Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum

Mechanics, Waves and Optics

21PYB101J

Course Instructor: Dr. Venkata Ravindra A

Assistant Professor
Department of Physics and Nanotechnology
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Email: venkatar1@srmist.edu.in
Phone: 8019448666
12 February 2024 Office: UB-709/A 1
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module I- Lecture-I

Basic definition of Del operator, Basic derivation and Physical significance of Div,
Curl, and Grad operation and Geometrical interpretation-Gauss-divergence and
Stoke's theorem, Statement and Physical Significance
 Del Operator ():
➢The del operator is defined through the partial derivatives with respect to
space variables. In Cartesian coordinates, the del operator is written as,
  
=i + j +k
x y z

➢It is a vector operator and it may be applied on scalars, vectors or tensors.

The del operator is important since it provides a number of indications as to
how a vector or scalar functions vary with position. It shows up in the
gradient, curl, divergence and Laplacian.

18PYB101J Module-I Lecture-1

 Divergence

➢ The divergence of a vector V written as div V represents the scalar

quantity.
div V =  • V = Vx V y Vz
+ +
x y z
 P P
P

-
(a) positive (b) negative (c) zero divergence
divergence divergence

Physically, the divergence of a vector quantity represents the rate

of change of the field strength in the direction of the field.

If the divergence of the vector field is positive at a point then

something is diverging from a small volume surrounding that
point and that point is acting as a source.

If it negative, then something is converging into the small

volume surrounding that point is acting as sink.

Geometrical interpretation: The divergence is the measure of the

extend of a vector function spreads out from a point of its origin.
If the divergence at a point is zero, then the rate at which
something entering a small volume surrounding that point is
equal to the rate at which it is leaving that volume. The vector
field whose divergence is zero is called solenoidal.

Fig. Examples for Divergence

Curl
The curl of V is written as curl V represents a vector
quantity.
→ → →
i j k
→   
curl V =  V =
x y z
Vx V y Vz

• Physically, the curl of a vector field represents the rate of

change of the field strength in a direction at right angles to the
field and is a measure of rotation of something in a small
volume surrounding a particular point.
• For streamline motions and conservative fields, the curl is zero
while it is maximum near the whirlpools.

• For vector fields whose curl is zero, there is no rotation of the

paddle wheel when it is placed in the field. Such fields are
called irrotational.
i. No rotation of the paddle ii. Rotation of the paddle (iii) direction of curl
wheel means the curl of the wheel means where the curl
field is zero. of the field exists.

Fig. Example for curl

Geometrical interpretation: The curl is the measure of the extend of a

vector function curls around the point of its origin.
 The Gradient
The gradient of a scalar function  is a vector whose cartesian
components are
  
, and
x y z
→  →  → 
grad =  = i + j +k
x y z

The magnitude of this vector gives the maximum rate of change of the scalar field and its
direction is the direction in which this maximum change occurs. For example, the electric field
intensity at any point is given by,

E = − grad V = negative gradient of potential

The negative sign implies that the direction of E opposite to the direction in which V
increases.
18PYB101J Module-I Lecture-1
 Gauss Divergence Theorem

Statement: It relates the volume integral of the divergence of a vector V to the surface
integral of the vector itself. According to this theorem, if a closed S bounds a volume ,
then

 (div V) d = s V • ds (or)  ( • V )d = S V • ds

Physical interpretation: The divergence theorem can be interpreted as a conservation

law, which states that the volume integral over all the sources and sinks is equal to the
net flow through the volume's boundary.
 Stoke’s Theorem

Statement: It relates the surface integral of the curl of a vector to the line integral of
the vector itself. According to this theorem, if a closed path C bounds a surface S,

s (curl V) • ds = C V• dl
• Stokes’ Theorem provides insight into a physical interpretation of the curl. In a
vector field, the rotation of the vector field is at a maximum when the curl of the
vector field and the normal vector have the same direction.
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module I Lecture-2

Electric Field and Electrostatic Potential, Volume, Surface

Charge and Line Charge, Point Charge, Gauss Law and
Applications
Electric field: Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge.
Electric charges affect the space around them. The space around the charge
within which its effect is felt or experienced is called electric field.

Electric field Intensity (or) Strength of the electric field(E)

The electrostatic field intensity due to a point charge qa at a given point is
defined as the force per unit charge exerted on a test charge qb placed at that point in the
field.
Fba q rˆ Coulombs law
Ea = = a a2 volt m -1
(or) N C -1
F = qaqb/4πε0r2
qb 4 0 r
Electrostatic Potential (V)
As in the study of mechanics, it is useful to think in terms of the work done by
electrical forces and the potential energy in electric charges to understand the behaviour
of electric charges. Just as the heat flows from a higher temperature to lower
temperature, water flows from higher level to lower level and air flows from higher
pressure to lower pressure, electric charge flows from a body where electrical level is
more to a body where it is less. This electrical level is called electric potential.
The electric potential is defined as the amount of work done in moving unit
positive charge from infinity to the given point of the field of the given charge against
the electrical force.
Unit: volt (or) joule / coulomb
 The electric potential at any point is equal to the work done in moving the unit
positive charge from infinity to that point.
r r
q
Therefore Potential = V = −  E . dx = −  dx
 
4 0 x 2

q 1 1 q
V = − =
4 0  r   4 0 r
 Electric Field due to Point Charge
Let ‘P’ be a point lying in vacuum at a distance ‘r’ form a point charge ‘q’ lying at O.
q0
Let a test charge ‘q0’ be placed at ‘P’. According to Coulomb’s Law, the force acting on
‘q0’ due to ‘q’ is
F = qq0/4πε0r2

The Electric Field at a point ‘P’ is, by definition, given by the force per unit test charge.
E = F/q0
E = q/4πε0 r2
 Charge density
If the charge is distributed continuously in medium called Charge density.
Line Charge density
If the charge is spread out along a line, with charge per unit length ‘λ’, then dq = λdl
Thus, the electric field of a line charge is E = F/q
E = 1/4πε0 ∫ (λ/r2 ) dl
Surface Charge density
If the charge is smeared out over a surface, with charge per unit area σ, then dq = σda
Thus, the electric field of a Surface charge
E = 1/4πε0 ∫ (σ/r2 ) da

Volume Charge density

If the charge fills a volume, with charge per unit volume ρ, then dq = ρdτ
Thus, the electric field of a line charge is
E = 1/4πε0 ∫ (ρ/r2 ) dτ
 Gauss theorem (or) Gauss law
This law relates the flux through any closed surface and the net
charge enclosed within the surface. The electric flux through a closed
surface is equal to the 1/ε0 times the net charge q enclosed by the
surface.
d φ = E.ds
1 q d φ = EdsCos θ
 =   q or  =   =
 0 
 E ds cos φ = ∮ EdsCos θ
 0 
 Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere When the point P
lies outside the sphere
P is a point at a distance r from the centre O. We have to find the electric Field E at P.
Draw a concentric sphere of radius OP with centre O. This is the Gaussian surface. At
all points of this sphere, the magnitude of the electric field is same and its direction is
perpendicular to the surface. Angle between E and dS is zero. The flux through this
surface is given by
 Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere When the point P lies outside
the sphere

dφ = E.ds = EdsCosθ = Eds

φ = ∮ Eds

φ = E(4Πr2)

By Gauss’s Law

E(4Πr2) = q/ε0

E = q/(4Πε0r2)
Hence the EF at an external point due to a uniformly charged sphere is the same as if
the total charge is concentrated at 18PYB101J
its centre.
Module-I Lecture-2
 Electric field due to an Infinite line of charge
Consider a uniformly charged wire of infinite length having a constant linear
charge density λ. Let P be a point at a distance r from the wire. Let us find an
expression for E at P. As a Gaussian surface, we choose a circular cylinder of radius r
and length l, closed at each end by plane caps normal to the axis. The magnitude of
EF will be the same at all points on the curved surface of the cylinder, Also E and ds
are along the same direction.
 Electric field due to an Infinite line of charge
dφ = E.ds = EdsCosθ =
Electric flux due to the curved surface = ∮E.ds = E(2Πrl) Eds

Electric flux due to each plane face = 0 (E and ds are at right angle)

Therefore total flux through the Gaussian surface = φ = E(2Πrl)

The net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface = q = λl φ= q/ε0

φ= λl/ε0
By Gauss law E(2Πrl) = λl/ ε0

E= λ/2Πε0r
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module I Lecture-3

Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation

 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation
Gauss’s law for a linear medium Note
D = εE
∇.D = ρ

∇. εE = ρ

Here E is basically free charge density (Volume) and D is the electric

displacement Note
Since E = -∇V, ∇. ε(-∇V) = ρ
the above equation for a homogeneous medium can be written as
∇2V = -ρ/ε
 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation

This equation is called as Poisson’s equation. For a free charge region,

i.e., where ρ = 0, the Poisson’s equation takes the form ∇2V = 0.

This equation is Laplace’s Equation. This equation is much useful in

solving electrostatic problems where a set of conductors are maintained
at different potentials; for example, capacitors and Vacuum tube diodes.
 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation
Using the expressions for Laplace’s operator ∇2 in cartesian, cylindrical
and spherical coordinate system, we can write Laplace’s Eq. in these
coordinate, respectively, as
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I Lecture-4

Solving Problems
1. If 2000 flux through lines enter a given volume of space 4000 lines diverge from it,
find the total charge within the volume.
Solution:
It is given that,
Φ1 = 2000 Vm and Φ2 = 4000 Vm.
According to Gauss’s theorem
Φ = q/ε0
Net flux emerging out of the surafce, i.e.,
Φ = Φ2 - Φ1 = 4000-2000 = 2000 Vm
Then, q = ε0 Φ = 8.854 ×10−12 × 2000
Answer: q = 1.77 ×10−8 C
2. Find the total charge enclosed by a closed surface if number of lines entering is
20000 and emerging out is 45000.
Solution:
It is given that,
Φ1 = 20000 Vm and Φ2 = 45000 Vm.
According to Gauss’s theorem
Φ = q/ε0
Net flux emerging out of the surafce, i.e.,
Φ = Φ2 - Φ1 = 45000 - 20000 = 25000 Vm
Then, q = ε0 Φ = 8.854 ×10−12 × 25000
Answer: q = 22.125 ×10−8 C
3. A point charge of 13.5 × 10-6 C is enclosed at the centre of the cube of side 6.0 cm.
Find the electric flux 1. through the whole volume and 2. through one face of the cube.
Solution

Given:

q = 13.5 × 10-6 C and a = 6 cm

According to Gauss’s theorem, the total flux through the whole volume
Φ = q/ε0
Φ = 13.5 × 10-6 / 8.854 ×10−12

Ans: Φ = 1.525 × 106 Nm2/C

Since a cube has 6 faces of equal area, the flux through one face of the cube would

be = 1/6(q/ε0 )
= 13.5 × 10-6 / 8.854 ×10−12

= (1.525 × 106 )/6 Nm2/C

Ans = 2.54 × 105 Nm2/C

4. A point charge of 11 C is located at the centre of a cube of side 5.0 cm. Calculate the
electric flux through each surface.
Solution

Given:

q = 11 C and a = 5 cm

As a cube has 6 faces of equal area, the flux through one face of the cube is

= 1/6(q/ε0 )
Φ = 11/(6 ×8.854 ×10−12)

Ans: Φ = 2.07 × 1011 Nm2/C

 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I- Lecture-7
Concept of electric current (conduction and displacement
current and current density) - Continuity Equation-Derivation
 Electric current
Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of net charge through the
conductor with respect to time. The direction of current is conventionally is in
the direction of flow of positive charge. It is the flow of charge per unit time.

If Q current is flowing through any cross sectional area of conductor in time t

then electric current

I = Q/t

The SI unit of charge is Columb. Columb is denoted as C. SI unit of time is

second, therefore the SI unit of current is Columb/second. Columb / second is
also known as Ampere.
 Current density (J)

Current density is defined as the ratio of the current to the surface area whose plane is normal
to the direction of charge motion. It is denoted by J and is a vector having direction of charge
motion.

dI
J= (or) dI = J . ds
ds

Conduction Current Density ( J1)

The current density due to the conduction electrons in a conductor is known as the conduction
current density.
 Ohm’s Law
Macroscopic and Microscopic Forms
By ohms law, the potential difference across a conductor having resistance R and current I is,
V = IR (1)
For a length l and potential difference V,
V=El (2)
where E = electric field intensity.
From equations (1) and (2),
IR = El (3)
l 1 l 
But R=  =    (4)
A    A
where ρ and σ are the electrical resistivity and conductivity respectively.
 l 
Using equation (4) in (3), I   = E.l
 A 
I I 
(or) = E (or)   = E (or) J1 =  E (5)
A  A

J 1 may be referred to as conduction current density, which is directly proportional to the

electric field intensity.
 Displacement Current Density ( J 2 )

The conduction current due to the motion of electrons cannot pass through a
capacitor as its plates are separated by a dielectric.
As the current does not pass through the capacitor so we have to conclude
that in a capacitor a certain process closes the conduction current, i.e. it
enables in someway the charge exchange between the capacitor plates
without actually transporting a charge between the plates.

The current associated with this process is called as displacement current.

The displacement current per unit area is known as displacement current
density.
In a capacitor, the current is given by,

dQ d ( CV ) dV
Ic = = = C. (1)
dt dt dt
where Q, C and V represents charge across the plates, capacity and potential difference across the
plates of the capacitor respectively.
In a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by,
A
C= (2)
d
where ε, A and d represents electric permittivity, area of the plates of the dielectric filled capacitor
and distance between the plates of the capacitor respectively.
Using equation (2) in (1)
 A  dV I  dV
IC =  . (or ) C = .
 d  dt A d dt

 d V  dE d (E )
J2 = Displacement current density =     =  =
 dt  d  dt dt

dD
J2 = [since D = E = electric displacement vector]
dt
This is not a current, which directly passes through a capacitor, and is only an apparent
current representing the rate at which the flow of charge takes place from electrode to electrode in
the external circuit. Hence the “displacement” is justified.
 Continuity Equation-Derivation

Consider a closed surface S enclosing a region of volume V. Let the

surface enclose some charge within it. The current i flowing out
through the surface S is given by

i = ∮sJ.ds

Where J is the current density vector over a cross-section ds.

Let ρ be the charge density of the charge enclosed within the surface
at any instant. Then the total charge enclosed at any instant is given
by

q = ∫v ρdv
 Continuity Equation-Derivation

The current i is the rate of decrease of charge inside the volume that

i = -dq/dt =- d/dt ∫v ρdV = - ∫v (dρ/dt)dv i = ∮sJ.ds = - ∫v (dρ/dt)dv

According to Gauss divergence theorem ∮sJ.ds = ∫v (∇.J)dv

Therefore ∫v (∇.J)dv = - ∫v (dρ/dt)dv

∇.J = - dρ/dt

∇.J+dρ/dt = 0
 Continuity Equation-Derivation

∇.J+(dρ/dt) = 0

This equation is called the equation of continuity. It simply expresses the fact that
the charge is conserved.

In most practical situations of interest, the charge density (ρ) is constant in time at
each point.
This means dρ/dt is zero at each point. This is called a steady state.
Hence for steady currents,
∇.J= 0
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I

Faraday’s Law and Ampere’s Law statement and Explanation

 Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction
Michael Faraday found that whenever there is a change in magnetic
flux linked with a circuit, an emf is induced resulting a flow of current
in the circuit. The magnitude of the induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.

Lenz’s rule gives the direction of the induced emf which states that
the induced current produced in a circuit is always in such a direction
that it opposes the change or the cause that produces it.
By combining Lenz’s rule with Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the
induced emf can be written as,

d
induced emf (e) = −
dt

where d is the change magnetic flux linked with a circuit in a time dt second.
 Ampere’s circuital law
It states that the line integral of the magnetic field (vector B) around any closed
path or circuit is equal to μ0 (permeability of free space) times the total current (I)
threading through the closed circuit.
 Ampere’s circuital law
Mathematically,
→ →

 B. dl =  I 0

It may be noted that the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point on the
circular path changes with the change in radius of the circular path but
the line integral of vector B over any closed path will be independent of
its radius i.e. equal to μ0 times the current threading the circle.
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics
Module I Lecture-9
Maxwell’s Equations
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Maxwell’s equations combine the fundamental laws of electricity and
magnetism and are of profound importance in the analysis of most
electromagnetic wave problems.
• The behaviour of electromagnetic fields is studied with the help of a set
of equations given by Maxwell and hence called Maxwell’s equations.
• These equations are the mathematical abstractions of certain
experimentally observed facts and find their application to all sorts of
problem in electromagnetism.
• Maxwell’s equations are derived from Ampere’s law, Faraday’s law and
Gauss law.
Table: Maxwell’s Equations
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I Lecture-10

Solving Problems
1. Determine the current density when 40 Amperes of current is flowing through the
battery in a given area of 10 m2.

Solution:
It is given that,
I = 40 A,
Area = 10 m2
The current density formula is given by,
J =I /A
J = 40 / 10
J = 4 A/m2.
2. A 5 mm2 copper wire has a current of 5 mA flowing through it. Determine the current
density.

Solution

Given:

Total Current I is 5 mA

Total Area A is 5 mm2

The Current density J = I / A

J = 5×10−3 / 5×10−3

J = 1 A/m2
3. The magnetic flux through the loop is ΦB = 6t2 + 7t, where ΦB is in milliwebers and t
is in seconds. What is the magnitude of the emf induced in the loop when t = 2.0 s?
Solution
Given:
ΦB = 6t2 + 7t
t = 2.0 s
Induced emf e = -dΦ/dt
e = d/dt(6t2 + 7t)
e = -(12t+7) mWb/s
At t = 2s
e = -{(12×2)+7} mWb/s
e = -31× 10-3 (Wb/s) mV
4. Show the equation of continuity div J+dρ/dt = 0 is contained in Maxwell’s equation.
According to Maxwell’s fourth equation,
Curl H = J+dD/dt
Taking divergence on both sides
div (curl H)=div (J+dD/dt)
div (curl H)=0
div (J+dD/dt) = 0 or
divJ+ d/dt(divD)=0
From Maxwell’s first equation
divD = ρ,
Where ρ is the surface charge density.
divJ +dρ/dt = 0
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I Lecture-13

Maxwell’s equations in free space, Characteristics

impedance
Maxwell’s equations in free space
Maxwell’s equations in free space
Maxwell’s equations in free space
Characteristics impedance
Characteristics impedance
Characteristics impedance
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

18PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I Lecture-14

Relationship Between Polarizability, Permittivity and Dielectric

constant, Polar and Non Polar Dielectrics
 Dielectric Materials

➢ Dielectric materials are also called as insulators.

➢ In dielectric materials, all the electrons are tightly bound to their

parent molecules and there are no free charges. In addition, the
forbidden energy band gap (Eg) for dielectric materials is more than 3 eV.

➢ Not possible for the electrons in the valence band to excite to the
conduction band, by crossing the energy gap, even with normal voltage or
thermal energy.
 Active and Passive Dielectrics

➢ The dielectric materials can be classified into active and passive

dielectric materials.

i. Active dielectrics
When a dielectric material is kept in an external electric field, if it
actively accepts the electricity, then it is known as active dielectric
material. Thus, active dielectrics are the dielectrics, which can easily
adapt themselves to store the electrical energy in it.
Examples: Piezoelectric and ferroelectric

ii. Passive dielectrics

Passive dielectrics are the dielectrics, which restrict the flow of
electrical energy in them. So, these dielectrics act as insulators.
Examples: All insulating materials such as glass, mica, rubber etc.,
i. Non-Polar Dielectrics

➢There is no permanent dipole existence in the absence of electric filed

➢Examples: H2, N2, O2, CO2

ii. Polar dielectrics

➢There is existence of permanent dipole in the absence of electric
filed

➢ Examples:H2O, HCI, CO
 Basic Definitions in Dielectrics

Electric Field
➢ The region around the charge within which its effect is felt or
experienced is known as electric field.
➢The electric field is assumed to consist of imaginary electric lines of
force. These lines of force originate from the positive charges and
terminate to the negative charges.

Electric field strength or electric field intensity (E)

Electric field strength at any point is defined as the force experienced by
an unit positive charge placed at the point. It is denoted by ‘E’.
‘q’ - magnitude of the charge in coulombs
‘f’ - force experienced by that charge in Newton,
electric field strength (E)

Its unit is Newton / Coulomb (or) volt / meter.

Electric flux
It is defined as the total number of electric lines of force passing
through a given area in the electric field. (Emanated from the positive
charge). Unit: Coulomb
Electric flux density or electric displacement vector (D
=Ø/A)
It is defined as the number of electric lines of force passing normally
through an unit area of cross section in the field.

Its unit is Coulomb / m2

Dielectric Constant

The dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a material

determines its dielectric characteristics. It is the ratio of the
permittivity of the medium and the permittivity of free space
r = /0
Electric Polarization

(The process of creating or inducing diploes in a dielectric material)

➢ Consider an atom. We know that it is electrically neutral. Furthermore,

the centre of the negative charge of the electrons coincides with the
positive nuclear charge, which means that the atom has no net dipole
moment.

➢ However, when this atom is placed in an external electric field, the centre
of the positive charge is displaced along the field direction while the centre
of the negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction.

➢ When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field, such dipoles

are created in all the atoms inside.
Polarizability ()
When the electric field strength ‘E’ is increased, the strength of the induced
dipole is also increased. Thus, the induced dipole moment is proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.
μE
μ = E

Polarization vector
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called
polarization vector.
P = Nμ Unit: Coulomb/m2
‘ ’ - average dipole moment per molecule and

‘N’ - number of molecules per unit volume

 Relation between P, 0 ,  r and E

The polarization ‘P’ is related to the electric flux density D as,

D = 0E + P
Since D = 0r E, the above relation becomes,
0 r E = 0E + P
(or) P = 0r E− 0E
i.e. P = 0 ( r − 1 )E
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I Lecture-15

Types of Polarization mechanisms, Frequency and

Temperature Dependence of the polarization
 Various Polarization mechanisms in
Dielectrics
Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged
particles under the action of the external electric field. Several
microscopic mechanisms are responsible for electric polarization.

➢Four types of microscopic polarization mechanisms.

➢Electronic polarization
➢Ionic polarization
➢Orientation polarization and
➢Space-charge polarization.
 Nucleus Displaced
Nucleus
Equilibrium
position

x
Sphere of +Ze −Ze Field direction
electronic Original Position
charge

Fig. (a) Position of +ve and –ve charges in an atom without

field (b) Position of +ve and –ve charges in an atom with
field
➢Explanation:
➢ In the case of a CH3Cl molecule, the positive and negative
charges do not coincide. The Cl- has more electro negativity than
hydrogen. Therefore, the chlorine atoms pull the bonded electrons
towards them more strongly than hydrogen atoms. Therefore, even in the
absence of field, there exists a net dipole moment.
➢ Now, when the field is applied, positive portion align along the
direction of field and negative portion align in the opposite direction of the
field. This kind of polarization is called as orientation polarization.
➢ This depends on temperature; when temperature is increased,
the thermal energy tends to randomize the alignment
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics,

Waves and Optics

Module I Lecture-16

Solving Problems
1. Calculate the polarisability and relative permittivity in hydrogen gas with a density
of 9.8×1026 atoms/m3. Given the radius of the hydrogen atom to be 0.50 × 10-10 m.
Solution:
Given: N = 9.8×1026 atoms/m3 R = 0.50 × 10-10 m ; αe = ?; εr = ?
We Know
αe = 4лε0R3
αe = 1.389×10-41 Fm2
To find εr we know that,

αe = ε0×(εr -1)/N

{(N αe )/ ε0}+1 = εr

1.0015 = εr
2. If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an elecrtical filed of 1000 V/m and the resulting
polarization is 4.3 × 10-8 C/m2 , calculate the relative permittivity of NaCl.

Solution:

Given: E = 1000 V/m, P = 4.3 × 10-8 C/m2; ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

We Know that

P = ε0 (εr -1)E

εr = 1+ (P/ ε0 E)

5.86 = εr
3. Calculate the electronic polarisabilty of argon atom given εr = 1.0024 at NTP and N=
2.7×1025 atoms/m3
Solution:

Given: εr = 1.0024; N= 2.7×1025 atoms/m3 ; ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

We Know that

P = ε0 (εr -1)E

Also, P = NαeE

αe = {ε0 (εr -1)}/N

Subtituting the given values, we have

αe = 7.9×10-40 Fm2
4. The dielectric constant of He gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic
polarisability of He atoms if the gas contains 2.7×1025 atoms per m3

Solution:

Given: εr = 1.0000684; N= 2.7×1025 atoms/m3 ; ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m

We Know that

αe = {ε0 (εr -1)}/N

Substituting the given values, we have

αe = 2.242×10-41Fm2