of water on the right-hand
Figure 3.2: Movement of water through a partially permeable
side and low concentration
membrane.

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 Chapter 3 Movement of Particles

of water on the left-hand side. Therefore, the water molecules diffuse from right side into
left side.
Thus, we can say that osmosis is the movement of water through a partially permeable
membrane down a concentration gradient from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution.
The concentration of solute in a solution depicts the water gradient between the cell and
its environment. If the solute is more inside the cell, then water is at a lower concentration
within the cell. In this case, water will move into the cell. If the solute in the cell is less than
the environment then water is at a higher concentration within the cell. In this case, water
will move out from the cell to its environment.

Osmosis in animal and plant cells

In animal cells, the cell membrane acts

as a partially permeable membrane or
selectively permeable membrane, which
Hypotonic solution:
allows some particles to move through. If Solute concentration
is lower outside the
concentration of dissolved solutes is less cell.
outside the cell than inside the cell, then
concentration of water outside is greater
(Figure 3.3).
Cells swell and
When a plant cell is exposed in a may even rupture
because water is
hypertonic solution, that is the cell has taken into the cell.

more water in it than outside. Water will Figure 3.3: When a cell is exposed to hypotonic
move out from the cell. The water from conditions, there is net water movement into the cell.
The water moves by osmosis into the cell and the cell
inside the cell cytoplasm diffuses out, the
becomes swollen and may burst.
cell membrane and cytoplasm shrink from
the cell wall and the plant cell is said to Hypertonic

have become flaccid.

The cytoplasm shrinks and is
pulled away from the cell wall. This Water is transported
out from the cell
phenomenon is called plasmolysis
(Figure 3.4). H 2O

If the cells are exposed in isotonic

solution that means concentration
of water outside and inside the cell is
equal. The cells stay the same, as there
Plasmolyzed
is no net movement of water molecules. Solute concentration
inside the cell is LOWER

Figure 3.4: A plasmolysed cell.

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 Exploring Science

It is ideal for plants to be in a hypotonic solution to be healthy.

The cell swells up with water and pushes against the cell wall. Did you know?
This makes the plant stand upright like a healthy plant. When they Plant cells are protected
from bursting by a rigid
are short of water, they wilt.
cell wall, which surrounds
Examples of osmosis in living things the cell membrane. As
water enters, the cell
• Water is absorbed by roots by the process of osmosis. expands until it pushes
up tight against its cell
• Evaporation of water from leaves is controlled by regulating
wall. The cell wall pushes
the size of the stomata in the leaves by osmosis. back with an equal
• Water absorption in the kidney and the formation of urine. pressure, so no more
water can enter.

Activity 3.1 Osmosis

Materials: A potato, sugar solution, a broad dish and water.
Method: Take a peeled potato. Cut a slice and make one end
of the potato flat and make a deep cavity on the other end. Flat end of the
Half fill the cavity with sugar solution and mark the level in potato
the potato. Keep the potato on a dish containing some water. Potato
The water level of the dish should be lower than that of the
Cavity filled
sugar solution level in the potato. Leave the entire setup with sugar solution
undisturbed for a few hours. Water
Observation:
Now observe the level of sugar solution in the cavity made in potato after few hours.
What do you observe? Has the level in the potato gone up? Can you predict, how did the water get
inside the potato cavity?
Record your observation and discuss with your friends.

Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of particles from a region of low concentration to a region
of higher concentration. Since this flow is against a gradient, the process of active transport
requires a lot of energy. Sometimes, cells need to take in substances, which are present in
small quantities around them (Figure 3.5). Thus, if required, these substances have to be
moved against the concentration gradient.

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 Chapter 3 Movement of Particles

Figure 3.5: Active transport.

Hence the dissolved molecules move across a cell membrane from a lower to a higher
concentration by active transport and therefore require an input of energy from the cell,
which comes from respiration.
Sometimes dissolved molecules
are at a higher concentration Soil particles
inside the cell than outside, but an
Soil water
organism needs these molecules,
Cellulose
so they still have to be absorbed. It cell wall
Rool hair
is an energy-consuming process. Water and Vacuole
For example, in plants, the root mineral ions
are absorbed
hair cells (Figure 3.6) take in Nucleus
nutrients from the soil, though their
concentration is higher inside the
cell than in the soil. The diffusion
gradient is from the root hair to the
Figure 3.6: Root hair cell.
soil. Despite this, the root hair cells
still can take in nutrients, by active
transport.

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Explore

Look at the picture. You are familiar with preparation of tea by dipping a teabag
in a cup of boiling water. Explain the process taking place.

Importance of Movement of Particles in Living Things

Diffusion is very important in the body for the movement of substances. Starting from the
movement of oxygen from the air into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood into
the air through the lungs to the movement of glucose from the blood to the cells are all
examples of diffusion.
Artificial kidney machines are used to remove waste products from blood for people who
are suffering from kidney diseases. Such machines use a process called dialysis, which is
based on osmosis.
Active transport is very important as substances are transported against a concentration
gradient, for example, nutrient uptake by root hair cells.

Questions
1. What is diffusion?
2. Explain the process of osmosis with the help of examples.
3. Define the term ‘active transport’.
4. State the difference between active transport and diffusion.

Summary
• Cells take in the useful substances and remove the waste substances.
• The exchange of materials takes place through three transport processes: diffusion, osmosis and
active transport.
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration.
• Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a higher water potential to a lower water
potential.

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3.2 End of Unit Questions

3.1. Diffusion, osmosis and active transport

I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is meant by a solution which has high concentration of water?
2. Why do animal cells burst in pure water?
3. How does osmosis in plant cells cause them to become flaccid?
4. A plant cell has both fully permeable and partially permeable membranes; can you name
them?

II. Copy and complete the following sentences using the words from the box. You may use a
word more than once

Semipermeable osmosis diffusion active transport energy

1. Oxygen enters the cells across the cell membrane by __________________.

2. Carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the cells by __________________.
3. Plants take in water from soil by __________________.
4. In the process of __________________ the particles move from low concentration to high
concentration.
5. During osmosis water molecules move through a __________________.

III. Practicing Islam

The cell membrane is an ambient cover for the cell, yet its duty is not limited to only being a
cover alone. It helps to maintain the internal environment of the cell.
Cell membranes carry out complex tasks, make precise calculations and take vital decisions.
That is because Allah (SWT) created them flawlessly and sustains them. Everything acts in
compliance as Allah (SWT) has created them perfectly to fit for the purpose.
Discuss the special processes that occur at cell membrane and the importance of the cell
membrane ‘being selectively permeable’ helps to control the internal environment of the cells.

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 Changes in States of
4 Matter
4.1 Kinetic Theory and Energy Changes

Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter You will learn

The kinetic theory helps to explain the way in which matter
• Kinetic theory
­behaves. The evidence is consistent with the idea that all matter of matter
is made up of tiny particles. This theory states that
• Energy
• All matter is made of small particles that are in random motion. changes during
Different substances have different types of particles (for change of state

example, atoms and molecules) which have different sizes.

• The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature,
the faster they move on average.
• The heavier particles move more slowly compared to lighter
ones at a given temperature.

States of Matter
Kinetic theory of matter can be used to explain the arrangement of particles in solids, liquids
and gases (Figure 4.1).

Solid
The particles in solid are very tightly arranged. They are
held firmly. Hence, they vibrate about a fixed position.

Liquid
Solid particles vibrate about fixed positions.
The particles in liquid are still close together. But they
move around in a random way and often collide with one
another. The force of attraction between the particles in
a liquid are weaker than that in a solid. The particles in a
liquid form of a substance have more energy than that of
particles in a solid form of the same substance.

Liquid particles move around

each other and collide often.

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Gas particles move freely and at random

 ChapterLiquid
4 Changes in around
particles move States of Matter
each other and collide often.
Gas
The particles in a gas are relatively far apart and
loosely arranged and are free to move within the
container in which they are held. They move in high
velocities randomly much more rapidly than that in
liquid. They collide with each other but less often as Gas particles move freely and at random
and collide less often than in liquid.
compared to liquid. They exert virtually no forces of
Figure 4.1: The movement of particles in
attraction on each other. three states of matter.

Changes in States of Matter

Did you know?
Solid The helium balloons
you get at parties and
carnivals float because
Melting helium is lighter than the
Condensation
Sublimation air surrounding it.
Freezing

Condensing
Liquid Gas
Boiling
Figure 4.2: Interconversion of three states of matter.

Kinetic theory of matter can be used to explain how matter changes from one state to another
(Figure 4.2).

Solid

When a solid substance is heated, the heat energy weakens the force of attraction amongst
its particles. The regular pattern of the structure breaks down and the solid melts. The
temperature at which this takes place is called melting point of the substance.

Liquid

When a liquid is heated, the particles will move around even faster as their average energy
increases. Some particles at the surface of the liquid have enough energy to overcome
the forces of attraction between themselves and the other particles in the liquid, and they
escape to form a gas. The liquid begins to evaporate as a gas is formed. When the liquid is
heated enough, it reaches boiling point and changes from liquid to gas.

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Gas

When a gas is cooled, the average energy of the particles decreases and the particles
move closer together. The force of attraction between the particles increases and causes
the gas to condense into a liquid. When liquid is cooled, it freezes to form a solid. In each
of these changes, energy is given out.
Changes of state are examples of physical changes. Whenever a physical change of state
occurs, the temperature remains constant during the change.

Heating and Cooling Curve

A substance gains heat energy when it melts or boils. Even though the temperature of the
substance does not change during melting, boiling or freezing, but transfer of energy still
takes place.
Generally the heating curve for all pure
solid always stops rising at its melting 110 Steam (all gas)
point and gives rise to a sharp melting 100
point. A sharp melting point indicates a Liquid water
Temperature ( C)

Water and steam

pure sample. (liquid and gas)
g
In the same way, if you want to boil a tin
Ice and
Hea in
g
liquid such as water you have to give it l
water
C oo
some extra energy. This can be seen
on the graph (Figure 4.3) where the 0
(All solid)
curve levels out at 100°C – the boiling –15
Time (mins)
point of water. Solids and liquids can Figure 4.3: Graph for the transformation of ice from
be identified from their characteristics, −15°C to 110°C to water and then to steam.
melting and boiling points.

Explore

Find out, if you can make the ice melt faster. Will placing the ice in water melt it faster than air?
Try it out!

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Activity 4.1A Boiling point of water

Set the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.4 and discuss the safety measures to be observed during the
experiment.
Materials: Water, a beaker, a tripod stand, clamp stand, glass rod, a thermometer, a bunsen burner
and a wire gauze.

Clamp Thermometer
stand

Glass stirrer

Beaker
Water

Burner
Tripod
stand

Figure 4.4: Apparatus to examine the boiling point of water.

Procedure:
1. Measure 100ml of water using a measuring cylinder and pour it in a beaker.
2. Measure the temperature of the water and record it in a table. This is the starting temperature
(Time: 0 minutes).
3. Light the Bunsen burner and place it under the beaker.
4. Heat the water until it starts boiling.
5. Record the temperature of the water every minute.

Time/Min Temperature/°C
0
1
2
3
4

1. Plot a time-temperature graph to display the data collected by you.

2. Study the graph and explain the pattern of rise of temperature at every minute.
3. Note and describe the temperature at which the water starts boiling.

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Activity 4.1B Melting point of ice

Set the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.5.
Materials: Some ice cubes, a filter paper, a beaker, a tripod stand, clamp stand, a bunsen burner, a
wire gauze, glass rod and a thermometer.

Clamp Thermometer
stand

Glass stirrer

Beaker
Ice

Burner
Tripod
stand

Figure 4.5: Apparatus to examine the melting point of ice.

Procedure:
1. Using a filter paper dry some ice cubes and quickly put them in a beaker.
2. Place the wire gauze over a tripod stand and put the beaker on it.
3. Suspend a thermometer with the help of a clamp stand, which has a temperature range −10 to
110°C. Ensure that its bulb remains in the middle of the ice cubes.
4. Heat the ice cubes moderately by a gas burner and stir continuously using a glass rod.
5. Note the temperature when the ice starts melting. This is ‘t1’. Continue heating until the ice has
melted completely. Note the temperature. This is ‘t2’.
6. Copy and record your observations in the following table.

Melting Point
Initial temperature (t1) Final temperature (t2)
(t1 + t2)/2=

What do you conclude from the collected data?

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 Chapter 4 Changes in States of Matter

Questions
1. Explain how particles move in three states of matter.
2. Why does a solid expand when heated?
3. With the help of the kinetic particles theory, explain what happens when steam of the hot
water in the bathroom hits a cold surface, such as a mirror.
4. On heating curve diagram, what happens to the particles of solid when heat is added to it?
5. On the cooling curve diagram, identify a section in which average kinetic energy is increasing.

Summary
• Kinetic theory states that particles are in motion constantly and possess kinetic energy.
• Matter either loses or absorbs energy during the process of change of state.
• During a change in state, the heat energy is used to change the force of attraction between the
particles.
• A heating or a cooling curve is a simple line graph that shows the changes in the state of a given
substance with increasing or decreasing temperature.

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4.2 Diffusion

Diffusion in Relation with Kinetic Theory You will learn

Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high • Diffusion in relation
concentration to an area of low concentration until they are to kinetic theory
evenly distributed (Figure 4.6). Diffusion allows gradual mixing of • Diffusion in gases
substances, which results in complete mixing. and liquids

According to kinetic theory, particles are in a constant state of • Effect of mass and
temperature on rate
motion and move randomly. Due to the kinetic energy possessed
of diffusion
by the particles, all particles undergo diffusion.
Diffusion continues until the concentration is uniform throughout
the container, still all the particles keep moving with their kinetic
energy.
The rate of movement of particles depends
Before After
on the temperature and the mass of the
particles.

Diffusion in Gases
When food is being cooked in the kitchen, it
takes no time for you to quickly smell from
the other end of the house. Can you tell
why? The spreading of particles of gases
Figure 4.6: Movement of particles.
take place due to random movement of
particles. All gases diffuse to fill the space available to them.
Gases such as nitrogen monoxides are the part of gaseous pollutants that are produced
when nitrogen and oxygen react in the high temperatures of vehicle engine. At these high
temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen from the air combine to form nitrogen monoxide. When
this monoxide is released into the air through vehicle exhaust, it further combines with
the oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide. Thus, this pollutant created due to diffusion
causes smog, acid rain etc.

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Activity 4.2 Diffusion of bromine gas in air

Materials: A gas jar containing orange bromine gas, an empty gas jar and glass lid.

Bromine
apo
vapour

mine
Bromine
vapour
pour

Before After
Figure 4.7: Setup showing diffusion of bromine gas.
Method
1. Place a gas jar of air over a gas jar containing orange bromine gas with a cover placed between
the two jars to separate the gases as shown in (Figure 4.7).
2. Now, remove the cover, the gas in both jars looks the same within a few minutes. What do you
observe? Note down your observation.

Diffusion in Liquids
Have you ever noticed that if a drop of
food colour is added in a beaker of water,
gradually the water in the beaker becomes
coloured?
This is because the particles of the food
colour and water move around randomly,
colliding with each other. After some time,
these random movements cause the
particles to get evenly spread.
Thus, the food colour diffuses throughout
the water to form a uniform solution. This is
called diffusion in liquids (Figure 4.8). Figure 4.8: Diffusion in Liquid.

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Activity 4.3 Diffusion in liquids

Materials: Some crystals of potassium permanganate, a beaker, a spatula and some water.

Procedure
• Put some crystals of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in a beaker.
• Observe what happens.
• Record your observation and explain.

Rate of Diffusion in Gases and in Liquids

Diffusion is caused by the kinetic energy possessed by the particles. Particles are in
constant motion due to their kinetic energy. Diffusion occurs when particles are in random
motion and move away from each other.
Diffusion is much slower in liquids than that in gases. This is because particles of a liquid
move much more slowly.

Effect of Mass and Temperature on Diffusion

Rate of diffusion is affected by the mass and temperature.
Mass of the particle also affects the rate of diffusion. The rate of diffusion decreases, as the
mass of the particle increases because the particle becomes less movable.
Temperature also influences the rate of diffusion. Kinetic energy of the particles increases,
as temperature increases. Thus the speed of particles also increases, which in turn
increases the rate of diffusion.

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 Chapter 4 Changes in States of Matter

Questions
1. When you make coffee, people in all parts of the room soon notice the smell. Use kinetic theory to
explain how this happens.
2. Why do particles in a matter move/vibrate?
3. What is the rate of diffusion in liquids and gases?
4. Name the factors that affect the rate of diffusion. Explain why diffusion is faster in gases than that in
liquids.

Summary
• Diffusion is the movement of particles from high concentration to low concentration.
• Diffusion occurs due to the kinetic energy possessed by the particles.
• Rate of diffusion is faster in gases than that in liquids.
• Mass and temperature affects the rate of diffusion.

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4.3 End of Unit Questions

4.1. Kinetic theory and energy changes

I. Copy and use the kinetic theory to answer the following questions:
(i) When you take an ice cube from the freezer, it starts melting. Where do you think the energy
comes from to melt the ice?
(ii) What do you think happens to the speed of the molecules in the ice when it is heated?
(iii) What happens to the added energy, when the state of matter changes?

4.2. Diffusion

II. Copy and the answer the following questions:

(i) Describe the process of melting of ice in terms of particles present.
(ii) Why is diffusion in liquids slower than that in gases?
(iii) What does boiling according to the particle theory mean?
(iv) When a liquid loses energy, will it become a gas or a solid?

III. Think critically and answer the following questions:

(i) A balloon filled with hydrogen gas shrinks faster than a balloon filled with air. What could be
the reason?
(ii) Why the higher temperature increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa?

IV. Practicing Islam

We know that atoms are really small and cannot be seen through the naked eye. Isn’t it marvelous
that this has been mentioned in Qur’an?
In the meaning of Quranic verse (10:61)

“And nothing is hidden from your Lord (so much as) the weight of an atom on the earth
or in the heaven. Nor (is there) what is less than that or what is greater than that but is
(written) in a Clear Record.)” (10:61)

Few hundreds years ago curious and interested scientists were able to find out that atom exists
and its minute nature.
Search and find out the scientists who discovered the existence of the atom and the nature of atom.
As Muslims, it is recommend to ponder over the creations of Allah (SWT) and the unmatchable
knowledge of Allah.

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 5 Separating Techniques

5.1 Types of Mixtures

A mixture is formed when one or more substances are mixed

You will learn
together. A mixture is not a pure substance, but it retains many of
• Types of mixtures
the properties of its components. A mixture is made from different
substances that are not chemically joined. It is possible to separate
the components in a mixture provided that there is a suitable
difference in their physical properties. Mixtures can be solids, liquids and gases.

Types of Mixtures
A mixture can be made by mixing two or more substances in the same state or different
states.
Mixtures are of two types: homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Homogeneous mixture

When a substance has the same

composition throughout, it is
called a homogeneous substance. Water Sugar
solution
For example, when you mix sugar
Sugar
with water and make a sugar solution,
it has the same composition. Such Figure 5.1: Sugar solution.
solutions are homogeneous mixtures
(Figure 5.1).
When two or three metals are mixed in certain
proportion, we get an alloy, which has the same
composition throughout. For example, stainless steel, which
is a mixture of iron, chromium and nickel, is an alloy and is
a homogeneous mixture. These metals mix up perfectly to
become alloys. Stainless steel

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Heterogeneous mixture

When two substances are mixed together in such a way that they do not have uniform
composition, such a mixture is called a heterogeneous mixture.
For example, if you mix oil in a beaker of water, you make a heterogeneous mixture. The
components can be physically separated.
A fruit salad is another example of heterogeneous mixture.

Heterogeneous mixture of Heterogeneous mixture of

water and oil different fruits

Heterogeneous mixtures include colloids and suspensions. Did you know?

Colloids: A colloid is a mixture in which very small particles The beam of headlights
of a vehicle is visible
of one substance are evenly distributed throughout another
in fog because of a
substance. Milk is an example of a colloid. phenomenon called the
Suspensions: A suspension is a mixture of a liquid and particles Tyndall effect. When
a light beam passes
of a solid where particles do not dissolve. The particles remain
through the water
suspended throughout the liquid. A mixture of water and sand is droplets, which is a
an example of a suspension. colloid, the individual
suspension particles
scatter and reflect
the light, making the
headlight beam visible.

Milk is a colloid Water and sand mixture

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 Chapter 5 Separating Techniques

Questions
1. Define homogeneous mixtures with the help of examples.
2. What do you call a mixture in which the components do not have uniform properties and
composition? Give examples of such mixture.
3. What is a colloid and how it is different from suspension?

Activity 5.1 Type of mixture

Copy and complete the following table by filling in the type of mixture: Heterogeneous mixture/
solution/suspension/colloids

Example Type of mixture

Salt water
Green salad
Chalk powder in water
Jelly
Vanilla ice cream with fruit
Instant coffee in water
Oil and water

Summary
• A mixture is formed when one or more substances are mixed together.
• Mixtures are of two types: homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• The mixture with the same composition throughout is called a homogeneous mixture.
• The mixture that does not have uniform composition is called a heterogeneous mixture.

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5.2 Separation of Mixtures

You will learn
Separation Techniques • Fractional distillation
Mixtures can be in many forms and states. The components of most
• Paper
of the mixtures can be separated. The kind of separation method to chromatography
be used to separate the components depends on the kind of mixture • Importance of these
and the properties of the substances present. It also depends on techniques
whether the substances to be separated are solids, liquids or gases.
Let us learn about some common separation methods.

Fractional distillation

This method is used to separate a solution of two miscible liquids where the substances have
different boiling points. Miscible liquids are liquids that dissolve in each other. For example,
ethanol, which is an alcohol, can be separated from a mixture of ethanol and water by fractional
distillation. This method suits best because the two liquids have different boiling points.

Thermometer

Water out
Fractionating
Column

Cold
Water
Mixture of
Distillate water and
ethanol

Figure 5.2: Fractional distillation.

In such a mixture of two miscible liquids, the boiling point of one liquid will be lower than the
other. For example, the boiling point of pure ethanol is 78 C and that of pure water is 100 C.
The apparatus is set up as shown in Figure 5.2. When the mixture of alcohol and water is
heated, the liquid with the lower boiling point boils first and changes into vapour. The vapour,
which turns back into liquid, is cooled in the condenser and is collected in a container.
A fractionating column helps the miscible liquids to get separated from one another based
on their boiling point. Within this column, the liquid with a lower boiling point will vaporise
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first and move on to the condenser. This is followed by vaporisation of the other liquid
and the process continues until all the liquids are separated by cycles of vaporisation and
condensation.
Condenser is used to cool down the vapours of the miscible liquids so that they can be
collected one at a time.
Precaution has to be taken while heating the liquids. Overheating will cause the liquids to spill
above the round bottom flask and the alcohol might catch fire causing a laboratory accident.
After the liquid with lower boiling point is collected, the remaining liquid will boil and
collected. Thus the mixture of two liquids is separated.

Uses of fractional distillation

Fractional distillation is also used to separate the components of ‘crude oil’ or petroleum
into its useful fractions like kerosene, diesel and petrol. This technique is often used for
obtaining different gases from the air.

Questions
1. What is the main principle behind the technique to separate miscible liquids by fractional distillation?
2. Which liquid out of the two miscible liquids will boil first?
3. Which liquid out of the two miscible liquids is collected later and why?

Chromatography

Chromatography is a method for the separation, identification and determination of

chemical components of a complex mixture. The technique separates compounds based
on differences in their structure, size and composition. There are various chromatography
techniques, here we will learn about paper chromatography.
In chromatography, the components of a mixture of coloured compounds are separated by
passing it in solution through a medium in which the components move at different rates.
This method is usually applied to separate the components of ink, dyes and colouring
agents in food.
When simple chromatography is carried out on a paper, it is called paper chromatography.
A drop of the mixture is smeared on a chromatography paper/filter paper (Figure 5.3).
The paper is then placed vertically in a trough of solvent such as water. As the paper
gets soaked upwards, the mixture is carried with it. The individual components in the
mixture move at different rates. This way the components of the mixture separate out.
The movement of the solvent through the paper is due to the capillary action, which
dissolves the spot.

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The rate at which the components of the

mixture and the solvent move up in the paper Solvent
Front
is different. They separate because the
Separated
substances have different solubilities in the Dyes 10

solvent and are absorbed to different degrees

Filter Paper 4
by the chromatography paper. As a result, Ink Spots
they are separated gradually as the solvent
Solvent
moves up the paper. This difference in rate at
which each component in the mixture moves
along the paper results in their separation. It Figure 5.3: Paper chromatography.

can be calculated by applying a formula.

Rf value or the ‘Retention Factor’ is the ratio of the distance travelled by a component with
the distance travelled by the solvent up in the paper.
Look at the above example, a component has moved up 4 cm in the paper and the solvent
moved up 10cm.
Rf distance travelled by the component (D )/distance travelled by the solvent (D )
1 2
D D
1 2
4 10
0.4
It has been noticed that the Rf value of a particular compound is usually the same.
Thus industries use paper chromatography to identify compounds in mixtures. Paper
chromatography is often used in food industry.
Let us perform an activity to separate the components of ink by this technique.

Activity 5.2 Separate the components of ink

Materials: A pencil, a chromatography paper, a beaker, a glass rod and some water.

Figure 5.4: Separating the components of ink.

Procedure:
Draw a pencil line near the end of the chromatography paper (Figure 5.4).
Put a drop of the ink on the pencil line. Ensure that the drop should be as small as possible.
Let the drop of the ink dry up and then add a little more ink. Fill some water in the beaker.

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With the help of a glass rod, suspend the paper in such a manner that the ink drop is above the
water level.
As the water moves up, carefully observe and record your observation.

Questions
1. Why a pencil mark is drawn on the chromatography paper?
2. What is the reason for the paper to be suspended just above the water level?
3. Will the techniques work, if a normal paper is used instead of a filter paper or a blotting paper? Why
or why not?
4. What do you think would happen if you use a different solvent?

Locating agents

Sometimes the components to be separated from the mixtures are colourless. In such
a case, locating agents are used to locate colourless components, which have been
separated in the chromatography.
Locating agents bind to the chemicals in the spots. Locating agents are applied to the
chromatogram to make these visible.

Importance of paper chromatography

Paper chromatography has a lot of importance as it is an inexpensive method for separating

mixtures. It is an effective method for identifying the components in a mixture. This
technique is used in several scientific studies to identify the unknown compounds from a
mixture. Paper chromatography is used as an analytical chemistry technique to identify and
separate coloured mixtures like pigments.

Summary
• Fractional distillation is used to separate a solution of two miscible liquids with different boiling
points.
• Chromatography is a technique to separate the components of a mixture of coloured compounds.
• Rf value is the ratio of the distance travelled by a component with the distance travelled by the
solvent up in the chromatography paper.
• Locating agents are used to locate the components of colourless components.

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5.3 End of Unit Questions

5.1. Types of mixtures

1. Copy and complete the Venn diagram below by listing the similarities and differences
between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

5.2. Separating techniques

Copy and answer the following questions:

2. Define fractional distillation and describe the process using an example.
3. List some of the uses of fractional distillation.
4. What is paper chromatography? Explain with an example.
5. What is Rf value? How is it calculated?
6. What are locating agents? Why are they used?
7. Name the process that separates air into different gases.
8. What would happen if you used permanent ink instead of water-soluble ink in paper
chromatography test?

9. Practicing Islam
The advancement in food technology has been progressing so much that it is getting more
complicated. All sorts of ingredients that are difficult to understand by the consumer are being
used in food products. Halal authentication can no longer solely rely on physical inspection
and documentation anymore. It is also using latest hi-tech analytical instrumentation. Some
researchers have developed a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic method for
detecting lard in mixtures of other animal fats such as chicken, lamb and cow.
Beside these, chromatographic techniques such as gas chromatography (GC) and high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) also have been used in halal authentication.
Research and find out how GC and HPLC are used in halal authentication of food samples.

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 Atoms, Elements
6 and Compounds
6.1 Structure of Atom You will learn
• Structure of atoms
Structure of Atoms • Arrangement of
An atom is the smallest particle of matter. The word ‘atom’ electrons

has been derived from the Greek word ‘atomos’, which

means indivisible, that is ‘cannot be divided’. It was
e Electron
thought that an atom could not be further broken into
e
smaller particles.
Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining Nucleus P Proton
e e
structure of elements. Atoms are made up of three N
Neutron
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Every atom
e
contains a very small, dense, central core called the
e
nucleus, which contains one or more protons and
Figure 6.1: Structure of an atom.
neutrons around which one or more electrons moving
around (Figure 6.1).
Characteristics of a proton, a neutron and an electron.

Particle Symbol Relative charge Relative mass

Proton p +1 1
Neutron n 0 1
Electron e -1 1/1837

Although atoms contain electrically charged particles, the atoms e

themselves are electrically neutral (they have no overall electric charge).
This is because atoms contain equal numbers of electrons and protons.
For example, the nucleus of helium atom has two protons and two P N

neutrons, and there are two electrons around the nucleus (Figure 6.2). N P

Isotopes
e
The number of protons present in an element determines the ‘atomic
number’. The number of protons and neutrons together define the Figure 6.2: A helium atom.
mass number.
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The number of protons in an element is constant, but the number of

neutron may vary. Thus, mass number (protons neutrons) may also vary.
6N
Atoms of the same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons. 6P
Carbon
12C
These forms of an element are called isotopes. 6

Let us take the example of carbon. Carbon atoms have 6 protons in their Structure of carbon atom

nucleus. Most carbon atoms have 6 neutrons, which make the atomic Structure of
mass 12 (6 protons 6 neutrons 12), which is denoted as 12C. carbon atom

Some Carbon atoms have one or two extra neutrons, which make the
atomic mass 13 and 14 (6 protons 7 neutrons 13) and (6 protons 8 neutrons 14).
These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes of carbon. The chemical properties of
isotopes are the same, although the physical properties of some isotopes may be different.

The Arrangement of Electrons

Did you know?
First Energy Level
2 electrons Certain isotopes
of elements are
unstable; they are
Second Energy
Level 8 electrons radioactive, meaning
they ‘radiate’ energy,
giving off radiation, a
phenomenon known
as radioactivity.
Such an isotope is
called a radioisotope.
Figure 6.3: Arrangement of electrons in an atom. Carbon-14 is a
radioisotope of carbon.

Protons and neutrons are present inside the nucleus. The electrons revolve around the
nucleus and are found at significant distances from the nucleus.
They revolve in fixed orbits also called shells or energy levels. Letters starting from K, L, N
to Q represent the energy levels.
Each energy level has the capacity to hold only a certain number of electrons. The lowest
energy level is 1, and it is denoted with integer n 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. An atom can have
maximum 7 energy levels and electrons can change their levels according to their energies.
The first level (nearest the nucleus) can only hold 2 electrons, the second holds 8, and the
third can hold 18 electrons (Figure 6.3). Number of electrons present in the outermost shell
is called the valence electrons. This number is considered as the valency of that element.
The arrangement of electrons in the various energy levels or shells of an atom of the
element is known is electronic configuration of the element.

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To write down the electronic configuration, you need to know the atomic number of the
element or the number of electrons in one atom of the element.
You can find number of electrons in energy level using the following formula: 2n2.
1st energy level has: 2n2 2(1)2 2 electrons
2nd energy level has: 2n2 2(2)2 8 electrons
3rd energy level has: 2n2 2(3)2 18 electrons
Electrons are located in different energy levels starting from the first energy levels. If one of
the energy level is full, then electrons are placed following energy level. Let us look at
examples of some atoms of the elements (atomic numbers given):

O Ca Cl Na

Oxygen (8) Calcium (20) Chlorine (17) Sodium (11)

Activity 6.1 Atomic structure of an element

Draw the atomic structure of an element using the following information:
1. Five protons and six neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. Guess the number of electrons.
2. Label them with their charge.
3. Draw the electronic configuration showing electrons in different energy levels.
4. Find out which element is represented?

Questions
1. Define nucleon.
2. Define isotope with an example.

Summary
• Atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
• Same element with varying numbers of neutrons in their atoms are called isotopes.
• The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits also called shells or energy levels.
• Each energy level has capacity to hold only a certain number of electrons.
• The arrangement of electrons in the various energy levels or shells of an atom of the element is
known as electronic configuration.

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6.2 Periodic Table

Scientists developed a table in which elements are arranged in

You will learn
order of their increasing atomic number. This table is called the
• Trends in periodic
‘Periodic table’.
table
The Periodic Table is a classification system for the elements • Groups, periods and
(Figure 6.4). At present, 118 different elements are known. Each position of metals
element has its own name, symbol, atomic number and position and non-metals
on the Periodic Table. • Mendeleev vs.
Modern Periodic
Table

0
Period Group 4
1

1
H 2
He
1 1 2 Hydrogen 3 4 5 6 7 Helium

7 9 11 12 14 16 18 20

2 3
Li 4
Be 5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40

3 11
Na 12
Mg 13
Al 14
Si 15
P 16
S 17
Cl 18
Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63.5 65 70 73 78 79 80 84

4 19
K 20
Ca 21
Sc 22
Ti 23
V 24
Cr 25
Mn 26
Fe 27
Co 28
Ni 29
Cu 30
Zn 31
Ga 32
Ge 33
As 34
Se 35
Br 36
Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

85 86 89 91 93 96 99 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 126 127 132

5 37
Rb 38
Sr 39
Y 40
Zr 41
Nb 42
Mo 43
Tc 44
Ru 45
Rh 46
Pd 47
Ag 48
Cd 49
In 50
Sn 51
Sb 52
Te 53
I 54
Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

133 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222

6 55
Cs 56
Ba 72
Hf 73
Ta 74
W 75
Re 76
Os 77
Ir 78
Pt 79
Au 80
Hg 81
Ti 82
Pb 83
Bi 84
Po 85
At 86
Rn
Cesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

223 226 261 262 263 262 269 268 281 272 285 284 285 288 292 232

7 87
Fr 88
Ra 104
Rf 105
Db 106
Sg 107
Bh 108
Hs 109
Mt 110
Ds 111
Rg 112
Uub 113
Uut 114
Uuq 115
Uup 116
Uuh 118
Uno
Francium Radium Unnilquadium Unnilpentium Unnilhexium Unnilseptium Unniloctium Unnilennium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Lithium

139 140 141 144 147 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175

57
La 58
Ce 59
Pr 60
Nd 61
Pm 62
Sm 63
Eu 64
Gd 65
Tb 66
Dy 67
Ho 68
Er 69
Tm 70
Yb 71
Lu
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

227 232 231 238 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 260

89
Ac 90
Th 91
Pa 92
U 93
Np 94
Pu 95
Am 96
Cm 97
Bk 98
Cf 99
Es 100
Fm 101
Md 102
No 103
Lr
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

Key
reactive metals metalloids

transition metals non-metals

poor metals noble gases

Figure 6.4: Periodic table.

The above periodic table contains all of the 118 elements. You may find it quite complex.
Let us first understand how the periodic table is organised.

Trends in Periodic Table

The specific patterns in the periodic table that demonstrates different properties of an
element is called periodic trends. These include the atomic size and its electronic
properties.

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The periodic table is organised in rows and columns. The rows are called periods. The
columns are called groups.
Look at the periodic table: Each element has a unique number (Figure 6.4). This is the
atomic number. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons that element
has in its atoms. Since each element has a different number of protons in its atoms, each
element also has a unique atomic number. As you read across each row (period) from left
to right, the atomic number increases. Thus, we can say that the elements are arranged in
order of their increasing atomic number.
The periodic table has vertical columns. These columns are called the groups. The
elements in each group has the same number of electrons in their outer orbital.
Because they have the same number of electrons in their outer orbital, the elements share
similar properties and have been grouped together. For example, all elements of group 1
have 1 electron in their outer orbital.

Position of Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids in the P

­ eriodic Table
In the periodic table, elements with similar properties are close together. You can see
a stair-stepped line starting at Boron (B), atomic number 5, and going down to
Polonium (Po), atomic number 84 (Figure 6.4).
All the elements to the left of that line (except for (Ge) Germanium and (Sb) Antimony) are
classified as metals.
These metals have properties that you relate with the metals you use in everyday life:
• They are solid (except of mercury, Hg, a liquid).
• They are shiny, good conductors of electricity and heat.
• They are ductile and malleable.
The elements to the right of the stair-stepped line are classified as non-metals (along with
hydrogen). Non-metals have properties opposite those of the metals.
The non-metals are brittle, not malleable or ductile, poor conductors of both heat and
electricity and tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions. Some non-metals are liquids.
The elements that are included in the stair-stepped line are classified as metalloids. The
metalloids, or semimetals, have properties that are somewhat of a cross between metals
and non-metals.
Let us understand what ‘Modern Periodic Table’ and ‘Mendeleev’s Periodic Table’ say.

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Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Russian scientist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev arranged the elements in increasing order
of their relative atomic masses. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that the properties of
elements are the periodic function of their relative atomic masses.
He arranged all elements (63 elements were discovered till his time) in the order of their
increasing relative atomic masses in a tabular form. It is known as Mendeleev’s Periodic
Table. He divided the table in eight columns and seven rows. The columns are known as
groups and rows are known as periods.

Modern Periodic Law

The Modern Periodic Law states that ‘Properties of elements are a periodic function of
their atomic number’. Atomic number is the basis for modern periodic table. Elements are
arranged in the increasing order of atomic numbers.
This form of periodic table consists of vertical columns called groups and horizontal rows
called periods.
Elements in the modern periodic table are arranged in 7 periods and 18 groups.
Horizontal rows are called periods and vertical columns are called groups.
Elements are placed in periods based on the number of shells in their atoms.
The modern periodic table is based on atomic number, which is the more fundamental
property. The position of an element in this periodic table is linked to its electronic
configuration. The position of isotopes of an element is justified.
The modern periodic table is accepted universally.

Questions
1. State the arrangement of elements in the periodic table.
2. What are groups and periods in a periodic table?
3. What do elements in the same group have in common?
4. What does the position of an element on the Periodic Table tell us about its properties?

Explore

Hydrogen is listed with the metals but is a non-metal. Write down your findings.

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Activity 6.2 Elements

Copy the following and fill out the information on each element based on the atomic number of the
element given as 20, 14, 7 and 2:
Name_________, Colour___________, State __________, Malleable________,
Type (metal/non-metal/metalloid) __________, Ductile________
Conductor of heat/electricity_______.

Summary
• Scientists arranged elements in a tabular form, called Periodic table.
• The Periodic Table is organised in rows and columns.
• The rows are called periods.
• The columns are called groups.
• The elements on the right side of the table are metals.
• The elements on the left side of the table are non-metals.
• The elements in the stair-stepped line are metalloids.

Scientist in Focus
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) was a Russian chemist and
inventor best known for his discovery of the Periodic Law and for his
formulation of the Periodic Table. Mendeleev released his Periodic Table in
1869. He compiled the Periodic Table in ascending order of atomic weight
of the elements and grouped them by similarity of properties. He even
predicted the existence and properties of three new elements and correctly
assumed that accepted atomic weights of some of the elements were
incorrect.

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6.3 Formation of Compounds

Formation of Compounds You will learn

Some elements cannot exist in free state in nature. They have a • Formation of
tendency to combine with each other and form compounds. compounds

A chemical bond is formed during the formation of compounds as • Formation of cations

the atoms of the elements share or transfer electrons. Two or more and anions

kinds of atoms are bonded. For example, sodium chloride is formed • Names and formula
of compounds
when sodium atoms bond with chlorine atoms.
A compound is a pure substance formed by the combination of two
or more elements in fixed proportions. The properties of a compound are different from its
constituent elements. For example, when sodium atoms and chlorine atoms bond together,
they form the compound sodium chloride, which is very different from either sodium or chlorine.

Formation of Cations and Anions

When atoms lose or gain
electrons, ions are formed. Ions
are electrically charged particles.
Loses Outer
When metal atoms lose Na Electron Na+
electrons they become positively
charged and are called cations
(Figure 6.5).
Sodium Atom Sodium Ion
When non-metal atoms gain
electrons and form negative Figure 6.5: Sodium ion.

charges, they are called anions –

(Figure 6.6).

Ionic, covalent and metallic

bonding

Bonding can be of different kinds

such as ionic, covalent and metallic.
Chlorine atom, Chloride ion,
Ionic bonding involves the complete Cl 2,8,7
–
Cl (2,8,8)
–

transfer of valence electrons Figure 6.6: Chloride ion.

between the atoms during formation
of a compound. In this kind of bonding, two oppositely charged ions are generated. For
example, sodium chloride (table salt); it has two atoms, namely sodium and chlorine. Sodium
loses its valence electron and becomes positively charged sodium ion, while chlorine accepts

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 Chapter 6 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

an electron in its valence shell and becomes negatively charged chloride ion. The sodium and
chloride ions then bind together to form the compound sodium chloride (Figure 6.7).

Na + CI Na + CI

Sodium atom Chloride atom Sodium cation Chloride anion

(Na) + (Cl) (Na+) + (Cl–)
Figure 6.7: Ionic bonding in sodium chloride (NaCl).

Metallic bonding involves attraction between metal ions and valence electrons. In this
type of bonding, many delocalised (free to move) electrons are shared between metal ions.
Since the metal ions are always positively charged, the electrons act as a glue to stick the
metal ions together and impart a proper structure to it (Figure 6.8).

Positively + + + +
charged e– e– e–
ions e–
e– e–
+ + +
e–
e–
+ e– + + e– +
e–

Free electrons from outer shells of metal atoms

Figure 6.8: Metals contain positively charged ions surrounded by negative delocalised electrons.

Covalent bond is formed by sharing of electron pairs between atoms (Figure 6.9). It is also
known as molecular bond. These electrons are known as bonding pairs of electrons. When
atoms share electrons, there is a stable balance of attraction and repulsion between the
atoms. Therefore, a covalent bond is very strong and difficult to break.

H + H H2
– –
–

+ + + +

2 hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule

Figure 6.9: Two hydrogen atoms share electrons to form a single covalent bond in hydrogen
molecule.

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Naming a Compound
Every compound has a name, which is a combination of symbols of elements. The name of
a compound represents one molecule of that compound. There are certain rules to name a
compound:
Sodium chloride is formed by the combination of one metal (sodium) and a non-metal
(chlorine). Thus, the name of the metal comes first in the name of the compound. The name
of the non-metal is usually changed. The chlorine becomes ‘chloride’. When two elements
form an ionic compound, the name often ends in ‘ide’. Then it is represented as NaCl, by
the symbols of the two elements.
Let us take another example of a compound calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
This compound contains two different elements and a third element – oxygen. The
elements are calcium, carbon and oxygen forming calcium carbonate. The name of these
compounds end with ‘ate’.

Writing a formula

Look at the formulae of some compounds that contain hydrogen such as hydrochloric acid
(HCl), water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4).
You must have noticed that in each case one atom of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon combine with different numbers of hydrogen atoms. This is because the valency of
hydrogen is 1.
The valency of an element is its combining capacity. In other words, we can say valency is
the power of an atom of an element to combine with other atoms.
When we write the formula of a compound, we write the symbols of the elements side by
side and the valencies on top as we write the superscripts. Interchange the numbers and
put them as subscripts to get the formula.
For example,
H1 Cl1 H1 O2
HCl (hydrochloric acid) H2O (water)
Similarly the formula of sodium chloride is NaCl. If the name ends with an -ide, there will be
usually only two elements in the compound, for example, sodium chloride (NaCl). The metal
part is named first and the non-metal part second. The non-metal’s name is changed to -ide
to show that it is now joined in a compound.

Chemical equation
A chemical equation is the representation of a chemical reaction. Here, symbols and
formulae of different molecules are used to show the reaction between two or more
compounds. In a chemical equation, the reactants are given on the left-hand side and

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the products are given on the right-hand side. For example, formation of carbon dioxide
involves the reaction between carbon and oxygen molecules and can be written as:
C (1 molecule of carbon) + O2 (1 molecule of oxygen) = CO2 (1 molecule of carbon dioxide)
Water is formed by the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen molecules
H2 (1 molecule of hydrogen) + O2 (1 molecule of oxygen) = 2H2O (2 molecules of water)
Similarly, ammonia is formed by reaction between a nitrogen molecule and hydrogen
molecules.
N2 (1 molecule of nitrogen)+ 3H2 (3 molecules of hydrogen) = 2NH3 (2 molecules of ammonia)

Questions
1. What is a chemical bond?
2. What does the name of a compound represent?
3. What are cations and anions?
4. What is the difference between an ionic bond and a metallic bond?
5. How is a covalent bond formed? Give examples of covalent compounds.
6. How is a chemical equation defined? Give one example.

Summary
• Some elements have a tendency to combine with each other and form compounds.
• A chemical bond is formed during the formation of compounds by sharing and transferring of
electrons.
• The name of a compound represents one molecule of that compound.
• The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency.

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6.4 End of Unit Questions

6.1. Structure of atom

Copy and answer the following questions:

1. Write the distribution of electrons in the following atoms: carbon, sodium, oxygen, sulphur,
lithium, silicon, phosphorous, nitrogen.
2. Calculate the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom ‘X’ with number of
electrons 15 and mass number 31. Identify the element.
3. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the K-shell of an
atom? Name the element that has only the K-shell. State any one property of that element.
4. What is the number of valence electron in chlorine? State the complete electron distribution
with diagram.
5. The atomic number of fluorine is 9 and its atomic mass is 19. What is the number of neutrons
present in its nucleus?

6.2. Periodic table

6. Copy and circle the correct element for each of the following:

Li Si S Metal
K Ca Sc Maximum atomic mass
S Cl Ar Member of halogen family
Mg Pb N Maximum atomic number
Si Ge Sn Four energy levels
As Se Br 6 valence electrons
Pb Bi Po Metalloid

6.3. Formation of compound

7. Copy and match the following compounds with name and their chemical formula and
mention the elements that form the compounds

Chemical Elements that form the

Name of the compound
formula compound
Magnesium chloride Ca3(PO4)2
Sodium fluoride NH4I
Ammonium iodide K2CO3
Calcium phosphate MgCl2
Potassium carbonate NaF

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8. Look at the periodic table and answer the following questions:

(i) What charge will a group 2 cation have?
(ii) What charge will a group 16 anion have?
(iii) What charge will a group 15 anion have?

(Hint: Anions gain electrons so that they have a full outer shell and cations lose electrons
so that they have an empty outer shell.)

9. Answer the following questions:

a. Write the chemical formula for the formation of phosphoric acid. Explain how the chemical
formula of the reactants and products have been derived while writing this equation.
b. Amongst ionic, covalent and metallic bonding which one is the strongest and which one is
the weakest? Give reasons.
c. Give example of metallic bond and explain how this bond is formed.

10. Practicing Islam

Iron is one of the elements highlighted in the Qur’an. Many scientific miracles are associated
with this element. Search the Internet and find out the miracles associated with this element.
You can look into:
(i) Atomic number
(ii) The position of the Surah
(iii) Isotope
(iv) Reflect on the verse which mentions iron in the Qur’an.

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7.1 Motion

Motion is defined as the change in position of an object with

respect to a reference point. A person sees himself/herself
You will learn
moving after making
• Speed vs. velocity
comparison with some
object or point. This • Uniform and non-
uniform motion
becomes the reference
• Acceleration
point from where the
change in position from
Movement of a car with respect to a one point to another can
tree as a reference point be measured.

Think Critically
When two dhoanis are coming from opposite side, can one of the dhoanis be considered as a reference
point with respect to another?

Motion is expressed in terms of speed and velocity. When

a cyclist travels a certain distance in a particular time, it is 25km
A B
called the speed of the cyclist. The velocity of the cyclist is D 12km
5km
defined as the displacement of the cyclist during a particular 13km
C
time (Figure 7.1). Speed is a scalar quantity (having Figure 7.1: Movement of a cyclist.
magnitude and unit) whereas velocity is a vector quantity
(having magnitude, unit and direction).
Total distance travelled by the cyclist AB BC CD
25 13 5 43km
Total displacement of the cyclist is AD AB – BD
25 – 12 13km

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 Chapter 7 Force and Motion

43km
So speed of the cyclist 21.5km/hr
2hr
13km
And velocity of the cyclist 6.5km/hr towards north
2hr

Uniform Motion
A boat in water covers 15km distance in every 1hr. The boat is travelling with
uniform motion as it is covering equal distance in equal intervals of time (Figure 7.2).
The boat is travelling at constant speed along a straight line. The velocity of boat is also
constant.

15km in 1hr 15km in 1hr 15km in 1hr

Figure 7.2: A boat travelling with uniform motion.

Non-uniform Motion
A boat in water covers 12km distance in the first hour, 18km in the second hour and 15km
in the third hour. The boat is said to be travelling with non-uniform motion as it is covering
unequal distance in equal intervals of time (Figure 7.3).
In non-uniform motion:
• A body moves with different speeds (velocity) along a straight path in equal intervals of
time. For example, a bike moving on the straight road.
• A body moves with same speed in different directions in equal intervals of time. For
example, a girl running inside a circular path.

12km in 1hr 18km in 1hr 15km in 1hr

Figure 7.3: A boat travelling with non-uniform motion.

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Acceleration
Did you know?
A boat in non-uniform motion changes its velocity over time. The
The speedometer
rate at which an object changes its velocity is called acceleration. present in vehicles
Change in velocity would either be caused by changing speeds shows the speed
or changing directions while moving. It is a vector quantity. The of the vehicle at a
SI unit of acceleration is m/s2. particular instant of time.
This speed is called
Change in velocity
Acceleration instantaneous speed.
Time taken

Explore

Find and discuss some cases of negative acceleration.

Freely falling objects also undergo acceleration due to the force

exerted by the Earth, which is called acceleration due to gravity.
It is denoted by g and its value on Earth is 9.8m/s2.

Questions
1. A bike is moving with constant speed around a circular path. Will the bike undergo acceleration? Why?
2. The cycling speed of two friends are 5m/s and 80m in 20s? Whose cycling speed is faster?
3. While playing, a kid pushed a toy car backward and then forward. The toy started to gain speed,
after a while it slowed down and finally stopped? Describe the motion of the car?
4. While hitting a cricket ball with a bat, what quantities in terms of acceleration will change?

Summary
• Motion is defined as the change in position of an object with respect to a reference point.
• Motion is expressed in terms of speed and velocity.
• Motion can be uniform or non-uniform.
• The rate at which an object changes its velocity is called acceleration.
• Freely falling objects experience acceleration due to gravity.

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7.2 Laws of Motion

Many scientists have been working on laws and rules to find the
You will learn
cause of change in the motion. In 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton
• Newton’s Laws of
came up with general rules about the movement of objects. These
Motion
rules (called Newton’s Laws of Motion) define the cause of change
in motion and how motion is related to force and mass.

Newton’s 1st Law of Motion

The state of an object (moving or at rest)

will not change until some unbalanced
force is applied on it.

A coconut will remain on the tree unless some

external force makes it fall down from the tree.
The force could be either a natural force such as
wind or it could be a person plucking it and letting
it fall. Once the coconut starts falling, it continues
Coconuts at rest on a tree
to fall unless it reaches the ground or some other
force stops it, for example, a person catching the coconut before it falls to the ground. This
phenomenon can be explained by inertia. Inertia helps a moving object to remain in motion
and a non-moving object to remain at rest. Application of an external force overcomes the
inertia, thereby changing the state of rest or motion of an object.
If net force is zero or balanced velocity (speed and direction) of the object is constant.

Think Critically Did you know?

A moving object tends to come to a stop after slowing down. In this case, You can be up to 5cm
no external force is applied to stop the object. What could be the reason? taller in a space station
because of zero gravity.
This is because gravity
will not push you down
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion and therefore your spine
will straighten out.
The acceleration of an object produced
by a net (total) applied force is directly
related to the magnitude of the force, the
same direction as the force and inversely
related to the mass of the object.

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According to Newton’s second law of motion, forces of different magnitudes are applied to
move vehicles, row boats and pull luggage.
The second law shows the relation amongst net force that will be required to move an
object of a given mass.
Force acting on an object = mass of the object acceleration
or, F m a
For lighter objects, less force is required to produce acceleration whereas for heavy objects
more force is needed to produce the same acceleration.

Activity 7.1 Force, mass and acceleration

Calculate the unknown quantities value and complete the table.

S. No. Mass (in kg) Acceleration (in m/s2) Net Force (in N)
1 10 20 200
2 10 40 –
3 5 – 200
4 – 20 400
What can you infer from the readings? Discuss.

Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

For every action there is an equal

and opposite reaction.

In rowing a boat, when a force applied on boat paddle to push the water backwards, an equal
force is exerted by water on the boat paddle (Figure 7.4). Likewise, a book lying on the table
exerts downward force on the table and the table exerts an upward force on the book (Figure 7.5).
The forces are due to interactions between the objects and that the force does not act on a
single object.
Forces always exist in pairs and are called action and reaction forces.

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Normal force

Weight
Figure 7.4: In rowing, paddle and water exert equal and Figure 7.5: The table and
opposite force on each other. the book both apply equal
and opposite forces on
each other.

Questions
1. What will be the reaction force when action force is ‘push of tyres on road’?
2. Will force acting on an object remain the same or change if the mass of an object is made three
times its actual mass?

Summary
• 1st Law – An unbalanced force is required to change the state of an object whether moving or at rest.
• 2nd Law – The net force required can be calculated using mass and acceleration.
• 3rd Law – The force applied on an object always has an equal and opposite force to compensate
the effect.

Scientist in Focus
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) was an English physicist and
mathematician. Newton developed the principles of modern physics. He
proposed the three laws of motion. This led to the discovery of gravitational
force of Earth and matter.

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7.3 Hooke’s Law

Matter has a property called elasticity. Elasticity is the ability of a You will learn
deformed (compressed, stretched, twisted) material body to return • Hooke’s law
to its original shape and size when the forces causing deformation
are removed. The deformation occurs as a result of application of some force, called
deforming force. This force is small and makes the material regain its original shape when
it is removed. The material also experiences a force called restoring force that brings back
the material to its original shape. When string is compressed the restoring force will push
the elastic object and it pulls the object when the elastic object is stretched.
When there is no permanent change in the elastic material, then the deformation is said to
take place within elastic limits. When the amount of force is increased, then the material
may get deformed permanently and never regain its original shape. The deformation in the
material is said to exceed the elastic limit. In this case, the restoring force (reaction force) is
less compared to the deforming force (action force).

Activity 7.2 Hooke’s law

Materials: A metallic spring, 2 to 3 masses, a ruler and a stand.
Method: Hang a metallic spring from a rigid support. Use a ruler and
find the original length of the spring. Hang different masses to the
spring to stretch it longer than its original length and note the lengths.
Find the difference in length. Spring

Force (load) Change in

Mass (in g) calculated (in N) length (in cm)
0 F m g 0 9.8 0 0 Mass

30
Ruler
60

Take more readings and plot a graph with extension on y-axis and load
Mass hanging from
on x-axis.
a spring
What can you conclude from the graph?

ICT connect

In an Excel sheet, plot the graphs for Activities 7.1 and 7.2.

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Think Critically
While plotting the graph between force (load) and the mass, what would be the shape of the graph so
that force (load) and mass are directly related?

Hooke’s Law
In the year 1679, Robert Hooke formulated a law based on his experiments similar to the
one as done in the activity above. According to the Hooke’ Law, the extension of a spring is
proportional to the load applied to it (Figure 7.6), provided the limit of proportionality is not
exceeded.

Did you know?

unstretched Robert Hooke was so
spring
secretive about some
x It takes twice of his findings that
as much force he published them in
to stretch a 2x
spring twice codes. For example, he
F
as far. wrote his law of springs
as: ‘ceiiinosssttuv’; later
2F he revealed that this
was an anagram of a
Figure 7.6: Demonstration of Hooke’s Law. sentence in Latin (Ut
tensio, sic vis).

ForceApplied Spring Constant Change in Length

ForceApplied Spring Constant Change in Length
F k x
F k x

Given a spring that stretches 10cm when a load of 30N is hung on it, find the Spring
Constant. If the load is increased to 45N, how much will the spring stretch?
Applying Hooke’s Law, F k x
Substituting the given values for Case 1 30 N k 10cm
30 N
Rearranging k 3
10cm
Applying Hooke’s Law again, F k x
Substituting the values for Case 2 45 N 3 N/cm x
45 N
Rearranging x 15cm
3 N/cm

Explore

Hooke’s law is applicable for some materials under certain conditions. Find some examples and
their loading condition under which they will follow Hooke’s law.

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Questions
1. What will happen to the elastic material if we keep on increasing the load?
2. Will force remain the same or change if the mass of an object is halved?
3. A spring has a spring constant equal to 1. Which force will make it stretch to 10cm?

Summary
• There are always two forces associated with the deformation of an elastic material – the deforming
force and the restoring force.
• When the deforming force is more than the restoring force, the material gets deformed permanently.
• Hooke’s law gives the relationship between the force applied to an unstretched spring and the
length of deformed (compressed or stretched) spring.

Scientist in Focus
Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was an English Philosopher and a polymath
(master of many). He made significant contributions to the fields of
architecture, astronomy, biology, chemistry, physics, surveying, map making
and the design and construction of scientific instruments.

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7.4 Pressure

Pressure is defined as the continuous physical force exerted on or

You will learn
against an object by something in contact with it. Pressure is an
• Pressure
expression of force exerted on a surface per unit area.
• Pressure in fluids
Vegetables are cut using the sharp edge of a knife. When force is
• Atmospheric
applied on the handle of a knife, the sharp edge can be pushed pressure
easily inside the vegetable. The edges have a smaller area of contact
so the force applied is concentrated on the sharp edge enabling it to
cut the vegetable easily. The flat side has larger area of contact so
the force applied is spread over the side and it will be difficult to cut.
The smaller the area of contact where force is concentrated the
higher will be the pressure and vice versa.

Did you know?

Allah (SWT) has
provided camels
Broad typing keys Large snow skies Broad handle bags with broad feet. This
Larger surface area of the object at base exerts less pressure at the increases their contact
area of contact area with sand and
reduces the pressure
exerted by their heavy
bodies. As a result, their
feet do not sink while
walking on sand and sail
on sand like ship sails
on water. This is why,
Small pin point Sharp knife cut Pointed bullet a camel is called ‘The
Smaller surface area of the object at base exerts more pressure at the Ship of the Desert’.
area of contact

Pressure is defined as the force over a given area. In equation form,

it can be written as

Force F
Pressure Or P
Area A

The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) and 1 Pa 1 N/m2

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A force of 150N is required to push a drawing pin into the

board. The pin point has contact area as 0.3mm2. Calculate
the pressure on the board.
Force 150 N 2
Pressure 500 N/mm
Area 0.3 mm
2

Pressure in liquids and gases

Liquids and gases are collectively called fluids. In fluids such
as water or air, pressure acts in all directions. This is because
the molecules of the fluids move around in all directions,
causing pressure on every surface they collide with.
Pressure acting on a liquid at rest will be transmitted equally
in all directions.

When the pressure at one end of the pipe The top of the aerosol cans are filled with highly
is larger than the pressure at the other end pressurised propellant in gas form. When the
because it has been lifted higher and a hose nozzle is pressed, the pressure of the propellant
(with lesser diameter than that of the pipe) has forces the product out through the nozzle
been fitted, water flows through the pipe with
acceleration

The water exerts pressure in all directions, but pressure

increases as the depth increases. The water from the hole at
the bottom comes out with the greatest pressure and therefore
falls at a greater distance.
When we blow up a balloon, the pressure of the air inside Pressure exerted by liquid
the balloon presses outside resulting in the balloon swelling changes with depth
up. This shows that air and gases exert pressure inside the
balloon’s inner surface and this pressure exerted by air is
called air pressure.

Inflatable toys come back

to their inflated shape after
pumping air inside them

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Atmospheric pressure Air Pressure is

all around us
The atmosphere exerts a pressure on objects lying on Earth. This
is called atmospheric pressure. It decreases with an increase in
height. Atmospheric pressure is minimum at the mountains and
maximum at sea level.

Air around us exerts

pressure on us

Think Critically
When a card is placed on a glass full of water and inverted, it is possible to keep the water without
spilling. Try this and explain why this happens.

Questions
1. Why do deep sea divers wear specially designed diving suits?
2. The larger the ship, the broader is its base. Give reason.
3. Can you give some real-life examples of application of pressure?

Summary
• Pressure is more at the small area of contact where the force is applied.
• In fluids, pressure acts equally in all directions.
• Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in height.

Scientist in Focus
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) was a French mathematician and physicist. He
invented hydraulic press and syringe, both of which worked on the principle
of pressure. Due to his immense contributions to physics, the SI unit of
pressure has been named after him as Pascal.

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7.5 End of Unit Questions

7.1. Describing motion

1. Copy and complete the following sentences:

a. Motion is defined as the change __________________________________.
b. Freely falling objects experience __________________________________.

2. Let’s apply knowledge

a. A tornado is 20km away and is moving at a speed of 60km/h. What would you do in this
situation and why?
b. On a moving escalator you are not moving, if the escalator is taken as a point of
reference. Do you agree or disagree? Explain why.

7.2. Laws of motion

3. Copy and complete the following sentence:

Inertia is a natural tendency of objects _____________________________.

4. Answer the following questions:

a. State Newton’s first law of motion.
b. What is the value of acceleration due to gravity?

5. Give reasons for the following questions:

a. The railway tracks are laid on wooden base.
b. A heavy object falls with more force as compared to a light object.
c. When you hit an object, your hand feels some pain.

6. Let’s apply the knowledge

a. If ‘Positive Acceleration’ means ‘To Speed Up’ then what would ‘Negative Acceleration’
mean?
b. You are sitting still in a ship that is travelling at the rate of 10 nautical miles per hour. Is
your body at rest or in motion? Explain your answer.
c. Which law is applicable in the following situations?
● Stopping a moving cycle by applying brakes.
● Walking on a road.
● A coconut falling from a palm tree hits more strongly than a mango falling from a tree.
● A gun recoils when a bullet is fired from it.
● A girl weighing 50kg standing on a weighing scale compresses it more as compared to
a girl weighing 23kg.

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d. What kind of changes are taking place in the following examples of acceleration (change in
speed/change in direction/change in both speed and direction)?
● A cyclone
● A wave in the sea
● Falling raindrops
● Fish swimming in water
● A ship travelling around an island
● Football hit by a player
7. Let’s calculate and solve
a. A spring has spring constant 2N/m. How much force is required to stretch it by 4m?
b. Find the force required to accelerate a 110kg machine if the acceleration produced is 2.1m/s2.
c. A force of 20N will stretch a spring by 1m. If the same spring is stretched with a force of
50N, what will be the increase in length of the spring?
d. A wooden block of mass 40kg lying on the floor is acted upon by a horizontal force of
200N. What acceleration is produced?
7.3. Hooke’s law
8. Copy and complete the following sentence:
a. The deformation takes place within elastic limits when _________________.
9. State Hooke’s Law. While applying force (stretching or compressing) on a spring, explain how
restoring force acts on it.
10. Let’s calculate and solve
A force of 20N will stretch a spring by 1m. If the same spring is stretched with a force of 50N,
what will be the increase in length of the spring?
7.4. Pressure
11. Answer the following questions:
a. What is meant by atmospheric pressure? Where does it effect more?
b. Define pressure. Express it in terms of force and give its units.
12. Let’s calculate and solve
A 35kg block is in the shape of a cuboid with dimensions 10cm, 7cm and 4cm is lying on a
table. Calculate the highest pressure it can exert.

13. Practicing Islam

In the Quran, it is stated that

It is He who created night and day and the Sun and Moon, each one swimming
in an orbit. (Surat Al-Anbiya: 33)

Find out and discuss how the movement of Earth forms day and night. Reflect on this
phenomena and consider how Allah (SWT) has created the universe.

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 Energy, Work
8 and Power
8.1 Types of Energy

Energy You will learn

Energy is noticeable in every aspect • Energy
of life. It is required to perform every • Types of energy
task. It is required by the body to
work actively and efficiently. We eat
food to get energy. The energy gets
stored in our body and helps us to do
work. For example, the energy stored
in our muscles help us in running Energy
(Figure 8.1).
Energy is thus defined as the
capability to do work or to cause
some change. The SI unit of
energy is Joules (J) or
Figure 8.1: We get energy to run from the
Newton-meter (Nm).
energy stored in the muscles.
The energy that we get from food
is generally measured in calories or
kilocalories. Different foods provide different calories of Did You Know?
energy. A city park in Cambridge, UK, is the
home to the world’s first glow-in-the-
dark path, known as the Starpath.
The alternative to street lighting
absorbs and stored energy from the
Sun’s UV rays during the day, and
at night, the surface releases the
energy, allowing the particles to glow
in the dark.

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Breakfast Cereal
100g = 200 Calories
Cooked Pasta Canned Tuna Packed in Oil
145g = 200 Calories 102g = 200 Calories

Bread Chicken Sandwich

100g = 265 Calories 72g = 200 Calories

Rice and Chicken Prawn Curry

70g = 300 Calories 240g = 243 Calories
Calories in food

Types of Energy
Energy is used in many forms like chemical energy, electrical energy, magnetic energy,
nuclear energy, gravitational energy, light energy etc.
All the forms of energy can be catergorised into two main types: kinetic energy and
potential energy.

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Energy
can be

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

Energy comes from Energy is stored to
Energy of movement Stored energy
moving be used later

Thermal Energy Chemical Energy

Energy of moving particles (heat) Energy stored in food, fuel

Motion Energy Elastic Energy

Energy of objects in motion Energy stored in objects

that are stretched

Electrical Energy Nuclear Energy

Energy of particles moving Energy stored in centre of particles
through a wire

Gravitational Energy
Sound Energy
Energy stored in an object when it is
Form of energy we can hear above the Earth’s surface

Energy forms can be categorised into kinetic and potential

Energy can be transfered from one object to another. For example, when we boil water, the
pan gets heated and transfers the heat to the water making the water boil. The energy forms
can also be transformed from one energy form to another.
For example, light energy from the Sun is converted to chemical energy which is stored in
plants as food.

Light Chemical Electrical Thermal

Chemical Mechanical Chemical Mechanical

Energy transformations

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Explore

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. It is used to generate
electricity. Is this kinetic or potential energy?

Questions
1. Which categories do wind and solar belong to? State reasons for your answer.
2. What type of energy is present in fuels used in ships? Is there an energy transfer or transformation?
3. What is the reason for categorising magnetic energy as kinetic energy?

Summary
• Energy is defined as the capability to do work. Its SI unit is joules (J).
• Energy in food can be measured in calories.
• Energy is used in many forms, which can be transferred or transformed.
• All forms of energy can be defined using the two types of energy: kinetic energy and potential
energy.

Scientist in Focus
Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC), a Greek philosopher and scientist, was the first to
propose that mechanical energy can actually be studied as a sum total of
potential energy and kinetic energy. Though the exact terms were coined
later, but the division was defined by him.

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8.2 Kinetic and Potential Energy

The mechanical energy (ME) of an object is due to its movement

You will learn
(motion) or location. The energy due to motion is kinetic energy
• Mechanical energy
(KE) and the energy due to location or position is potential energy
• Kinetic energy
(PE). Mechanical energy is used in moving an object, in stopping
the moving object, in running a machine etc. • Potential energy

Kinetic Energy
An object possesses kinetic energy due to
its motion or movement. Various forms of Potential energy

kinetic energy are

• Thermal energy: It involves the Energy in Energy out

movement of particles upon heating –

changing state from solids to liquids
and liquid to gas.
• Motion energy: It involves the Kinetic energy Kinetic energy
moving objects – riding a bicycle, Mechanical energy
pushing or pulling an object, running, (ME PE KE)
exercising etc.
• Hydroelectric energy: It involves the movement of water – to run the turbine and
generate electricity.
• Wind energy: It involves the flow of wind – as in windmills or to generate electricity.
• Electrical energy: It involves electricity, which is not visible while transfers, still it
involves movement of electrons in wires – electricity at homes or offices.
• Sound energy: It involves sound waves to move from one point to another.
All these forms involve movement. So they are categorised under kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy can be calculated by using the formula
Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x speed2
1
KE mv 2
2
where v is the velocity with which the object
is moving, and m is the mass of the object.
So kinetic energy of an object depends on its
mass and velocity.
Kinetic energy is used in rowing

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Think Critically
What will be the change in kinetic energy of an object if its (a) mass is doubled, (b) velocity is doubled
and (c) both mass and velocity are doubled?

Potential Energy
The potential energy of an object is due to its position or chemical composition. Various
forms of potential energy are:
• Chemical energy: It is stored in the bonds of atoms or molecules of food, drinks and in
fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gas, LPG etc.
• Elastic energy: It is stored in objects like springs and elastics.
• Nuclear energy: It is stored within the nucleus of the atoms.
• Gravitational energy: It is stored in objects present above the surface of the Earth. For
example, water stored in a tank at a certain height.

Explore

Discuss why electric energy is not categorised under potential energy?

Potential energy can be calculated by using the formula

Potential energy = mass acceleration of gravity height

PE mgh
Potential energy
where m is the mass of the object, g is
acceleration due to gravity and h is the height
at which the object is placed.
So potential energy of an object depends on
its mass and height as g is constant (9.8m/s2). Potential energy

The rock has potential The spring has

energy potential energy

Think Critically
What will be the change in potential energy of an object if its (a) mass is doubled, (b) height is doubled
and (c) both mass and height are doubled?

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Example 8.1 Find the potential energy possessed by a ball

of mass 40g placed above a slide at the height
3.5m above the ground (Figure 8.2). What
will be the kinetic energy when it starts sliding
down with a velocity of 1.5m/s? Figure 8.2: A ball rolling
down on a slide.
Solution Potential Energy = PE = mgh = 0.04 kg 9.8 3.5 = 1.372 J
1 1 2
Kinetic Energy = KE = mv 2 = 0.04kg 1.5 = 0.045J
2 2

Questions
1. In which category does light energy belong to? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Categorise the following examples as potential/kinetic energy: A galloping horse, a coconut on tree,
a swimming fish, hammering a nail, anchored boat.
3. Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 150kg moving with velocity of 30km/h. What will be the
kinetic energy when its velocity is doubled and then tripled?
4. Calculate the potential energy possessed by the water tank of mass 50kg placed at a height of 25m
above the ground?

Summary
• Mechanical energy is the sum total of kinetic energy and potential energy.
1
• The kinetic energy of an object is due to its motion or movement and is given by mv 2 .
2
• The potential energy of an object is due to its position or chemical composition and is given by the
formula .

Scientist in Focus
Christian Huygens (1629–1695) was a Dutch physicist, mathematician
and astronomer. He also invented the pendulum clock. Huygens contributed
to the understanding of mechanics when he proposed the law for moving
objects and determined that collisions between bodies neither lose nor gain
momentum within the system. His work also provided one of the earliest
insight into the distinction between mass and weight.

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8.3 Energy Conversions

Energy conversions take place due to transfer of energy and

You will learn
transformation of energy. The law of conservation of energy also
• Law of conservation
states that Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only
of energy
be converted from one form to another and the total energy involved
• Transformation of
before or after conversion remains the same. energy

Transformation of Energy
Potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy as soon as an object starts moving. Kinetic
energy is maximum and the potential energy is minimum just before an object hits the ground.
When the object slows down, the potential energy starts setting in the object.

Potential Potential

Kinetic Kinetic Potential energy Potenti

Kinetic Kinetic
Kinetic energy
Potential Potential

A person standing at a height An athlete holding a bow and an arrow

possesses PE; when he/she jumps possesses PE; when he/she stretches the
down the PE gets transformed bow, the arrow moves thus transforms PE
into KE to KE

Potential

Kinetic Potential energy

Kinetic Kinetic Potential energy
Kinetic Kinetic energy
Potential Kinetic energy
Potential

Roller coaster at a height

possesses PE; when it comes down Hammer has PE; as the hammer hits
the PE gets transformed into KE the nail, the PE gets transformed into KE

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In case of a toy car with a winding key, when the key is wound
and released, potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy Did you know?
and the car moves. Only 10% of energy
in a conventional light
bulb is used to create
light while the remaining
90% of its energy
creates heat.

Winding key transfers its energy to the tires

In a hydroelectric power plant, the water is stored in large tanks at a height so the water has
potential energy. When the water is made to fall from a height, the potential energy of the
water is transformed into kinetic energy (Figure 8.3). This kinetic energy is transferred to
turbines, which start rotating. The coil attached to the turbines also rotates creating magnetic
effect. This magnetic and kinetic energy together get transformed into electric energy.

High-level reservoir

Height
Water flow

Turbines and
electrical generators

Low-level reservoir

Figure 8.3: Hydroelectric power plant.

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In case of a thermal power plant, coal is burnt to transform potential energy stored in
coal into thermal energy. This thermal energy is used to heat water. The thermal energy
gets transformed into kinetic energy as the molecules of water start moving and water
vapour is formed. The kinetic energy of water vapour is used to move the turbine, which
generates electricity as in a hydroelectric power plant (Figure 8.4).

Coal power plant

Figure 8.4: Thermal power plant.

In a nuclear power plant, a nuclear reaction takes place where the kinetic energy of atoms
is used to release huge amount of chemical energy from the atoms. This chemical energy
is transformed into thermal energy, which is used to boil water and use the water vapour
to move the turbine and generate electricity (Figure 8.5).

Containment structure Steam line

Generator
Control road

Reactor
vessel
Turbine

Reactor Pump
Pump Condensor
cooling Cooling
Steam Cooling Tower
water
Generator Tower

Figure 8.5: Nuclear power plant.

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Activity 8.1 Transformation of energy

Materials: An aluminium circular plate, a pair of scissors, a permanent marker, a wooden rod, nails, nut
and a bucket.
Method:
Take a pair of scissors and cut out the flat bottom part of an aluminium circular plate (do it with adult
supervision). With the permanent marker, draw the design of a windmill (with 8 spokes) on this plate.
Cut the aluminium circle along the eight solid lines. Carefully bend each paddle at the dotted line. Using
a hammer and a nail, make a ¼-inch hole in the middle. Remove the handle from a bucket. Insert
a wooden rod in one of the holes of the bucket, insert the water wheel and pass it through the other
hole. Tie a cotton string on the rod and a small nut at the other end of the cotton string. When you pour
water on the water wheel, it will turn to bring the nut up. In this way, the water wheel can be used to pull
heavy loads.

Questions
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Why do we say so?
2. When does an object have the most potential energy?
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a nuclear power plant.

Summary
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
• Energy conversions take place due to transfer of energy and transformation of energy.

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8.4 Work and Power

Work can be done in the presence of energy with which we make

You will learn
an effort (or apply force) to displace an object from its position.
• Work done and
Work is always done in the direction of force which in turn moves
its unit
the object in the direction of force (displacement).
• Power and its unit
Work done is calculated as
W Fd
Force, F
where F is the force applied on an object and d is the
displacement.
So, work done depends upon force applied on an object
No motion
and the displacement of object. If there is no force or no
displacement then there is no work done.
Work done is positive when direction of force and
displacement are in the same line. For example, when
work is done in pushing a heavy box or lifting a heavy
weight or opening/closing a door etc. A boy pushing a wall

Work done is negative when the direction of force and

displacement are in opposite line. For example, work done due to force of friction and when an
object which is under gravitational pull is thrown up in the air.

The SI unit of work is same as that of energy, that is Joules (J) or Newton-meter (Nm).

Work done during heavy weight lifting Work done in throwing up a ball

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Think Critically
A person standing still with some load on his head utilises some energy to do so. Is there any work done
in this case? Explain.

Example 8.2     A
 force of 10N acting on an object displaces it by 7m. What is the work
done if displacement is in the direction of the force?

Solution       W Fd 10 7 70N

(work done is positive as force and displacement are in the same direction)
Power
Different people do same work with different capacity of efficiency. Efficiency is defined by
rate of performing a work or power. So power is defined as rate of doing work or the rate at
which the energy is transferred from one object to another.
Power is calculated as
W
P
t
where W is the work done by an object.
And t is the time taken to do the work.
So, power depends upon work done on an object and the time taken.
SI unit of power is Watt (W) or Joules/second (J/s).

FORCE

DISTANCE & TIME

Power depends on force, displacement and time

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We can also write the equation as:

W Fd
P Fv
t t
d
where v is the velocity of the object given by
t
Example 8.3 A girl of mass 60kg runs up a stair case with 50 steps in 15s. If the height
of each step is 20cm, find her power? (take g 9.8m/s2)

Solution Weight of girl mg 60 9.8 588N

Height of the stair case

Work done Fd 588 10 5,880J

Time taken 15s
W
Power Practicing Islam
t

Questions
1. How is work done related to force and power?
2. On applying brakes to a moving vehicle, what is the nature of work done in this case?
3. What is the power of an engine connected to its wagons standing on a platform?

Summary
• Work is said to be done when force is applied to an object to displace it from its position.
• Power is defined as work done in time t or in another form as Fv (Force X velocity).
• SI unit of work is Joules (J) and of power is Watts (W).

Scientist in Focus
James Watt (1736 AD–1819 AD), a Scottish inventor, engineer and
chemist, invented the steam engine, which laid down the foundation for
efficient rail engines. He came up with the concept of horsepower. Due to
his immense contribution to the field of physics, in particular, and the long
list of his inventions, the SI unit of power, Watt, has been named in his
honour.

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8.5 End of Unit Questions

8.1. Types of energy

1. Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Energy can be transferred __________________________________.
b The law of conservation of energy states that __________________________.
2. State the law of conservation of energy. Does this law apply to all forms of energy?

8.2. Kinetic and potential energy

3. Give reasons for the following statements:
(a) Kinetic energy can never be negative.
(b) Thermal energy can be considered as kinetic energy.
4. Does the potential energy of a falling object remain same? If not, where does this energy go?
5. State the forms of mechanical energy.
6. When rain drops or ice pellets precipitate from clouds, their kinetic energy keeps on
increasing. From where do they gain kinetic energy?
7. Two objects, A and B, of equal mass are moving with velocities v and 2v, respectively, at the
same height. Which object will have more potential energy? Which will have more kinetic
energy?
8. Let’s calculate
Calculate the potential and kinetic energy of the roller coaster at points (a) to (d), if the roller
coaster has a mass of 400kg with a uniform velocity of 20km/h.

(a)

(d)

(b)
(c)

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8.3. Energy conversions

9. State the step-by-step energy transformation taking place in these.
(a) A person pulling a chair (d) Photosynthesis
(b) Switching on a washing machine (e) Respiration
(c) A man pulling a hand cart (f) Lightning a candle with a matchstick
10. What is meant by 1W of power?
11. What is the meaning of average power?
12. Let’s calculate
a. A force is acting on a moving object of mass 40kg. As a result, the velocity of the object
changes from 20m/s to 12m/s. What is the work done by the force?
b. What is the power of a motor that lifts a body of mass 20kg to a height of 100m in 20s.
13. Both hand pump and electric motor pump are used to lift underground water. But the electric
motor pump does it faster than a hand pump. Why?
14. What is the work done when you apply force on a brick wall? Give reasons for your answer.
15. Practicing Islam

Islam emphasises us to be stewards of the Earth. We are asked to use resources wisely
and preserve it for future generations. Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) promoted respect and
responsibility towards the environment amongst his companions.
Discuss and identify ways we could take care of our local environment. You may refer to the
following areas:
• usage of water
• management of waste
• maintenance of beach and sea
• conservation of flora and fauna

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9 Thermal Energy
9.1 Temperature and Thermometer
You will learn
Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy (energy of moving or • Temperature
vibrating particles) of an object. The more the thermal energy in
• Liquid thermometer
an object, the warmer is the object (Figure 9.1).

Heat transfer

Warmer object Cooler object

Figure 9.1: Thermal energy, heat and temperature.

Heat is the flow of thermal energy from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy of the particles in an object.
This means the fast-moving particles have more kinetic energy and lead to higher
temperature measure on the thermometer (Figure 9.2). Heat cannot be measured by

Low Temperature High Temperature

Figure 9.2: Movement of particles at low and high temperatures.

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thermometer whereas temperature of an object can be measured using a thermometer. If

the particles do not show any movement, the thermometer will measure the temperature
as absolute zero (0K).

Liquid Thermometer
The most common and simple type of thermometer used to measure temperature is the
liquid thermometer. It is made up of a long glass tube called stem. The various degrees of
scale are marked on the stem. One end of the stem has a glass bulb filled with mercury.
There is a capillary tube inside the glass stem, which is connected to the bulb. When the
bulb comes in contact with a hot object, the mercury expands and the level of mercury in
the capillary rises. Temperature is measured by reading the level of mercury in the capillary.

A liquid thermometer

The different types of liquid-in-glass thermometers commonly used are laboratory

thermometer, clinical thermometer and digital thermometer.
The common laboratory thermometer is used
to measure temperature in the range of −10°C
to 110°C. It is mainly used in laboratories to
conduct scientific experiments. The laboratory
thermometer is not used to measure temperature
of human beings. Clinical thermometer, which
has a scale of 35°C to 42°C only, is used for
measuring temperature of human beings. The
capillary of a clinical thermometer has a small
kink in it. This kink prevents mercury level from
falling back when it is removed from tongue or
armpit. This makes a clinical thermometer less
sensitive to temperature change. In the absence
of a kink, a laboratory thermometer is highly A kink in a clinical thermometer

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sensitive as mercury level starts falling as soon as the thermometer is removed from a hot
object.
Since mercury is highly toxic, nowadays, digital thermometers are more preferred than
clinical thermometers. Liquid crystals in place of mercury is used to measure temperature in
digital thermometers.

A digital thermometer

Fixed points on a temperature scale: The melting point of ice is taken as the lower fixed
point (ice point) on a scale. The boiling point of water is taken as the upper fixed point
(steam point) of the scale. On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point is 0°C and the upper
fixed point is 100°C. On the Kelvin scale, the lower fixed point is 273K and the upper fixed
point is 373K.

Explore

A scale called Fahrenheit is also used to measure temperature. Find out who developed this
scale and where it is used?

The following are some ways to handle liquid thermometers:

• The thermometer should always be upright.
• It should be washed before and after every use.
• It should always be held from the stem and not from the bulb.
• In case of laboratory thermometer, the bulb should not be in touch with the container. It
should be surrounded on all sides by the object whose temperature is to be measured.
• In case of clinical thermometer, the mercury level should be less than 35°C. If it is not
less than that, then the thermometer should be given minor jerks until it comes below
35°C. While giving jerks, care should be taken so it does not hit against hard objects.

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Questions
1. Does the digital thermometer also need to be jerked before use? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Which of the thermometers – clinical or laboratory – should be in contact with the object whose
temperature is being measured?
3. What is absolute zero temperature?

Summary
• Temperature is the measure of the extent to which an object is noted for its hotness or coldness.
• Liquid thermometers – laboratory, clinical and digital thermometers – are commonly used to
measure temperature.
• Every temperature scale has lower and upper fixed points as melting point of ice and boiling point of
water, respectively.

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9.2 Conduction

Cooking pans and metallic ladles used to cook and stir food are You will learn
normally cold to touch. But when the pan is put on fire, it conducts • Conduction
heat and becomes hot from all sides. The metallic ladle conducts • Conductivity in
heat from the cooking pan and it also becomes hot. metals
During conduction, heat moves from a high temperature zone
to a low temperature zone. When
Metal spoon
an object is heated, its molecules too hot
Wooden spoon
warm
start vibrating and moving. This
results in vibration and movement
of neighbouring molecules as well,
resulting in the transfer of heat. For
example, when a fish is roasted on a Heat
campfire using iron rods, initially the
tip of the rod gains heat from the fire
and slowly the entire rod becomes Conduction in different ladles (spoons)
too hot to touch.

Thermal Conductivity of Metals

Not all metals have capability to conduct heat equally. The capability of metals to conduct
heat is called the thermal conductivity of metals. Some conductors have good thermal
conductivity and some have low conductivity (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1: Conductivity of metals from the best to the worst.

Best conductor Silver

Copper
Gold
Aluminium
Zinc
Nickel
Brass
Bronze
Iron
Platinum
Tin
Lead
Worst conductor Mercury

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Activity 9.1 Thermal conductivity of different

Fold your wire in half
metals twice, like this

Take two paper cups. Fill one cup with normal water. With the help
of an elder, boil some water and pour into the second cup. Note the
temperature of both cups with the help of a digital thermometer. Take a
Cold Hot
copper wire and bend it to form a ‘V shape’. Dip each end in one of the
cups. At intervals of five minutes, record temperature of both the cups for
30 minutes. Predict what will happen. If there is change in temperature of
the cup filled with normal water, the wire connecting the cups is a conductor.
The higher the change in temperature in the same time, the higher is the
thermal conductivity of the metallic wire. Repeat the experiment with wires
of other metals like aluminium, iron zinc and silver (if possible).

Think critically
Does the heat from the hot water cup entirely get transferred to the water in the other cup? Why or why not?

Water: A Thermal Conductor or Insulator?

Generally, substances that are good conductors of heat are also good conductors of electricity.
This is true for all metals, but can we say the same about water? Let us find out.

Activity 9.2 Water and thermal conductivity

Take a test tube and fill it with water. Take a small ice cube and wrap it with wire gauze to make it sink at
bottom of the test tube. With the help of an elder, heat the upper part of the test tube using a Bunsen burner.
• Note down your observations.
• What does this experiment prove? Explain.

Test tube
Water

Ice wrapped Gas

in wire gauze burner

In general, liquids and gases are not good conductors of thermal energy (heat).

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Questions
1. Which will conduct heat faster, silver or iron?
2. In Activity 9.2 will the result be different if you use milk?
3. Which spoon will be preferred to stir a bowl of hot soup – wooden, plastic or metallic?

Summary
• During conduction, heat moves from a hot region to a cold region.
• The capability of metals to conduct heat is called the thermal conductivity of metals.
• Liquids and gases are not good conductors of thermal energy.

Scientist in focus
Max Jakob (1879–1955) was a German physicist. He contributed to
the field of thermodynamics by inventing devices for measuring thermal
conductivity. He has around 500 books, articles, reviews and discussions
on the subject under his name. The highest award in the field of transfer of
heat has been named in his honour, Max Jakob Memorial Award.

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9.3 Convection

Convection is the method in which heat is transferred by You will learn

movement of molecules of a fluid such as air or water. Liquids • Convection
and gases expand when heated. Their density decreases
• Convection in liquids
because particles of liquids and gases move faster when they are and gases
heated. Thus, hot air rises and cold air sinks.

Activity 9.3 Convection in liquids

Take some water in a beaker and put it on a tripod stand. Let the water settle down. Now put some
pieces of potassium permanganate in water gently so that there is no or very less movement in the
water. Heat the water with a burner (be careful when using the burner).
Note your observations and share with the class.

Beaker
Water

Movement of coloured water

Potassium permanganate

Sea breeze and land breeze are common natural phenomena. It is a common experience
that during day, the direction of flow of air is from sea to land, but during night, the direction
of the flow of air changes from land to sea. Why does this happen?
This is because, during day time, the Sun shines. The land and sea get heated, but the land
gets heated faster than water in the sea. The air over land becomes warmer and rises up.
As a result, cool air from sea, blows in to take its place. This is called sea breeze.
During night, the Sun does not shine. The land and sea start getting cool. But land gets
cooler faster than water in the sea. The air over the sea becomes warmer and rises up. As a
result, cool air from the land blows out to take its place. This is called land breeze.

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Warm air

Warm air
Cool sea breeze
Cool land breeze

Land warmer Land cooler

Day Sea cooler Night Sea warmer

Sea breeze Land breeze

Convection by Heat-convectors
The modern-day electric heat convectors
have replaced most of the traditional
unsafe electric heaters. The convectors
get their name from the fact that they
warm the atmosphere of the room by Traditional heater Modern heater
creating convection currents in the air. Conventional heater and modern heat convector

Convection in real life

• Land and sea breeze are caused due to convection.
• The changes in weather are also a result of convection currents in the atmosphere.
• Air conditioners and heat convectors regulate the temperature of the place based on
the principle of convection.
• Water, milk and other liquids boil due to convection of fluids.
• The radiator of a car conducts heat from the engine and loses this heat to the
atmosphere due to the process of convection.

Natural phenomena like cyclones, rainfalls, tornadoes The hot air balloon rises due to the convection
etc. also occur due to convection in the atmosphere current produced by the heater present inside it

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Explore

Identify some real-life situations where convection is useful.

Questions
1. Explain why would it not be a good idea to fit an electric heater near the ceiling in a room.
2. How does a ceiling fan provide cool air?

Summary
• Heat is transferred by convection in liquids and gases.
• Many natural phenomena occur due to convection.

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9.4 End of Unit Questions

9.1. Temperature and thermometer

1. Label the parts of this clinical thermometer

2. Hassan is using a digital thermometer to measure the temperature whereas Aafreen is using a
traditional clinical thermometer for the purpose. Who is using a safer thermometer and why?
3. Copy and fill in the blanks
(i) _______ cannot be measured by a thermometer whereas _______ of an object can be
measured using a thermometer.
(ii) The upper fixed point of Kelvin scale is __________ which is ______ °C more than the
upper fixed point of Celsius scale.
4. Answer the following questions:
(i) Why is a kink provided in the capillary of the traditional clinical thermometer?
(ii) Why is mercury used in thermometers?

9.2. Conduction
5. Answer the following questions:
(i) What colours are preferable to wear in summers (hot weather) and why?
(ii) Define conduction.
(iii) Explain how heat is transferred by conduction.
6. Saira wanted to compare the thermal conductivity of copper, wood and plastic. She sticks
a small stone with wax onto the end of each three rods. She took an equal volume of
hot water in the three beakers.

Stones stuck with wax

Plastic rod Wooden rod Copper rod

Beaker

Hot water

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State whether the statements are true, false or not possible to answer.
(i) The stone on the wooden rod falls down first, wood is a good thermal conductor.
(ii) The stone on the copper rod falls down first, copper is a good thermal conductor.
(iii) Only the material of rods are changed keeping the rest of the things unchanged.
(iv) Saira could have used normal tap water to carry out the experiment.

9.3. Convection
8. Define convection.
9. Write short notes on land breeze and sea breeze.
10. Explain how heat is transferred by convection.
11. Junaid made a cup of tea. He cannot sip so hot tea. He took
two glasses and poured the tea from one glass to another.
The tea cooled down and was ready to sip. How did the tea
cool down? Explain the process in terms of heat transfer.
12. Practicing Islam
Many natural phenomena occur due to convection.
Convection current happens in the atmosphere, which helps
to form both weather and clouds, as well as wind and major
air currents. Discuss how convection benefits humans. In the
Quran it is stated,

and what he has created in the earth of varied hues most surely there
is a sign in this for a people who are mindful (Surat An-Nahl:13).

Reflect on the above verse in relation to weather, cloud formation and currents.

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 Digestive System
10 in Humans
10.1 Types of Nutrition

Nutrition and Its Types

All living organisms need food to live, grow and reproduce. All
You will learn
animals take in food. Thus nutrition is defined as the process of
• Types of nutrition
obtaining food, its breakdown and utilisation for various functions in
the body.
There are two types of nutrition: autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic
nutrition. For example, green plants, algae and some bacteria.
The mode of nutrition in which an organism has to depend on other living organism for
food is called heterotrophic nutrition. Animals cannot make their own food. They are
dependent on other sources for food. Thus animals are heterotrophs.

Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition

Sun light Carbon dioxide Obtains
absorbed from air oxygen

Obtains nutrients by
feeding on other living
Produces organisms
nutrients Gives off
oxygen Uses nutrients and
oxygen

Water and
minerals
absorbed
from soil
Expels waste
(a) (b)
(a) Plants with green leaves prepare their own food. (b) A bird eating an insect to obtain nutrition.

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Heterotrophic nutrition

Heterotrophic nutrition is further grouped into parasitic, saprophytic and holozoic.

Parasitic nutrition: In parasitic mode of nutrition, the organisms live on or in the host’s
body, absorbing food from the host and usually causing some harmful effect to the host.
The organisms that exhibit parasitic mode of nutrition are called parasites and the ones on
which parasites depend are called hosts. Hookworm, tapeworm, leech etc. are some of the
examples of parasites.
Saprophytic nutrition: In saprophytic mode of nutrition organisms derive their food from
dead organisms. The organisms secrete certain digestive enzymes on dead and decaying
organic matter, which help to dissolve the nutrients present in the dead organic matter.
Certain bacteria and protozoans are examples of saprophyes.

A parasite Bacteria, protozoa

Holozoic nutrition: The word ‘holozoic’ is derived from two words ‘holo,’ which means
‘whole’, and ‘zoikos’, which means ‘animals’. Human beings undergo holozoic mode of
nutrition. It involves taking in the complex substances and converting them into simpler
forms.
Holozoic nutrition consists of five stages:
Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation
and egestion (Figure 10.1).
Ingestion: The process of taking in of the food
is called ingestion. Mostly animals take food
through mouth, but many animals have special
organs for the process of ingestion.
Digestion: The breaking down of complex
food into simpler form with the help of digestive
juices is called digestion. For example,
carbohydrates and fats are broken down into
simpler form. A man eating food

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Absorption: Absorption of digested food molecules takes place by the walls of the intestine
and are transported by blood to all other parts of the body.
Assimilation: Assimilation is the utilisation of the absorbed food to derive energy and
for growth.
Egestion: The process of removal of undigested food from the body is called egestion.

1. Ingestion 2. Digestion

5. Egestion 3. Absorption

4. Assimilation

Figure 10.1: Steps of holozoic nutrition.

Questions
1. What do you understand by the term nutrition?
2. Explain the types of heterotrophic nutrition.
3. In which type of nutrition, organisms derive their food from dead organisms? Give examples.
4. Define holozoic nutrition. Describe the steps of holozoic nutrition in animals.
5. How do parasites derive their food?

Summary
• The process of obtaining food, its breakdown and utilisation is called nutrition.
• Nutrition is of two types: autotrophic and heterotrophic.
• Heterotrophic nutrition is grouped into parasitic, saprophytic and holozoic modes of nutrition.
• Holozoic nutrition is carried out in different steps.

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10.2 Digestive System in Humans

Digestive System in Humans

Human beings take in food in complex form. The complex food You will learn
molecules are broken down into simpler forms by the organs of the • Digestive system in
digestive system. When you eat food, it passes from your mouth humans

through a long tube called the alimentary canal. It is a muscular

tube, which is about 10m long. The alimentary canal begins from mouth and ends at the
anus. We take in food through our mouth and pass out undigested matter through the anus
(Figure 10.2).

Salivary glands

Epiglottis

Trachea

Esophagus

Liver
Stomach
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Duodenum

Small intestine
Large intestine

Appendix Rectum

Anus

Figure 10.2: Parts of human digestive system.

The digestive system includes several organs such as oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum that ends at anus. There are digestive glands, which help
in the digestion by secreting digestive juices. They are the salivary glands, stomach and
pancreas.

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Mouth

The food is taken through the mouth, a

process known as ingestion. The mouth Mouth
Salivary glands
is an opening, which leads to the buccal Teeth

cavity or oral cavity. The buccal cavity has a Tongue Pharynx

number of the teeth and a muscular tongue.

Epiglottis
The tongue is a fleshy organ in the mouth
cavity, with taste buds, which can identify the Figure 10.3: Parts inside the mouth.
different tastes. The salivary glands found
in the mouth help to break down the complex sugars
into simple sugars. The digestion of food starts inside Direction of
Contracted
the mouth (Figure 10.3). muscle
food movement

The mouth leads into a small tube, called

oesophagus or the food pipe that joins the mouth Food bolus

with the stomach. The food moves down the

oesophagus by repeated contraction and relaxation Relaxed
of the wall of the oesophagus. This movement is muscle
called the peristaltic movement or peristalsis.
The food is then pushed into the stomach
Figure 10.4: Oesophagus
(Figure 10.4). showing peristalsis.

Stomach Esophagus

The ‘J’-shaped stomach is a muscular, bag-like structure.

It produces a digestive juice and hydrochloric acid (HCl),
which simplify the digestion. The digestion of the food
Duodenum
continues here. The food is churned into a semi-fluid by
the rhythmic contraction of the stomach wall, and then
passed on to the small intestine (Figure 10.5). Figure 10.5: Parts of stomach.

Small Intestine

The food reaches the upper part of the small intestine Stomach

called the duodenum. The food is then passed to the lower

part of the intestine called the ileum. The liver produces bile,
which is stored in the gallbladder. The pancreas produces
Small intestine
pancreatic juice. The small intestine also secretes digestive
juices. The digestion is completed by the action of all the juices
together. The finger-like villi present in the small intestine
carries out the absorption of the digested food (Figure 10.6). Figure 10.6: Small intestine.

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Duodenum Stomach

The duodenum (Figure 10.7) is located in the

gastrointestinal tract just past the stomach. The
duodenum is a small tube approximately 10 inches Gallbladder

long and not more than an inch or two in diameter. Duodenum

The food gets mixed with digestive enzymes and bile,

a yellowish green, alkaline, watery liquid that helps to
neutralise the mixture from the stomach. Figure 10.7: Duodenum.

Ileum
Duodenum
The digested food is absorbed into the blood and
lymph in the ileum (Figure 10.8). It has an extremely
large surface area both for the absorption and for the
assimilation of products of digestion.
leum
Large Intestine
Figure 10.8: lleum.
The large intestine is about 1.5m long. It absorbs the
water from undigested food. The semi-solid undigested
food passes through the colon to the rectum where it
is stored until it is passed out through the anus. This
process is known as egestion (Figure 10.9).
Appendix Rectum

Figure 10.9: Large intestine.

Did you know?

Explore
The diameter of small
intestine is smaller, but
Have you ever suffered or heard of ‘heartburn’? Find out what is
it is longer in length than
heartburn and explain it in your science note book.
the large intestine.

Activity 10.1 Action of saliva on starch

Materials: Two test tubes, one teaspoon full of starch solution, iodine solution and a few drops
of saliva.

Method
1. Using the above materials, devise a plan to see the action of saliva on starch.
2. Show the plan to the teacher and get it approved.

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3. Carry out the activity as planned.

4. Discuss your results and write down your conclusion.
• Can you predict the reason? Discuss with your friends and write a conclusion in your
science note book.

Questions
1. In which part of the digestive system does the digestion start?
2. What happens to the food when it reaches the oesophagus?
3. How is the digested food absorbed?
4. Why does food turn into a paste while moving through the alimentary canal?
5. Describe the function of large intestine in humans.
6. What are the different parts of the small intestine? Describe the role of each part in digestion.
7. Why is it necessary for our food to be digested?

Summary
• The digestive system consists of organs such as oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine and rectum.
• Digestion of food starts from the mouth.
• Food is transported from the mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus by peristaltic
movement.
• The food is churned into a semi-fluid by the rhythmic contraction of the stomach wall.
• Absorption of nutrients and minerals from the food takes place in the small intestine.
• Partially digested food from the stomach gets mixed with digestive juices and bile in the duodenum.
• The nutrients of the food are absorbed into the blood.
• The large intestine absorbs water from the remaining indigestible food matter and gets rid of the
useless waste material from the body.

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10.3 Structure of Teeth

Structure of Teeth
You will learn
The teeth (Figure 10.10) in the mouth play an important role in
• Structure of teeth
the process of digestion. The teeth help to cut, tear and grind the and dental care
food before it is swallowed. They chew the food mechanically into
smaller pieces. This process is called Enamel, a very hard covering

Crown
mastication.
Dentine, a layer containing living cells

Neck
Types of Teeth Pulp
Gum
A person has two sets of teeth in their Bone
lifetime. The first set called the milk teeth

Root
lasts for around 10–12 years, and then they
are pushed out by the permanent teeth.

Permanent teeth
There are 32 permanent teeth, 16 in Structure of a tooth

each jaw. A white substance called

enamel covers the teeth. It is the hardest
substance found in the body.
They are larger than the primary teeth and consist
of four kinds of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars
and molars. Each jaw has 4 incisors, 2 canines,
4 premolars and 6 molars. Each type of teeth has a
specific function.
• Incisors: Sharp and straight; used for cutting
the food.
• Canines: Sharp and pointed; used for piercing and
tearing the food.
• Premolars and molars: Flat shaped; used for
Types and arrangement of teeth
chewing the food.

Tooth Decay
When you eat or drink sugar-containing food and do not clean your mouth properly, tooth
decay occurs. Tooth decay is the destruction of the tooth enamel, the hard, outer layer of
your teeth.
Many types of bacteria live in our mouths and build up a sticky film called dental plaque on
the teeth. When you eat and drink, these bacteria produce acids, which remove minerals from
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the enamel and eventually the teeth develop cavity. Decay begins
in the enamel, the main part of the tooth. As the enamel is broken Did you know?
down, the decay can go deeper and finally reach the nerve of the The 4 molar teeth are
tooth. also called wisdom
teeth. They grow usually
between the age of 18
Dental Care and 21 in humans.

Activity 10.2 Dental hygiene

Discuss among you and prepare an advertisement/poster for proper dental hygiene.

Questions
1. How many teeth are there in each jaw? Name the types of permanent teeth. Write down their shapes
and functions.
2. Explain how teeth help in digestion of food.
3. What is dental plaque? How does it form?
4. How can you take care of your teeth on a regular basis?
5. Which of the permanent teeth would you use to bite an apple, tear poultry flesh, eat rice? Give reasons.

Summary
• Teeth play an important role in chewing the food and digesting it.
• Children have 20 primary teeth.
• Adults have 32 permanent teeth, 16 in each jaw.
• There are four kinds of permanent teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.

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10.4 End of Unit Questions

10.1. Types of nutrition

I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is absorption?
2. What is parasitic mode of nutrition? Explain with examples.
3. Explain saprophytic mode of nutrition with example.

10.2. Digestive system in humans

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What is peristalsis? Why is this process important in digestion?
2. What is the role of small intestine in the human digestive system?
3. What happens when the food reaches the large intestine?
4. What is the role of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
5. What do you understand by assimilation?

10.3. Structure of Teeth

III. Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between primary and permanent teeth.
2. Define mastication. Where does it take place and what is the importance of it?
3. How many incisors are there in an adult human being? What are their functions?
4. What is tooth decay? How can you avoid it?
5. List some ways by which you can take care of your teeth.

IV. Practicing Islam

Food that is consumed by us embarks on a 10-m long journey through the digestive system,
during which these foods are subjected to a series of mechanical and chemical processes.
However, the height of human body is only an average of 1.70 to 1.80m, which means that a
10-m long canal needs to be squeezed into a body that is five times shorter than it.
The human body has been created with complex systems, and it is one of the many wonders of
Allah’s (SWT) creations. In the Surat Al-Infitar, it has been stated,
He who created you and formed you and proportioned you and assembled you in
whatever way He willed. [Surat Al- Infitar: 6–8]
In this regard Allah (SWT) calls our attention to the creation of human and invites people to
ponder on this creation.
Discuss why our digestive system requires such long channels. You may think in terms of all the
five processes that are involved in digestion.

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 11 Plant Nutrition

11.1 Photosynthesis

Introduction
Green plants are described as autotrophic (‘auto’ means self
You will learn
and trophic means feeding). They use water from the soil and
• Photosynthesis
carbon dioxide from air to build glucose. This process occurs as
• Why life on Earth
a chemical reaction known as photosynthesis.
is dependent on
photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Energy is needed to convert the carbon dioxide and water molecules
into glucose, which is required for a plant’s growth. This energy is provided by sunlight. Sunlight
is trapped in a plant by chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the green coloured pigment that contains
magnesium. It is found within the chloroplast of cells, where photosynthesis takes place.

Photosynthesis

Solar energy

Glucose made in the

leaves is taken to
all parts of the plant

CO2 is taken in
from the air

O2 is released
Water and minerals
move up from the
Water roots to the leaves

A plant photosynthesises using water, carbondioxide with the help of sunlight and chlorophyll

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The chemical reaction in the process is as follows:

6CO2 + 6H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide + Water Chlorophyll Glucose+Oxygen

Carbon dioxide is obtained from air. Carbon dioxide Closed stomata

Opened stomata
enters by diffusion into the leaf through the tiny pores H2O

mostly situated in the lower surface of the leaf.

CO2 O2
Water is obtained from soil. The root hair cells
absorb it by osmosis. It is carried up to the leaf
in the xylem vessels. Water then travels from the
xylem vessels to the mesophyll cells by osmosis.
Oxygen is produced as a by-product during
photosynthesis.
Glucose is produced during photosynthesis which Microscopic view of lower surface of a
leaf showing stomata
is a simple sugar and it is soluble. Glucose is then
converted to sucrose and carried to the storage organs of a plant. Sucrose is then
converted to starch and stored for later use. The tuber of a potato is an example of a plant’s
storage organ.

Explore

What is meant by ‘destarching’ of a leaf. Why is it necessary to destarch a leaf before setting up some
photosynthesis experiments?

Importance of photosynthesis
Did you know?
Almost all the other forms of life on Earth depend on plants In 2005, scientists
for food in some or other way. Animals depend on plant discovered special
bacteria deep in the
material directly or indirectly. The oxygen produced by
ocean, where sunlight
photosynthesis is essential for respiration of most life forms. could hardly reach,
Photosynthesis also use up the carbon dioxide from the that were conducting
atmosphere and contribute to maintaining carbon dioxide level photosynthesis using
in the atmosphere. very faint light from
hydrothermal vents.

Activity 11.1 Release of oxygen during photosynthesis

Materials: A beaker, a healthy Hydrilla plant, water, a glass funnel, a test tube and a lamp.

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Bubbles of gas collection

Inverted test tube
Beaker

Inverted filter funnel

Lamp
Water contains NaHCO3
providing more CO2
Support to keep
funnel off bottom

Procedure
1. Fill some water in a beaker and put the Hydrilla plant into it.
2. Cover the plant with a funnel.
3. Invert a test tube filled with water over the stem of the funnel.
4. Check for the bubbles of gas escaping from the leaves.

Observation
• What do you notice?
• How can you ensure that the gas released is oxygen?

Questions
1. How do plants get carbon dioxide?
2. How do plants take in water?
3. What is the waste product in the process of photosynthesis?
4. What happens to the glucose formed during photosynthesis?

Summary
• Photosynthesis is a chemical process.
• Plants take in carbon dioxide and water and produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll.
• Plants get CO2 from the air through the stomata.
• Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots and transport it up to the leaves.

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11.2 Leaf and Photosynthesis

Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place? You will learn

The leaves of the plants carry out photosynthesis. • Internal structure of
a leaf
• Adaptations of a leaf
for photosynthesis
Blade
Small netted vein
Vein
Midrib
Petiole

Stipules

Structure of a leaf

Leaves are usually green in colour due to the presence of a substance called chlorophyll.
A leaf has a stalk also called the petiole, which attaches the leaf to the plant.
The broad, flat part of the leaf is called leaf blade, which absorbs sunlight. The veins carry
water to the cells in the leaf. They also help to support the leaf and hold it out flat. There is
a large main vein called the midrib, which runs across the centre of the leaf. It helps to hold
the leaf, facing the Sun.

What Is Inside the Leaf?

Most of the plant’s photosynthesis takes place in the leaves. Leaves have different tissues
and cells. Cells and tissues in the leaf are adapted to perform different functions.
Cross-section of a leaf under a microscope shows the following parts.
Cuticle: It is a waxy layer that prevents water loss by evaporation.
Upper epidermis: It is a protective layer of cells that produces the cuticle.
Palisade mesophyll: This layer contains rod-shaped cells that have large numbers of
chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

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Spongy mesophyll: Cells Upper Waxy

in this layer are found in the epidermis cuticle

lower part of the leaf. They

Palisade cell
are smaller than those of the (palisade mesophyll layer)
palisade mesophyll. They also
contain chloroplasts. These
cells have large air spaces Spongy mesophyll
between them that allow (spongy mesophyll layer )
Air space
carbon dioxide and oxygen to
diffuse between them.
Epidermis
Lower epidermis: It is a (lower)

protective layer of cells. It too Guard

cell Stomata
produces a waxy cuticle in
Internal structure of a leaf
some plant species. The lower
epidermis contains pores called stomata that allow carbon dioxide and oxygen to move in
and out of the plant, respectively.
Stomata: They are tiny pores (small holes) located in lower epidermis surrounded by a pair
of sausage-shaped guard cells. Guard cells can change shape to close the pore. In very
hot conditions, water inside the leaf evaporates and the water vapour can escape through
the stomata. Closing them not only reduces water loss but also limits the diffusion of carbon
dioxide and oxygen in and out of the leaf.

How Are Leaves Adapted for Photosynthesis?

The cellular structure of leaves are adapted for efficient photosynthesis. Table 11.1
summarises some of these adaptive features.

Table 11.1: Adaptive features of leaves.

Structure Adaptations Function

Cuticle Cuticle is made of wax, To reduce water loss and
transparent and very thin maximum light penetration
Epidermis Epidermis contains no To allow more light to reach
chloroplast and is thin and the palisade cells
transparent
Palisade cells Palisade cells which contain To maximise light absorption
most of the chloroplasts and to reduce the distance
are located close to the leaf that carbon dioxide and
surface oxygen have to diffuse

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Structure Adaptations Function

Box-like shape and Palisade cells are upright, To increase the surface area
arrangement of palisade elongated and tightly packed for light absorption
cells together
Spongy mesophyll layer Cells in spongy layer are To give these cells a large
loosely packed with large air surface area to maximise the
spaces diffusion of carbon dioxide
into the cell and oxygen out
of the cell
Presence of stoma Stomata are found in lower To allow CO2 to diffuse in
epidermis because less and O2 to diffuse out
evaporation takes place in
the lower surface
Presence of guard cells Guard cells are sausage To regulate the passage of
shaped and they can open water from leaf and allow
and close the stomata carbon dioxide and oxygen
exchange with atmosphere

Think Critically
How does the structure of a leaf affect its ability to expose more chloroplasts to light?

Activity 11.2 Presence of starch

Materials: A leaf, a beaker, forceps, a test tube, a wire mesh, a burner, methylated spirit, iodine
solution and a white tile.
Methylated spirits
Procedure
• Pluck a fresh leaf.
• Keep the water at boiling point.
• Put the leaf in the boiling water with the help
of the forceps. Boil for 2min.
Water
• Turn off the burner.
• Now, place the boiled leaf in a boiling tube
containing alcohol. Bunsen burner

• Place the boiling tube in hot water and boil White tile
for 10min or until the leaf decolourises.

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• Spread the leaf on a white surface after washing it in warm water.

• Put a few drops of iodine solution on the leaf.
• Wash the leaf after removing it from iodine solution.
• Now look at the leaf against the sunlight.
• What do you observe?
• Are there some parts, which have become blue-black?
• Can you guess the reason?
Note down your observations.

Do Plants Need Minerals?

One of the major functions that is basic to plant growth and development is the
‘photosynthesis’. To carry out the process of photosynthesis, plants need carbon dioxide
and water. But other than this, plants also need minerals for their growth and development.

Role of Minerals in Plant Growth

Plants need water for photosynthesis. They absorb water from the soil and transport it up
to the leaves through the xylem cells. Plants also need a number of minerals for healthy
growth. These minerals, which are dissolved in the soil water, are absorbed through the
roots.
Sometimes poor growth is noticed in plants, which
may be due to deficiency of minerals. Plants need two
important mineral ions. They are
1. Nitrates and phosphates: to make amino acids,
needed to make proteins.
2. Magnesium ions: to make chlorophyll.
If a plant does not get adequate minerals, its growth
gets affected. The plant may suffer from deficiency
symptoms. The plant will suffer from stunted growth and
the leaves will turn yellow in case of nitrate deficiency.
Older leaves will turn yellow in case of magnesium ion A healthy plant becomes unhealthy
deficiency. due mineral deficiency

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Questions
1. How does the structure of a leaf allow it to fulfil the requirements for a gas exchange surface?
2. Why is it important to have most stomata on the lower surface of the leaf?
3. Explain the importance of nitrates in plants.

Summary
• The leaves of the plants carry out photosynthesis.
• The chlorophyll present in leaf traps the energy from the Sun.
• The internal structure of the leaves are adapted for photosynthesis.
• Plants need a number of minerals such as nitrate and magnesium for healthy growth.

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11.3 End of Unit Questions

11.1. Photosynthesis
I. Copy and complete the following sentences with correct words:
1. During photosynthesis, plants take in __________ gas from air.
2. The __________ gas enters through the stomata.
3. The _________________ form pipelines through the root, stem and branches and up to
leaves.
4. The gas released as by-product of photosynthesis is_________.
5. In photosynthesis ____________ energy is converted in to ____________ energy.

II. Copy and answer the following questions:

1. Which ‘life function’ is photosynthesis related to?
2. Write down the equation for the chemical reaction in photosynthesis.
3. In Activity 11.1 why do you think a pond weed, rather than a land plant, is used. In what
way do you think using a land plant will make the result less useful?

11.2. Leaf and photosynthesis

III. Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the structure and function of the different parts of a leaf with the help of a labelled
diagram.
2. Which cell organelle is responsible for trapping sunlight?
3. What are guard cells and where are they found?
4. What is the role of minerals in plant growth and development?

IV. Practicing Islam

Allah (SWT) mentions in many verses in the Holy Qur’an the importance of all forms of life.
Plants and animals are living resources with enormous benefit. Plants are the basic source
of sustenance of life on Earth as they are the producers. In this regard in Qur’an Allah (SWT)
mentions,

Then let man look to his food: that We pour down the rain in showers, and
We split the earth in fragments, and therein make the grain to grow, and vines
and herbs, and olives and palms, and gardens of dense foliage, and fruits and
fodder – provision for you and your cattle. [Surat Al ‘Abasa 24–32]

Discuss and identify some other benefits of plants apart from plants being a source of
nourishment.

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 Waves, Light
12 and Sound
12.1 Waves

Have you ever wondered how are the signals of cell phones or televisions transmitted?
There are waves all around us, which we use in our daily life for
different purposes. For example, we use radio waves in cell phones, You will learn
televisions, radios and Wi-Fi of computers. We also use microwaves • Waves
for cooking and X-rays are used to examine bones in our body. • Speed, wavelength,
The light that we see and the sound that we hear are also waves. frequency and
Thus we come across waves every moment in our day-to-day lives amplitude of wave
without even recognising them. • Transverse and
longitudinal waves
Have you observed ripples on the surface of water? How are these
formed?
The images show various patterns of ripples. Stones
thrown at a water body will generate such ripples.
Even winds blowing over the water body generate
ripples.
This is because the moment a vibration or a
disturbance is produced in still water, the water
starts transferring that disturbance from one point to
another.
The ripples that are moving in lines
Hence, a wave can be described as a disturbance are caused by wind
that travels through a medium from one location to
another. A medium refers to any material substance that can
propagate waves or energy. For example, in case of water
wave in a pond, the medium through which the wave travels
is the pond water. In case of sound wave moving from a
speaker to audience in a public meeting, the medium is the
air between the speaker and the people.

Circular ripples are caused

when pebbles are thrown in
water

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Activity 12.1 Formation of waves

Materials: A slinky with several coils.
Method:
• Hold one end of the coil and have your friend hold the other end.
• Create a disturbance in it by pushing or pulling the first coil of the
slinky.
• Check whether the disturbance is transported to the end of the coil
held by your friend.
• Next, have your friend produce a disturbance in the slinky and
observe whether you are able to feel the disturbance.
• What do you observe?

Characteristics of Waves
Did you know?
Wave has consecutive peaks and sinks as shown below
Winds in the Northern
(Figure 12.1). You will see that peaks are higher, whereas sinks Hemisphere drive the
are lower than level of still water. The scientific terms of such waters in a clockwise
peaks and sinks are crest and trough, respectively. One crest and direction, while that
a trough next to it, together called a pulse. in the Southern
Hemisphere drive the
waters in a counter-
Crest
clockwise direction.

Troughs
Figure 12.1: Crests and troughs.

If you observe the wave (Figure 12.2), you will

see that the height of the crest or that of a trough Wavelength

from the middle line is the same. This height is

called amplitude of the wave. Generally, letter A Amplitude
is used to represent amplitude. It is measured in
metres (m).
The distance from a particular point on one pulse
to the same point on the next pulse is called
the wavelength. It is represented by symbol
(lambda). Its unit is metres (m). Figure 12.2: A simple wave.

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Period of a wave is the time it takes for one wavelength to pass a fixed point. It is denoted
with the letter T. Its unit is second (s).
The number of complete waves that pass a point in 1s is called the frequency of the wave.
It is denoted by f and the unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
Speed of a wave is the length of a wave that passes a fixed point in a given time. It can be
said that
speed of a wave (v) wavelength/period wavelength frequency
v
T

If we know how long a wave takes to cross a fixed point (time period), then we can easily
determine how many waves will pass the point per second (frequency). For example, if a
wave takes 0.2s to cross a fixed point, the number of waves pass in 1s 1/0.2 5 waves.

This example gives us the relationship between time period and frequency, which is
f 1/T

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

All waves transport energy without permanently displacing the medium through which they
travel. To transport the energy, the particles in the medium need to move either up and
down or back and forth.
As the particles move up and down, the direction of particles is said to be perpendicular
to the direction of the wave. The waves thus produced are called transverse waves
(Figure 12.3). Water waves and light waves are the examples of transverse waves.

Transverse wave in a rope

The up-and-down
motion of the rope
is perpendicular Direction of wave
to the horizontal
direction of the wave

Figure 12.3: Transverse waves.

On the other hand, if the particles of the medium move back and forth to produce a wave, the
direction of particles is said to be parallel to the direction of the wave. Waves thus produced
are called longitudinal waves (Figure 12.4). Sound is an example of longitudinal waves.

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Longitudinal wave in a spring

Rarefaction Compression

The back-and-forth motion

of the coils of the spring is
in the same direction that Direction of wave
the wave travels.
Figure 12.4: Longitudinal waves.

Explore
Find out if you can create waves with a rope. Try producing waves using a rope and note down what
kind of waves you are producing.

Questions
1. Which of the following is a wave and why?
• Air • Light • Glass • Soil
2. If the frequency of a wave is 50Hz. What is its
time period? 0.1m
3. When the particles of a medium are vibrating
perpendicular to the direction of the wave, then
the wave is a ____ wave. 0.04m

4. What is the amplitude of the wave in the

diagram?

Summary
• A wave is defined as a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to another
location.
• A medium transfers the disturbance from its source to another location due to interactions between
the particles of the medium.
• A wave consists of crests and troughs.
• Amplitude, wavelength, frequency, speed and time period are some common characteristics
of waves.
• In a traverse wave, vibration of particles is in right angle to the motion of wave, whereas in a
longitudinal wave, vibration is parallel to the motion of wave.

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12.2 Tsunami and Its Impact

Tsunamis can be caused by any abrupt disturbances, such as earthquake, underwater

volcanic eruption, explosion and landslide. Tsunami refers to a
series of waves that are capable of creating massive devastation You will learn
when they hit land. • Tsunami and its
impact
When an earthquake occurs underneath an ocean’s crust, it triggers
• Seismic waves
a series of waves. Such waves travel very quickly in the ocean
towards the coastline with tremendous amount of energy. As the
waves approach the coastline, they slow down on hitting the land, but it reaches to the
heights of over 100 feet.

Flooding caused at a coastline due to a tsunami

When such fast-moving and tall waves hit the land, they destroy everything, including
buildings, trees etc., leaving behind them a trail of solid waste and debris. In some
countries, they may also lead to leakage of powerful radiation from nuclear reactors and
leakage of harmful chemicals and industrial
raw materials from industries.

Seismic Waves
Earthquake is one of the extremely scary
natural disasters. Earthquakes are able to
shake a city or even an entire country or a
region. Earthquakes create seismic waves
and those waves carry a lot of energy, which
is enough to shake the Earth. Thus the wave Destruction caused by an earthquake

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of energy that is generated by an earthquake or

Eurasia
other vibrations of the Earth that travels within North
Plate
America
Plate
the Earth or along its surface is called seismic Africa
Plate
South
waves. America Australia
Plate Plate
Plate
Earthquakes happen when sections of the
Antarctic Plate
Earth's crust hit each other. The Earth's surface is
made up of many sections called tectonic plates
Figure 12.5: A map showing the major
(Figure 12.5) that float on the ocean of magma tectonic plates.
underneath.
These plates keep moving in specific directions. When these
tectonic plates hit each other, or rub against each other, it can
result in an earthquake. Because of the huge size of the plates, Did you know?
there is a lot of energy released when this occurs. This huge The largest earthquake
energy is then transferred as seismic waves through the Earth’s ever recorded was in
crust and finally causes an effect on the areas that are reachable. 1960 in Chile, which
had an intensity of 9.5
Seismic waves are also caused by explosions or volcano eruptions. Richter.
These waves are measured using a number on the Richter scale.

Activity 12.2 Seismic waves

Seismic waves are studied by seismologists and detected using seismometers. Though the data about
these seismic waves cannot be used to prevent an earthquake, it can be used by scientists to study
about the Earth’s interior. Research and write a report on how scientists collect data about such seismic
waves and how they use such data to study the interior of the Earth.

Questions
1. Continents are found to be drifting from one place to another over millions of years. What do you
think would be the reason for these shifts?
2. What will happen when an earthquake occurs underneath an ocean crust?
3. How does a seismometer detect the seismic waves?

Summary
• Tsunamis can be caused by any abrupt disturbances, such as earthquake, underwater volcanic
eruption, explosion and landslide underneath ocean crusts.
• Seismic waves are caused by earthquake, explosions or volcanic eruptions.
• Earthquakes may happen when tectonic plates of the Earth hit each other.

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12.3 Light – Images on Plane Mirrors

What do you observe when you stand in front of a mirror? You

You will learn
would see an image of yourself that is upright, same shape and
• Reflection of light
size and is left-right reversed. Can you guess how an image is
and its application
formed in the mirror?

A child looking at his mirror image

When light falls on the surface of mirrors, it gets reflected regularly without being scattered
due to its polished surface. Just like a mirror, still water in a pond, oil surface and silvered
spoon form images.
Surfaces of mirror can be flat or curved. Mirrors that have flat surface are called plane
mirrors.

Position of an Image in a Plane Mirror

When we look at the mirror, our
Image
image seems to appear inside the
mirror. So, how is an image formed?
Figure 12.6 shows how an image is
formed in a plane mirror. According
to the law of reflection, when the
rays of the candles hit the mirror, Mirror

they will be reflected with the same

Reflected
angle as they fall.
rays
Therefore, to the observer, the rays
appear to be coming from a point Observer
Candle
behind the mirror (as shown by the
dashed lines). Figure 12.6: Formation of an image in a plane mirror.

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Characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror

• An image formed by a plane mirror is virtual.
• When the object is kept upright, the image formed is also upright, and also called erect.
• The image is formed behind the mirror at the same distance from the mirror as the
object.
• The image is of the same size as the object.
• The images are laterally inverted.

Activity 12.3 Plane mirror images

Place a plane mirror in front of you and your friend at a certain distance. Move left and right until you
see the image of your friend in the mirror. Check whether your friend is also able to see your image in
the mirror.
Explain briefly how you can see each other’s image. Use a ray diagram to explain your observation.
Are the laws of reflection followed during an image formation in a mirror? Explain how.

Periscope
A periscope is used to see objects at a level
below or over the observer’s eyes. It is 45
Mirror 1 Light
45
commonly used in submarines to observe the 45 45
sea surface. Also, it is used in nuclear reactors
for observing the reactors from a safe distance.
It has a long tube that is bent at ends. Two
mirrors (mirror 1 and mirror 2) are slotted at 45°
each at the two ends in such a way that mirrors
45
are parallel to each other (Figure 12.7). 45

When the periscope is faced towards an object, Mirror 2

the rays coming from the object first hit the Figure 12.7: A periscope.
mirror at 45°. As the rays are incident at 45°,
they are reflected at 45°. This reflected ray again hits the second mirror at 45o and is again
reflected at 45°. Thus, the path of rays entering the mirror 1 and the one leaving the mirror
2 are parallel to each other.

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Explore
A periscope is used to see objects at a level below or over the observer’s eyes. Find out how mirrors
play an important role in the construction of a periscope.

Plane Mirrors in Action

Plane mirrors are extremely useful in our
daily lives.
Kaleidoscope and periscope are some
of the interesting scientific instruments
In a barber shop, a plane mirror is used to show
constructed using plane mirrors. In the
the customer the back side of his head
showcases kept in jewellery showrooms,
multiple images of jewellery are formed by using two plane mirrors kept vertically at certain
angles.

In solar cookers, plane mirrors are

A kaleidoscope
Plane mirrors are used for the ones that direct sunlight to the
signalling by army and scouts interior of the cooker

Activity 12.4 Kaleidoscope

Take two pieces of mirrors of the same size and connect them using
a tape in the middle. Now place an object in front of the mirrors. Vary
the angle between the surfaces of mirrors and observe the number
of images you see. What do you conclude from this experiment?

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Questions
1. Discuss why the word ‘Ambulance’ is written laterally inverted on an ambulance van?
2. What is the difference in angle between the incident ray and emerging ray of a periscope if the
incident ray makes an angle 0 on the first mirror?
3. Copy the illustration of periscope on to your notebook and explain its working using a ray diagram.

Summary
• Mirror is an object that has a smooth and highly polished surface. It forms an image of the object by
reflecting the light.
• An image can be observed in a mirror due to the fact that light obeys laws of reflection.
• Images formed by a plane mirror are erect, virtual, laterally inverted and same size as that of the
object.
• The images are formed behind the mirror as in the same distance as the object.

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12.4 Sound

What Is Sound?
We hear different sounds around us. We are not only able to hear
You will learn
sound but can also produce sound. For example, we can produce
• Sound
sound by talking or playing a music instrument.
• Reflection of sound
Place your fingers gently on your throat while talking. You will be
• SONAR
able to feel vibrations. Thus sound is defined as energy that comes
from vibrating objects.

Sound is produced when the membrane of the drum vibrates

Activity 12.5 Sound and vibrating bodies

Materials: A shoe box, a book, 2 rubber bands and 3 pencils.

Procedure:
1. Place one rubber band each lengthwise around the book and the shoe box.
2. Place 2 pencils under the rubber band on the text book and one pencil under the rubber band on
the box.
3. Now, pluck the rubber bands with your fingers.
Observation
• What happens when you pluck the rubber bands?
• Note down your observation.

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How Do We Hear Sound?

When a source of sound vibrates, the sound leaves the source, travels through a medium
and finally reaches our ears. It is the air that helps us to hear the sound. We know that air is
made up of tiny particles called air molecules. To understand how these air molecules carry
the sound from the source to our ears, let us consider a sound coming from a loudspeaker.
When a loudspeaker makes a sound, its membrane vibrates back and forth. This pushes
the air molecules next to the membrane so that they move back and forth. These vibrating
air molecules push the adjacent air molecules. In this way, the originating disturbance
from the speaker travels through air via the air molecules as a sound wave. The molecules
vibrate back and forth, whereas the sound travels outwards through the air. The air
molecules move in the same direction as the wave, and therefore, sound waves are
longitudinal waves.
Note that the air molecules do not travel from the speaker to the ear, rather they just vibrate
to and fro.

Compression and Rarefaction

Transmission of sound wave through a medium can also be explained as a consequence of
compression and rarefaction.
We know that a vibrating body moves back and forth. When the vibrating object moves
outwards, it pushes the air particles near it. It increases the pressure in the region and the
molecules are compressed. This region is called compression. This compression or the
disturbance is transferred to the adjacent molecules.
Similarly, when the vibrating body moves inwards, the pressure on the air molecules gets
reduced. So the molecules spread out in the space. The region of low pressure is called
rarefaction. As the vibrating body continues to be in vibration, the compressions and the
rarefaction keep moving forward (Figure 12.8).
Tunning fork
B A Rarefaction Compression

Compression (a) (c)

Prongs move inwards Compression Compression
B A
B A Rarefaction Rarefaction

(b)
(d)

Prongs move outwards when Fork vibrates

fork set into vibration continuously

Figure 12.8: Compression and rarefaction of sound.

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In a sound wave, the crest and trough represent the compression and rarefaction,
respectively (Figure 12.9).

Figure 12.9: Compression and rarefaction as crests and troughs.

Sound Needs a Medium to Travel

Sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases. The waves that need a medium to
pass through are called mechanical waves. Sound is a mechanical wave as it cannot travel
through vacuum.
Sound moves faster in solid objects than it does in air and liquids. For example, sound
travels at about 340m/s in air, 1498m/s in water and 6420m/s in aluminium.

Activity 12.6 How does sound travel?

Take an electric bell and hang it inside a To mains
bell jar having a vacuum pump. Set up the
Switch
connections and ensure that you are able to Cork
hear the sound of the ringing bell. Take out
the air from the jar using a vacuum pump. Bell-jar
Observe the loudness of sound as you take Electric bell
out air from the jar.
• What happens when air is pumped out
from the jar?
• Write down your conclusion.

To vaccum pump

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Activity 12.7 Sound through different mediums Did you know?

During a thunderstorm,
• Stand on one side of a wooden table. Ask your friend to tap the
we can see the lightning
other end. Observe the loudness of the sound that comes through
before we hear the
the air. Next, place your ear on the table and observe the sound
sound of thunder. This is
again. Compare the loudness and clarity of the sound.
due to the fact that light
• What do you conclude from the observation? Give reason to wave travels faster than
support your answer. sound waves in a given
medium.

Reflection of Sound
Suppose if you make a loud sound in a room having thick walls, the person in the next room
may hardly hear any sound. This is because most of the sound wave is reflected by the
walls and little is absorbed.
When a sound wave is incident on an object, certain part of it bounces back into the same
medium. This is known as the reflection of sound.

Echo

An echo is the reflection of sound that reaches a listener with a delay after the direct
sound is heard (Figure 12.10). The echo cannot be heard if it merges with original sound.
Generally, the sensation of any sound persists in our ear for about 0.1s. This is known as
the persistence of hearing. So the echo should reach our ears after 0.1s after the original
sound dies off.

Figure 12.10: An echo is heard when sound is reflected off hard surfaces
such as a wall.

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The concept of reflection of sound

is used in a device called SONAR
(SOund Navigation And Ranging)
to locate underwater objects
and find the depth of the ocean
(Figure 12.11).
SONAR in ships send sound waves of
high frequency, called ultrasonic sound,
towards the bottom of the ocean. The Figure 12.11: SONAR in ships detect the location of a
sound is received back after it is reflected submarine using reflected ultrasonic sound.
from objects at the bottom of the ocean.
Sonar Returning sound waves

Certain animals like bats and

dolphins can locate their prey by using
a SONAR system inbuilt within their
bodies. The sound reflected by the
prey makes the bats/dolphins aware
of their location (Figure 12.12).

Figure 12.12: Bats and dolphin are examples of species

that use their personal SONAR to locate their prey.
Questions
1. Can astronauts communicate orally in space?
2. Thunder is always heard after lightning is seen. What does this fact tell you about the speed of light
and sound?
3. What kind of an enclosed area can produce an echo of your voice?

Summary
• Sound is a longitudinal wave.
• Sound travels through solids, liquid and gases. It will not pass through vacuum or empty space.
• Like light, sound falling on a plane or flat surface obeys law of reflection.
• An echo is the reflecting of sound that reaches a listener with a delay after the direct sound is heard.
• SONAR (SOund Navigation And Ranging) is used to locate underwater objects using the property
reflection of sounds.

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12.5 End of Unit Questions

12.1. Transverse and longitudinal waves

1. Use the wave characteristics to answer the following questions:

a. Fathimath propagates pulses with different wavelengths. Which of the two pulses (A or B) will
travel from the hand to the wall in the least amount of time? Justify your answer.

Wave A

Wave B

b. What is the amplitude, wavelength, frequency, time period and speed of the wave shown below?

0.4m

0m

2m 4m

0.4m

12.2. Impact of tsunami

2. Research and study the devastating acts of tsunami occurred in three different places at different
time. Present your data to the class.

12.3. Light – Images on plane mirrors

3. Extend the idea of image formation in a plane mirror and characteristics of the image to answer the
following questions by looking at the given diagram:

Candle flame

Eye of an observer Plane mirror

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a. Suha observes the image of a flame of a candle on a plane mirror. Explain how the image of
the candle flame is seen through a plane mirror.
[Hint: Copy the diagram in your notebook. Consider two points on the flame, draw the two incident
rays for each point, normal, reflected rays and extended lines and mark the points of intersection
of rays coming from the points A and B behind the mirror].
b. If Suha stands at a distance of 1m in front of a plane mirror, how far from the mirror will her
image be located?
c. What is Suha’s distance from her image?

12.4. Sound

4. Answer the following questions:

a. Consider a sound originated as a man claps his hands. What is the speed of the sound if the
wavelength and frequency are 0.6m and 550Hz?
b. Explain why sound cannot be heard in a vacuum?
c. Are you able to hear echo in your house? Explain your answer.

5. Practicing Islam
Allah (SWT) says to us to reflect on his blessing and favours. In Surah Rahman, it is mentioned
several times that reflecting on the favours is bestowed upon us.
Then which of the Blessings of your Lord will you both (jinns and men) deny?
(Surah Rahman: 13)
We need to be thankful for Allah (SWT) for the blessings we have. The way our organs and
systems function amazes us. For instance, our eye is one of the greatest blessing that we have
been bestowed upon by Allah (SWT). The retina inside the eye makes vision possible for us.
The retina converts light into electrical signals which are sent through the optic nerve to the
brain where they are interpreted as vision. The photoreceptors on the retina transform light into
electricity through a complex biochemical process. Approximately 125 million photoreceptors are
packed into each human retina.
Discuss and identify some ways we could take care of our eyes and be thankful to Allah (SWT).
Identify ways we could be sensitive towards people who do not have vision.

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 Ecology and
13 Ecosystems
13.1 Energy Transfer in an Ecosystem

Ecology and Ecosystems

The environment consists of living and non-living things. Living
You will learn
things include plants, animals and microorganisms that interact
• Living and
with each other and also with the non-living things. Living things
non-living things in
depend on non-living things for their survival. This is called an environment
interdependence. • Interdependence of
The study of the relations between organisms with one another living and non-living
and with their surroundings is called ecology. things

The environment of a living organism comprises of many non-living

things such as, the Earth, water, air, Sun, rocks, mud etc. All the living organisms
and non-living things of a habitat together make up an ecosystem.

The mangrove is a habitat

All fishes
make up the
fish population
of the habitat

All the inhabitants

of the mangrove
make up a
community

The mangrove and its inhabitants make up an ecosystem

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Energy Flow within an Ecosystem

All living organisms in an ecosystem need energy. They get energy from food. In an
ecosystem, Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Plants trap the energy from the Sun to
make food in the form of glucose and stores it in the form of starch. During respiration, the
food is broken down and energy is released, which is used by plants.
Plants are called producers because they produce their own food. Animals get energy by eating
plants or animals (Figure 13.1).

Energy
from
Sun

Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary

consumer consumer consumer
Figure 13.1: Energy from food flows in an ecosystem from one organism to another.

A sequence of organisms, starting with a photosynthesising organism (usually a green

plant), through which energy is passed as one organism is eaten by the next in the
sequence. Figure 13.2 shows the food chain of a mangrove.

Sun Plankton Crustaceans Trout

Figure 13.2: An example of a food chain in a mangrove.

In an ecosystem, most animals eat more than one kind of food. There are many food chains
that are linked to one another. Most plants and animals are part of several food chains.
The interlinked food chains are called a food web (Figure 13.3) and the arrows in the food
chain represent energy transfer.
The sequence of the food chains is usually expressed with an arrow to show the flow of energy.
Energy is transferred along food chains from one level to the next. Some of the available
energy is used for the growth and the production of offspring. The amount of available
energy decreases from one level to the next.

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Kit fox
Tertiary
consumers

Golden Eagle

Scorpion
Secondary
consumers

Primary
consumers
Grasshopper Ground Squirrel

Producers

PIants
Figure 13.3: Example of a food web.

The shorter the food chain, the more is the retention of energy as
compared to longer chains. Did you know?
Marine ecosystems
Trophic Levels in a Food Chain consist of approximately
Each level in the food chain is called the trophic level. 71% of the surface of
the planet and also hold
Plants trap the energy from the Sun to produce their food by 97% of the water of all
the process of photosynthesis. Thus green plants are called the the Aquatic Biomes (a
‘producers’. The other organisms in the food chain are called biome which includes all
the water bodies on the
the ‘consumers’ because they consume or eat other organisms
planet).
to derive energy. But in a food chain, there are more than one
consumer.
Plants are the producers and also the autotrophs; they represent the first trophic level
(Figure 13.4).
The second trophic levels in the food chains are the animals that eat the plants; they are
called the primary consumers. These animals are usually herbivores. They include
insects, caterpillars, cows, sheep etc.
The third trophic levels in the food chains are the animals that eat the primary consumers;
they are called the secondary consumers. These animals are usually carnivores. They
include snakes, cats, lions etc.

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(herbivore)        (carnivore)      (omnivore)
TUSSOCK GRASS GRASSHOPPER LIZARD QUOLL
(producer)         (primary consumer)  (secondary consumer)  (tertiary consumer)
Figure 13.4: Trophic levels.

The fourth trophic level animals eat the secondary consumers; they are called the tertiary
consumers. These animals are also carnivores. They include the hawk that eats owls.
When these organisms die, they are broken down by decomposers, which are mostly
bacteria and fungi. The exchange of energy continues. Decomposers start the cycle again.

Think Critically
What will happen to the ecosystem, if one level is removed from the food chain? Discuss with your
friends and draw a conclusion.

Activity 13.1 Food chains

Think of an ecosystem and draw a food chain involving four organisms. Identify the producer, primary
consumer and secondary consumer.

Questions
1. Define ecosystem with an example.
2. What is a food chain? How is it different from a food web?
3. Write down a food chain which ends with humans, which involves the sea and which has five links.

Summary
• A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their environment is called an
ecosystem.
• A sequence of organisms, starting with a green plant through which energy is passed as one
organism is eaten by the next in the sequence is called a food chain.
• Energy is transferred along food chains from one level to the next.
• Each level in the food chain is called a trophic level.

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13.2 Adaptation of Organisms within an Ecosystem

Every organism lives in their natural habitat from where they

You will learn
obtain their basic needs such as food, water and shelter.
• Living and
Living things interact with each other and with the non-living
non-living things in
environment for survival. Thus, an ecosystem is formed by an ecosystem
the interaction of living and non-living things. Each organism • Adaptations of living
has special adaptations that allow it to find food, escape from organisms
predators or reproduce to maintain its population. Adaptations are
the features that animals and plants have to help them survive in
their environment.

Adaptive Features of Organisms within Ecosystem

Organisms live in different habitats within an ecosystem to which they have special
adaptations. Adaptation is a way by which the body of an organism helps it survive, or live,
in its environment.
Mudskipper is actually a fish. It has modified
fins that help it to move on land. When on
land, it breathes through its damp skin. It
has huge eyes on top of it that help it to see
better and allows it to hunt for prey and also
to escape from predators. These structural
adaptations help the mudskipper cope with
the mangrove environment, catch prey and
escape predators.
A mudskipper moving in mud
The tree-climbing crab climbs up a tree to
avoid being eaten by predatory fish during
high tide. This behavioural adaptation helps
the crab escape predators.
Mangrove plants are able to survive in salt
water because of their ability to get rid of
excess salt. Some mangrove plants get rid
of excess salt by excreting it on their leaf
surfaces, which is then removed by wind
or rain.
Fish found in the coral reefs have flat bodies A tree-climbing crab climbs up a tree to avoid
that help them maneuver through the nooks predators

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and crannies of the coral reefs. Fish found in coral reefs also have bright coloring that helps
them camouflage and save themselves from predators.

Mangrove plant excreting salt A spotted fish hiding in the coral to save itself
through leaf from predators

Explore

Camouflage is an adaptation used by animals to hide from their enemies. Imagine if you could change
your skin colour to merge with your surroundings. How many difficult situations could you avoid? Share
your thoughts with the class.

Interdependence of Organisms on Each Other and the Environment

Within an ecosystem, organisms depend on each other and also on the environment. For
example, mangroves grow behind the coral reefs and their roots protect the sediment
from overpowering the coral reefs. Coral reefs and mangrove ecosystems function in a
symbiotic relationship. Coral reefs are largely dependent on coastal mangrove forests,
which stabilise shorelines, remove pollutants,
improve water quality and provide habitat to
a lot of organisms.
Various organisms always interact among
themselves within an environment.
The environment is changing constantly.
Some changes occur naturally while others
are caused by human activity. Everything
within an ecosystem is connected. If a single
Zooxanthellae, a symbiotic algae, lives inside
component is altered or harmed, the whole the polyps in coral. The Zooxanthellae provides
system could be altered or damaged. the coral with needed nutrients in exchange of
Therefore, climate change, which leads to the protection that the coral provides it

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processes such as sea level rise, changing ocean currents, increased stormy weather,
increased temperature, changes in precipitation and increased CO2, is likely to have a
substantial impact on mangrove ecosystems.

Did you know?

Irrawaddy dolphin, a species of dolphin that lives primarily along the coastlines
of Southeast Asia (particularly off the eastern coastline of India) is an incredible
example of nature adapting to human influence. The dolphins have developed
something of a unique bond with the local fishermen. They drive schools of
fish towards the fishermen’s nets, and in exchange they have their pick of the
helpless fish before the nets are hauled in.

Activity 13.2 Conserving our environment

Research and find out how urbanisation is affecting our environment and the actions that the
government is taking to conserve our country’s sensitive ecosystem. Share your findings with the class.

Questions
1. Explain the importance of adaptations in plants and animals.
2. Give some example of how mangrove animals protect themselves from predators.
3. Do you think mangroves are useful for coral reefs? Explain.
4. How do organisms depend on the environment in an ecosystem? Explain with examples.

Summary
• Every organism has a specific habitat where it lives.
• Adaptations are the features that help organisms to survive in the environment that they live in.
• Each organism has special adaptations that help it to survive in its ecosystem.
• Within the ecosystem, organisms depend on each other and also on the environment.

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13.3 End of Unit Questions

13.1. Food and energy transfer in an ecosystem

I. Look at the image of the following food web:

Dragonfly
Buzzard
Fox

Frog

Ladybird

Snake

Greenfly
Butterfly

Mouse
Titmouse

Rabbit

Grasshopper

Plantain

Berry plant

1. Answer the following questions:

1. Identify the organisms that are producers in the food web?
2. Identify the organisms that are consumers in the food web?
3. Identify the organisms that are eaten by the buzzard?
4. What will happen if the producers are removed from the food web?
5. How many food chains are interlinked in the above food web?

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2. Copy and categorise the living organisms in the food web as under
a. Primary producer ____________________
b. Primary consumer __________________
c. Secondary consumer ____________________
d. Tertiary consumer ___________________

13.2. Adaptation of organisms within an ecosystem

II. Answer the following questions:

1. How do coral reef fishes save themselves from predators?
2. What adaptation strategy do mangrove plants adapt to survive in the salt water?

III. Natural disasters have huge impact on ecosystems. Explain how human activities affect the
fine balance of ecosystems?

IV. Practicing Islam

Living things are dependent on each other and components of their environment, including
water, soil and air. Life is sustained and enhanced due to the interdependence of the living
and non-living components on the Earth. In this regard, it is stated in the holy Qur’an,

And the heaven He raised and imposed the balance. That you not transgress
within the balance. And establish weight in justice and do not make deficient
the balance. [Al-Rahman, 55:7–9]

The above verse and many other verses in the Holy Qur’an set out complete spiritual and
moral ecological guidelines for humans. We are advised to maintain the balance that exists
in nature.
Reflect on our behaviours and identify how our actions are disrupting the natural balance.
You may reflect on usage of land, water, vegetation etc.

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14 Importance
14.1 Formation of Reefs

What Are Corals?

Corals are marine invertebrate animals that belong to a large
You will learn
group of animals called Cnidaria. These animals live in compact
• Formation of reefs
colonies. Other animals in this group include jellyfish and sea
anemones. Corals can exist as individual polyps or in colonies
and communities that contain hundreds of thousands of polyps.

Coral communities in marine ecosystem

Coral are divided into two groups: hard coral and soft coral. The
hard corals can build reefs.

Coral Reefs Did you know?

Coral reefs help to
The accumulation of coralline material left from the bodies of
improve the surrounding
coral animals results in the formation of coral reef, which is water quality. They act
basically a ridge or knoll. They are found in the oceans of most as a kind of filter that
tropical areas of the world between the latitudes 30 degree North traps things floating in
and 30 degree South. the water, which makes
for cleaner water all
The stony hard corals are mainly responsible for reef building. around.
The coralline sponges, coralline algae and bryozoans are

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equally important for reef building. They

secrete calcium carbonate, which acts
like cement, binding together coral, sand
and pieces of rubble to form a more solid
structure. Coral reefs are the home to a
number of sea animals such as fishes
and sea anemones and these animals
make the reefs look like colourful sea
gardens.

Formation of Coral Reefs Coral reefs are home to various fishes

Coral reefs are one of the oldest and sea animals

ecosystems on Earth. They first

appeared around 500 million years
ago. Coral reefs are formed by
colonies of tiny sea organisms called
coral polyps. Coral polyps were the
organisms that first colonised the
shallow coastal waters around islands.
They rapidly multiplied and grew
faster along the edges of the islands
where the currents were the strongest.
Thus, the grinding, battering sea Polyps
helped the formation of coral islands.
Strong currents broke up the fragments
of coral and piled them up forming a
sloping wall below the reef front. More
corals could grow on the sloping wall,
which acted as a firm base for their
growth. This resulted in the extension
of the reef outwards leading to the
formation of coral reefs.
There are three types of coral reefs:
Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll
reefs. Coral reef

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Fringing reef: Fringing reef grows in shallow water.

The flat area behind the reef front is called the ‘reef flat’.
This flat is composed of coral rubble, sand and some
living coral. It extends up to the shore. Large changes in
salinity, temperature and lot of sedimentation reduce the
growth of the coral. At low tide, a large part of the flat is
Fringing Reef
exposed, as the water is very shallow. The growth of the
coral is maximum in strong current.
Barrier reef: Unlike a fringing reef, a wide lagoon
separates the barrier reef from the shore. A barrier reef
also has a reef flat behind the reef front. Corals grow
well in the lagoon and form an inner reef or table reef.
A barrier reef may consist of a long series of reefs
separated by channels of open water. Barrier Reef
Atoll reef: They are ring-shaped reefs found in the middle
of the ocean. Atolls usually form when islands surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea or
the sea level rises around them.

Did you know?

The largest reef in the
world, the Great Barrier
Reef in Australia, is
longer than 1200 miles
(1900 km).
Atoll Reef

Questions
1. What are corals?
2. How many types of corals are there? Do all types of corals build reefs?
3. How are coral reefs formed?

Summary
• Corals are marine animals that belong to the group Cnidaria.
• Corals are divided into two groups: hard coral and soft coral.
• Coral reefs are formed by the action of millions of tiny sea organisms called a coral polyp.
• Coral reefs are mostly found in warm, shallow and tropical sea.
• Coral reefs are of three types such as fringing, barrier and atoll.

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14.2 Atoll Formation

Atoll Formation You will learn

1 2 • Formation of atoll
Island

Fringing Barrier Did you know?

reef reef
The Kwajalein Atoll (which
3 4 is a part of the Republic of
Lagoon the Marshall Islands), with
a huge central lagoon, is
Atoll Coral
the largest coral atoll on
forming Atoll the planet.
Figure 14.1: Formation of atoll.
Corals gradually settle and grow around an island and begin to form a reef. This type of
reef is called a fringing reef, which takes many years to form. Over the next several years,
if conditions are favourable, the reef continues to expand. As the reef expands, the interior
island usually begins to subside and the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef. When the
island completely subsides beneath the water leaving a ring of growing coral with an
open lagoon in its centre, it is called an atoll. So an atoll is a circular coral reef system
surrounded by a large central lagoon. Atolls mostly occur in the mid-ocean (Figure 14.1).
Atolls are more common in the Pacific Ocean.

Questions
1. What is an atoll?
2. In which part of the ocean does the atoll occur?

Summary
• Atoll is a circular coral reef system surrounded by a large central lagoon.
• Atolls mostly occur in the mid-ocean.

Scientist in focus
Reginald Aldworth Daly (1871–1957) was a Canadian-American geologist.
After he became a professor of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, USA, in 1907, he travelled to Hawaii and Samoa
for work. He postulated his theory of ‘glacial control’ from his studies of
these islands.

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14.3 Human Impact on Coral Reefs

Impact of Human Activities on Coral Reefs You will learn

• Human impact on
coral reefs

A diver in the ocean

Coral reefs are greatly affected by humans. They are being destroyed at an alarming rate. It has
been estimated that 10% of the reefs are already lost from the world. Scientists have assumed
that in the coming fifty years of time, many of the coral reefs will be lost from the Earth.
The destruction of coral reefs is mainly due to human activity.
The primary causes are as follows:
Pollution: Humans cause many types of pollution in water due to sewage and trash
disposal that settles on corals and kill them.
Overfishing: Overfishing threatens the coral habitats. It can be defined as the situation
when so many fish are caught that the population cannot reproduce to replenish
themselves. It can lead to depletion or extinction of fish population, which might create
imbalance in the marine environment.
Soil erosion: When soil gets eroded and the soil, silt and sand enter the ocean, they
reduce the availability of light and increase nutrient, which allow algae overgrowth on coral.
Irresponsible tourism: Tourists are often seen kicking, touching or standing on coral.
Boats drop anchor or drive across shallow coral and even abandon fishing gear.
Global warming: Increase in temperature of water kills the marine organisms that are not
adapted to warm temperature.

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Did you know?

The large areas of coral reefs containing many individual reefs and related
habitats such as sea grass meadows constitute ‘Coral reef Ecosystem’.
These ecosystems extend from the shorelines of tropical islands and coasts to
the deep blue waters of the open sea. They include all the marine life within the
area as well as the non-living parts of their environment.

How Can You Help Coral Reefs?

Even though you may be far from a coral reef ecosystem, there are simple ways by which
you can contribute to help coral reefs.
• Do not dispose chemicals down your drain or in your lawn. These products get collected
in the watershed and may eventually pollute water where corals are found. It is better to
use biodegradable products.
• Use water judiciously and try to conserve water as much as possible. Usage of less
water results in less runoff and finally less wastewater.
• Do not touch the corals or any other marine animals.
• While visiting ocean side, ensure that you do not drive your boat on corals or any other
marine animals.
• Ensure that you drop anchors in sand or other non-coral sediment.

Explore

Research on the Internet and find out if there are any more reasons that threaten the coral reefs
and discuss your findings with the class.

Questions
1. Give examples of human activities that harm the coral reefs.
2. How is overfishing harmful for corals?
3. Does global warming have any effect on coral reefs?

Summary
• Coral reefs are greatly affected by human activities.
• Reefs from the world are already lost significantly.
• The causes of this are pollution, overfishing, soil erosion, irresponsible tourism etc.

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14.4 End of Unit Questions

14.1 Formation of reefs

I. Answer the following questions:

a. Why are coral reefs found mostly in shallow water?
b. How does reef formation take place?
c. How are ‘fringing reefs’ formed?
d. How is a barrier reef different from a fringing reef?

14.2 Atoll formation

II. Explain the formation of an atoll with the help of a diagram.

14.3 Human impact on coral reefs

III. Copy and answer the following questions:

1. List at least three ways how human activities impact coral reefs
a. ______________
b. _______________
c. ________________

2. List at least two ways by which you can help coral reefs
a. _____________________________
b. _____________________________

IV. Practicing Islam

Islam teaches us to take care of our environment. We are required to be a steward of our
surroundings and should make all possible efforts to educate others and ensure that a safe
environment is established not only for ourselves but also for all living creatures now and in
the future. In the Qur’an, Allah (SWT) mentions in [Surah Al-An’am, Ayah 165]

It is He who has appointed you viceroys in the earth. (6:165)

This can be used to explain, for instance, how Allah (SWT) chose human beings to be His
vicegerents on Earth, giving them knowledge and free will.
Reflect on the verse and discuss the importance of taking care of our environment especially
• Discuss the benefits we get from the marine environment.
• How can we take care of our environment.

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 Electricity and
15 Magnetism
15.1 Law of Magnetism

Many objects have magnets in them. Loudspeakers, electrical

You will learn
motors and electrical generators have magnets in them.
• Law of magnetism
Likewise, heavy machineries like cranes use powerful magnets.
• Magnetic field and
Strong magnets are also used in magnetic resonance imaging
magnetic flux lines
(MRI) machines, which are a powerful tool for diagnosing the
defects in the human body. Therefore, we could say that magnets
play a significant role in our lives as it has many applications.

Did you know?

MRI machines generate
a magnetic field 60,000
times as intense as that
of the Earth’s to vibrate
the hydrogen atoms in
our body. The hydrogen
atoms in our body emit
radio waves in response
to the vibration that are
analysed to produce a
A patient being diagnosed using an MRI map of our insides.
machine

Magnets Have Poles

When like (same) poles of a magnet are near each other, they repel. When there are unlike
poles near each other, there is an attraction. Hence, law of magnetism states that
• Like poles repel each other.
• Unlike poles attract each other.

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Activity 15.1 Laws of magnetism

Materials: Two similar bar magnets and thread.
Method:
N
N
1. Collect two bar magnets. Suspend a bar magnet using a S
thread so that it can rotate freely.
2. Allow it to come to rest.
3. Bring the N pole of the second bar magnet near the N pole
of the hanging bar magnet.
S
4. Observe the motion of the hanging magnet. N
N
5. Now take the same pole near the south pole of the
suspended magnet.
• What do you observe in both cases? Copy the images on your notebook and draw the
arrows to show the motion of the hanging magnet.
• What is the direction in which the freely hanging magnet aligns with respect to Earths’
north–south direction?

Magnetic Field
A magnet affects any nearby magnetic material. This is because there is a magnetic field
around the magnet.

Activity 15.2 Magnetic lines of force

Materials: Thick white sheet, bar magnet and iron filings.
Method:
1. Take a thick white sheet and place it on the top of a bar magnet.
2. Trace the outline of the bar magnet and identify North and South.
3. Now sprinkle the iron filings equally over the paper.
4. Then gently tap the paper.
• Draw what you observed. Share your findings with the class.

In Activity 15.2, you should be able to observe

a pattern of curves in a small space around the
magnet as shown in Figure 15.1. This is because S N

the iron filings realign in the magnetic field of the

magnet. Thus, the pattern represents the path of
the magnetic field. If you trace the path, you will
see continuous curved lines. Figure 15.1: Arrangement of iron filings
around a magnet.
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The lines traced around the magnet are called the magnetic lines of force. These
imaginary lines thus indicate the region in which the force of the magnet can be detected.
This region is called the magnetic field.
For example, a steel pin gets attracted to a magnet only if it is within the magnetic field.
Objects further away from the magnet do not experience a pull or a push from the magnet.

Some steel pins are not attracted to the magnet and remain on the table Did you know
as they are not within the magnetic field of the magnet
The Earth's magnetic
field continuously keeps
changing, which is of
Characteristics of Magnetic Field
practical significance for
The magnetic lines of force would tell us the strength of the both air travellers and
magnetic field (Figure 15.2). For example, the crowded lines satellites because the
magnetic field protects
near the poles show a stronger magnetic field in that region.
the Earth from charged
However, from these lines we cannot find the direction of the particles from space.
magnetic field. To find out the direction, let us do Activity 15.3.

S N

Figure 15.2: Magnetic field lines of a bar magnet.

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Activity 15.3 Tracing lines of magnetic field

Materials: A magnetic compass, bar magnet, sheet of paper, drawing board and pencil for marking.
Method: Let us now trace the magnetic field of a N
bar magnet using a compass. Fix a sheet of paper
on a drawing board. Place a bar magnet on the
N L O P M S
top of the sheet of the paper. Trace the outline of S
the bar magnet and mark which end is North and
which is South. Mark points ‘L’, ‘O’, ‘P’ and ‘M’ on
the magnet in such a way that L and M and O and P are at equal distances from the north and south
poles, respectively. Place a compass near the north pole. Allow the magnetic needle to come to rest.
The tail end of the needle is the south pole and other end of the needle is the north pole.
• How do we know that the tail end of needle is south pole?
• Mark a point ‘a’ near north pole of the needle. Now place the magnetic needle in such a way that
its south pole points towards point ‘a’. Mark the new position of its north pole ‘b’. Repeat this until
you reach S pole of the magnet.
• Now consider other two pairs of points L, M and O, P and repeat the same procedure to trace the
magnetic lines in-between those points. What can you infer?
• Explain how magnetic lines of force enter and exit the bar magnet.

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force Magnetic field of a bar magnet

In the activities, you might have obtained

magnetic lines as shown in Figure 15.3. From the
pattern we can infer that
N S
• The magnetic lines of force leave the north
pole and enter the south pole.
• Lines of force repel each other. Lines of force
never intersect.

S N S N

Attraction between opposite poles

Neutral or null
points

S N N S

Repulsion between like poles

Figure 15.3: Direction of magnetic lines of force.

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Questions
1. If the Earth is like a huge bar magnet, what might these imaginary magnetic field lines look like
around the Earth?
2. Observe the following magnetic field lines of two magnets kept close to each other. Find out the
poles that are facing each other.

Magnetic field lines

Summary
• Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
• The region in which the force of a magnet acts is called the magnetic field.
• The strength and direction of magnetic field can be represented by imaginary curved lines called
magnetic field lines.
• The greater the number of magnetic lines, the higher is the magnetic field.
• Magnetic lines of force start from the north pole and enter the south pole of a magnet. They never
intersect each other.

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15.2 Temporary and Permanent Magnets

A lodestone is a natural magnet and is made up of minerals called

You will learn
magnetite. Thus, in nature the magnets are found in the form of
• Temporary and
stones or rocks. Hence, they do not have regular shapes and size.
permanent magnets
However, magnets having specific shapes can be
prepared using materials like iron, cobalt, nickel
and their mixture with other elements. When such
materials are given an external magnetic field, they
become magnets.

Permanent Magnets
The magnets that are used in door catchers, in
fridge doors and in loudspeakers are permanent
magnets. These magnets are permanent in the
Lodestone is a natural magnet
sense they retain their magnetism even after
removing the surrounding magnetic field.

Permanent magnets are used to keep the door closed

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Temporary Magnets
When a magnet touches a paper clip, the paper
clip becomes a temporary magnet as long as it
is touching the real magnet and each additional
paperclip also becomes a temporary magnet with a
weaker magnetic force than the one before it. They
tend to attract other magnetic materials. Unlike
permanent magnets, temporary magnets remain
magnetised only for a short period of time and gets
demagnetised when the surrounding magnetic field
is removed. A paperclip becomes a temporary magnet

Making Magnets
Have you ever tried to turn an iron nail into a
magnet using a battery? If you have done so,
it means you have created an electromagnet.
An electromagnet is a magnet in which the
magnetic field is created by an electric current.
Large cranes lift heavy substances like cables
and rods in construction sites with the help of
electromagnets. Commonly, there is an iron
core wrapped with conducting wires. When an
operator switches on a power supply, the current A crane lifts the iron scraps using an
electromagnet
passes through the wires. Meanwhile, the iron
core becomes a magnet and lifts heavy magnetic materials. However, as soon as the
current stops, the core loses its magnetic property.

Questions
1. Differentiate between permanent and temporary magnets.
2. Explain how a piece of iron or steel can be magnetised.
3. Explain how copper can be separated from iron in a scrapyard using an electromagnet.

Summary
• Permanent magnets retain their magnetic property even after the external electric field is removed.
• Unlike permanent magnets, temporary magnets lose its magnetism when the magnet is removed.
• Electromagnets are very useful because they can be turned on and off and their strengths can
be varied.

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15.3 Magnetising and Demagnetising

Magnetising
Materials are magnetised in several ways. Two common ways of You will learn
magnetising are the stroking method and the electrical method. • Magnetising and
A piece of material (for example, an iron bar) may be stroked with demagnetising
a permanent magnet. By stroking it consistently from one end to magnets

the other (without reversing the direction), the material can be

magnetised (Figure 15.4).

S
N

Figure 15.4: Magnetising by stroking.

Electricity can also be used to turn a metal into a magnet. In this method, an electric current
is used for magnetising a material. The magnet thus produced is called an electromagnet.

Activity 15.4a Magnetisation of an iron nail/steel needle by stroking

Materials: Iron nail and two bar magnets.
Method: To magnetise the iron nail, place the opposite ends of the two
S
magnets at the center, drag the poles of these two magnets towards the
ends of the strip. Repeat this procedure several times, and the iron nail N
will become a magnet.
• Is the magnet you produced a permanent magnet?
• How do you know that it is a permanent magnet?
• State how to find the nail’s magnetic poles.

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Activity 15.4b Magnetisation of an iron nail by electrical method

Materials: Insulated wire, an iron nail and a cell/battery.
Method: Wind a few dozen turns of insulated wire around a nail. Leave enough wire free at either
end to make connections to the cell. Connect the ends of the wire to the cell (1.5V or 3V cells are
preferred). Test the iron nail to see if it has become magnetised while the current flows in. Switch off the
power supply and see whether the nail attracts other nails even when the electricity is switched off.
• How would you find out if the nail is magnetised?
• Is the magnet you produced a permanent magnet? Give reasons.
• Explain how you will determine the nail’s magnetic poles.

Iron nail
Battery
Coil of
insulated
wire

Switch

Demagnetisation
Permanent magnets can be demagnetised in
the following ways (Figure 15.5):
• By heating it to extreme temperatures.
• By stroking one magnet with another in a
random fashion. The magnet being stroked
will become demagnetised.
• By hammering and dropping the magnet.
• By placing the magnet in a coil and passing
an alternating current through the coil.

Figure 15.5: Different ways of demagnetisation.

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Explore

Research and find out how you can make a magnetic toy boat. Try and make one
using everyday materials.

Questions
1. We know that a magnet is formed by the influence of magnetic field of another magnet. Explain the
formation of a magnet in the presence of another magnet in its vicinity.
2. Distinguish between stroking and electrical methods of magnetisation.
3. Explain how you would separate magnetic material from a junk.

Summary
• Magnets are made from materials like iron, cobalt, nickel and their mixture with other elements.
• Metallic objects can be magnetised by stroking. Electrical method is another way to magnetise an
object.

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15.4 Static Electricity

Have you ever experienced your hair standing straight up on a

You will learn
dry day? Perhaps you might have seen raising hair on your hand
• Static electricity
while sitting on a chair.
• Laws of
Why do such things happen? This is because you are electrostatics
experiencing the effects of static electricity.

Hair rises straight up during dry days due to static electricity

Activity 15.5 Static electricity

Try the following activities and record your observation as you do the activities:
• Take a balloon and rub against your hair or against wool.
What happens to your hair when you hold the balloon
near it?
• Turn on the tap so that a thin stream of water flows into
the sink. Rub the balloon again and bring the balloon
near the stream of water. What is happening?
• Place a ping-pong ball on a tabletop. Bring the rubbed
balloon near the ball. What happens?
• Place pieces of paper on the table. Bring the balloon
near the pieces of paper. What happens?
Share your observation.

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Charging by Friction
In the above activities, when you rub a balloon
against your hair, or wool, we say that the
balloon has become charged. When such
charged object is brought near other objects
they are attracted by the charged object. This
is due to static electricity. Since the balloon is
charged while rubbing, it is said to be charged
by friction.
Clouds get charged by rubbing against one
Clouds rub against each other and charges another when lightning happens
are produced. This results in lightning during a
thunderstorm.

Charging of Solids Involves Movement of Electrons

There are two types of electric charge, which we call positive (+) and negative (−). For
example, a glass rod will have an equal number of positive and negative charges. Likewise
a silk cloth also has an equal number of positive and negative charges. We say that they
are neutral (which means equal number of positive and negative charges).
When the rod is rubbed using the silk cloth, the rod gains a positive electric charge. At the
same time, the silk cloth gains a negative charge (Figure 15.6).

Glass rod

Silk cloth
Figure 15.6: When the glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the rod becomes
positively charged while the silk cloth becomes negatively charged.

We know that materials are made up of atoms. The atoms have loosely bound electrons.
In this case, the glass rod holds its electrons weakly and the cloth holds its electrons more
strongly. So when the glass rod is rubbed using the silk cloth, electrons from the glass rod
gets transferred to the silk cloth. This leaves the silk cloth with extra negative charges so it
becomes negatively charged. In the meantime, the glass rod has extra positive charge due
to loss of electrons, we say that it is positively charged (Figure 15.7).
Interestingly, if you rub the glass rod against leather, you will find that the rod becomes

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negatively charged. This shows that the net charge on the objects vary depending on the
materials used to rub it. However, it is common that one material always gains a positive
charge, the other a negative charge.
Leather becomes
positively
charged from
losing electrons

Electrons
gained by the
rod

Leather

Figure 15.7: An object becomes negatively charged by gaining electrons and

positively charged by losing electrons.

Laws of Electrostatics
Like magnets, electric charges exert electrostatic forces. It can be repulsion or attraction
depending on the charges. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each
other.

Questions
1. In Activity 15.5, if a balloon is considered to gain a negative charge while rubbing with wool, what
would be the charge on the polythene?
2. If you rub a comb through your hair, your hair is attracted towards the comb. Explain why this happens.
3. Two positively charged polystyrene spheres are held close to one another. Will they attract or repel
one another?

Summary
• Objects can be charged by rubbing them with different suitable materials.
• There are two types of charges: positive and negative.
• When one object is rubbed against another, they may gain opposite electrostatic charges.
• Charged objects exert forces on each other: like charges repel; unlike charges attract.

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15.5 Electric Current

We have learnt that the static electricity can cause lightning bolts.
You will learn
However, static electricity cannot be used to light, heat or cool our
• Conventional and
houses. It is the electric current that performs such useful jobs for
electric current
us. In fact, if electricity were not discovered, we would not have
• Electric field line
been living a modern life.

Simple Circuit
Let us see how an electric current flows through
the simple circuit shown in Figure 15.8.
The cell has two terminals. One terminal has excess
electrons than the other and is called negative
terminal. The other is called positive terminal.
Electrons are present in the conducting wire.
When you ‘ON’ the switch, the electrons in the
negative terminal pushes the electrons in the
+
wire. Electrons flow through the bulb and reach
the positive terminal. Due to chemical reaction in Figure 15.8: A simple circuit.
the cell, the electrons continue to build up on the
negative terminal. This causes continuous flow of
electrons in the circuit. As the filament in the bulb experiences a flow of electrons, it lits up.
Thus, the flow of free electrons in the circuit constitutes an electric current.

Electric Current
In the simple circuit discussed above, the bulb uses free electrons that carry negative
charge to glow.
Hence, electric current can be defined as rate of flow of charges through a conductor. It can
be written as
Current Charge/Time,
I Q│t, so when we rearrange
Q It
The SI unit of current is ampere. It is represented by letter ‘A’, whereas the unit of charge
is Coulomb. Coulomb is given a letter ‘C’. One ampere of current is equal to a flow of one
coulomb of charge per second.

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Direction of Conventional Current

Direction of an electric current is the
direction in which a positive charge would
move (Figure 15.9).

+
Flow of convectional
current
However, in the metal, the cause of current
is flow of electrons. We know that in wires
the electron flows from negative to positive
Direction of electron flow
terminal of the cell. This is opposite to the
direction in which a positive charge would
move. Hence, the conventional current in
Figure 15.9: Flow of electrons.
a metal wire is opposite to that of flow of
electrons.

Electric Field
We know that the charged object or a charged particle may repel or attract other charged
objects. The region in which other charged objects experience a pull or a push from a
charged object is called electric field of that object.

Representing electric field

Although electric field cannot be

seen by the naked eyes, its strength
and direction can be represented by
drawing lines around the charge. These
lines are called electric field lines
(Figure15.10).
Let us use a positive charge to trace
the electric field lines. If test charge is
positive and you put another positive Figure 15.10: Electric field lines.
charge near it, that second charge will
be repelled outwards. So the field lines for a central positive charge point outwards. If the
central charge is negative, a positive charge placed nearby would be attracted towards the
central charge, so the field for a central negative charge point inwards.
We now know that the electric field of a positive charge is outwards and that of negative
charge is inwards. Hence, electric field lines are defined as imaginary lines along which a
small positive charge is free to move.
An object with more charge will have a greater electric field. Thus we can see more
crowded field lines than the objects with a weaker electric field.

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Electric field lines for two charges

Though the field lines are always straight in the above depictions, for two bodies having
equal charges, the field lines will include curved lines (Figure 15.11).

(a) (b)

Figure 15.11: (a) Field lines between two unlike charges, (b) field lines between
two like charges.

In Figure 15.11b, the space between the two like charges is the null point where electric
field is zero. Hence, no field lines pass through the point.

The electric field lines have the following characteristics:

• These lines always start on a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
• They never intersect each other.
• Lines are crowded together in regions where the field is stronger. They are spread apart
where the field is weak.
• They are drawn perpendicularly to the charged surface.

Questions
1. The field lines of three charged objects are given below. Find out which of the objects have more
charge by referring to the representation of magnetic field lines.

A B C

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2. Using the depiction of electric field lines of any charge, explain how the electric field varies as we
move away from the charge.
3. Pick the wrong one out.

4. The amount of charge passing through a cell in 4s is 12C. Find out the current supplied by the cell.
5. How much time is required for 100C of charge to flow past a point if current is 2A?

Summary
• Electric current can be defined as the rate of flow of charges through a conductor. The unit of
current is ampere.
• The direction of conventional current is opposite to that of flow of electron in a circuit.
• The region in which a charged object pulls or pushes another charged object is called electric field.
• Electric field lines are imaginary lines along which a small positive charge is free to move.

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15.6 Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuit
In a series circuit, components are connected one after
You will know
another. It means that the negative of one component is
• Series and parallel
connected to positive of succeeding components as shown in
circuits
the circuit diagram (Figure 15.12). When the bulbs
are in series, they share the cell/batteries voltage.
So each bulb glows dimly. Voltage or potential
difference across an electric component is needed
to make current flow through it. Cells or batteries
often provide the voltage needed.
We can conclude that the current in a series is the
same everywhere and voltage is divided up across
each component.
The most common series circuit in everyday life
is the light switch (Figure 15.13). Any bulb in your
home that is controlled by a single switch is a series
circuit.
Figure 15.12: A series circuit.

Parallel Circuit
When two bulbs are connected parallel (Figure 15.14),
each bulb has a direct connection to the cell/battery.
Each gets a full cell/battery voltage. So each bulb glows
brightly.
In a parallel circuits, the current is not the same
everywhere. However, voltage across each
component is the same. In lighting circuits and Figure 15.13: A basic light switch.
power ring circuits, all the lamps are connected
parallel.

Measuring voltage and current in series and

parallel ­circuits

Voltmeter is used to measure a device's voltage.

A voltmeter must be connected in parallel to that

Figure 15.14: A parallel circuit.

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 Exploring Science

(a) (b)

(a) An analogue voltmeter, (b) a digital voltmeter

device. This is necessary because objects

in parallel experience the same voltage.
An ammeter measures the electric
current in a circuit. To measure a
device's current, an ammeter must be
connected in series to that device. This
is necessary because objects in series
experience the same current.
(a) (b)
(a) An analogue ammeter, (b) a digital ammeter

Questions
1. Give examples of series and parallel circuits in real life.
2. Why is an ammeter always connected in series and a voltmeter always in parallel in a circuit?

Summary
• Batteries in series increases voltage.
• In a series circuit, current is the same everywhere, but voltage is divided up across each
component.
• In a parallel circuit, the current is not the same everywhere. However, voltage across each
component is the same.
• A voltmeter is connected in parallel whereas an ammeter is connected in series with components
across which the voltage and current are measured.

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15.7 End of Unit Questions

15.1. Law of magnetism

I. Copy and answer the following question:

Ali experimented to see magnetic field around magnets. He observed the pattern of iron filings
when sprinkled over the magnets kept in different arrangements. Draw the magnetic field lines for
the patterns observed.

Pattern Magnetic field lines

N S
S N

A bar magnet

S N

A horse shoe magnet

Two magnets with unlike poles facing each other

Two magnets with sides facing each other

Two magnets with same poles facing each other

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15.2. Temporary and permanent magnets

II. Answer the following questions:

a. What is the effect of a magnetic field around a temporary magnet?
b. How can permanent magnets be produced?

15.3. Magnetising and demagnetising

III. Answer the following questions:

a. What are the different methods of magnetisation?
b. Can you demagnetise a permanent magnet? Explain your answer.

15.4. Static electricity

IV. Look at the diagram and answer the questions:

Two balloons are hung as shown on the right.
If they are given negative charges, how will the
balloons move?
a. If one of them is given positive charge and another
still has negative charge, how will the balloons move?
b. The balloons are charged using any of the following
materials. Find out which of the materials might have
not been used. Explain why?
(i) wool
(ii) fur
(iii) aluminium foil
c. While investigating static electricity, it is advised not to touch any charged object by bare hand.
What could be the reasons for such advice?

15.5. Electric current

V. Using the concept of electric current in a circuit, answer the +

following questions:
a. Calculate the quantity of charge, obtained when a current of 25A
runs for 1min.
b. Represent the direction of flow of electron and that of
conventional current in the circuit shown below.

15.5. Series and parallel circuits

VI. Compare series and parallel circuits. Discuss the scenarios where the series and
parallel circuits might have been used.

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VII. What type of circuit (parallel/series) is described by each of the following statements:
a. All components are connected side by side.
b. Two bulbs connected in this circuit glow dimmer.
c. Current is the same everywhere and voltage is different across each component of the circuit.

VIII. Practicing Islam

The magnetosphere layer, formed by the magnetic field of the Earth is vital to life. It helps to act
as a shield to the solar winds, deflects over 98 percent of the Sun’s flares, cosmic particles and
radiation from the Sun.
This shows that the world is protected in a very particular way. The important thing is that this
protection was made known in the Holy Qur’an in the following verse fourteen centuries ago:

We made the sky a preserved and protected roof (Surah Al-Anbiya: 32)

Research and explain why scientists say that Earth is a giant magnet. Reflect on how perfectly
Allah (SWT) has created the Earth for living things to survive.

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