Course Title- Introduction to Animal science

Module Name- Animal production

Module Code – plsc2081 Course credit hrs.-

2(2+1) ECTS : 3

Prepared by: Fayine M(Msc)

Department of Animal science

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 Chapter1.
DOMESTICATION AND ORIGIN OF ANIMAL
HUSBANDRY

 Animals,
 we live with them, worship them,
 consume them,
 admire them,
 fear them, love them,
 care for them, and depend on them.
• They are part of our nutrition, our sociology, and our day-to-
day lives.
• Because they are so important to us, we also study them and
apply what we learn to improve their lives and enhance their
roles in our lives.
• The branch of science that deals with domestic animals is
animal science.
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 Most of the time we use animals for revolves around
their contributions to our food supply.
 To get a more stable food supply from the land, humans
developed a complicated resource management system
called agriculture.
 Agriculture is combination of science and art used to
cultivate and grow crops and livestock and process the
products.

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 Domestic: Those species that have been brought under
human control and that have adapted to life with humans.
Animal science represents an accumulation of
knowledge that began with observations of those
hunter-gatherers who began the process of domestication
long ago.

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 Animal science is simply the collective study of
domestic animals.

 This includes every aspect, from conception to death,

behaviour to management, physiology to nutrition,
and reproduction to product distribution.
 As animal scientists have learned more and more
about animals, the accumulated wealth of
information has become too large for any one
person to comprehend completely.

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• Out of necessity, its study is divided into disciplines, or
specialties, as a means of creating manageable pieces.
These specialties may be broken down several ways.
• Genetics: The science of heredity and the variation of
inherited characteristics.
• Heredity: The transmission of genetic characteristics from
parent to offspring.
• Animal breeding: The use of biometry and genetics to
improve farm animal production.
• Biometry: The application of statistics to topics in biology.
• Genetic code: The set of rules by which information
encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is
translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living
cells.
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• Animal health: The study and practice of maintaining
animals as near to a constant state of health as is possible
and feasible.
• Animal behavior: The study of animal welfare
assessment, optimizing production, behavioral control,
behavioral disorders, and behavioral genetics.

• Meat science: The science of handling, distributing, and

marketing meat and meat products.
• Meat: The flesh of animals used for food.
• Dairy product science: The science of providing milk
and milk products as food
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 1.2 Domestication and Origin of Animal
Husbandry
 To domesticate means to adapt the behaviour of an
animal to fit the needs of people.
• The domestication of animals began when early
humans had contact with wild animals, which they
hunted for food and skins.
• After a period of time these early humans began to
confine some of these animals to ensure a steadier supply
of food and clothing.
• Domestication was not a single event, but a process
repeated at various periods in different places. The first
wild animal to be domesticated was the dog.
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• These animals were bred in captivity to replace those that
were used.
• Humans later learned to select animals with certain
desirable characteristics to use for breeding purposes.
• As a result of selective breeding, identifiable breeds began
to be developed that would breed true for those
characteristics that .were determined to be desirable.
• Domesticated animals supplied a surer source of food and
clothing. A better food supply meant an increase in
population. More people made it possible to divide the labour
within the tribe.
• Domesticated animals are those that are of use at home and
are easily bred and looked after by humans.
• Common domesticated animals are dog, horse, cow, sheep,
buffalo,
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fowl etc.. 10
 Animal husbandry, Controlled cultivation, management, and
production of domestic animals, including improvement of the
qualities considered desirable by humans by means of breeding.
 is branch of science, which deals with the study of various
breeds of domesticated animals and their management for
obtaining better products and services from them.
 Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with
animals that are raised for meat, fiber, milk, eggs, or other
products.
 It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising
of livestock. The term husbandry derives from the word
“husband” which means „one who takes care‟. When it
incorporates the study of proper utilization of economically
important domestic animals, it is called Livestock
Management.
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 Husbandry has a long history, starting with the
Neolithic revolution when animals were first
domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards,
antedating farming of the first crops.
 By the time of early civilizations such as ancient Egypt,
cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were being raised on farms .
 Domestication of animals produced a dramatic change in
the way people lived.
 Civilizations which had relied on hunting and gathering
as a means of subsistence now built permanent settlements
and engaged in a pastoral existence relying on their cale
and crops.
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 1.3 The Role of Livestock Production
• Livestock plays a vital role in the livelihood of many
people in the world.
• In Ethiopia, livestock are an integral (essential) part of
the farming community in the highlands; while they are
the entire/major basis for the livelihood of pastoralists
and agro-pastoralists in the lowlands.
• In general, livestock production in tropical countries of
the less-developed world has been and will be one of the
most important economic and social activities of human
culture.

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• They are valued for one or several (sometimes all) of the following
traits:
• capital, credit, traction, milk, meat, hides, fuel and fertilizer.
• Thus, for families without land, livestock are primarily a means of
increasing family income.
 In general, livestock have the following roles:
• i. Sources of food: they provide high-quality food (meat, milk and
eggs) by converting large quantities of materials that cannot be used
directly for human food. Animal foods are generally preferred over
plant foods by human.
• ii. Sources of power: livestock provide the power to cultivate at
least 320 million hectares of land or one-quarter of the total global
cropped area.
• In Ethiopia, livestock are the major sources of power for
cultivation, threshing and transportation. They provide power for
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about 96% of the cultivated land.
• iii)Sources of natural fertilizer and fuel: livestock provide
organic fertilizer which helps to enhance soil fertility and
vegetation cover. One tone of manure provides about 230 kg
organic matter, 4.6 kg Nitrogen, 4.6 kg potassium and 2.3
kg phosphoric acid.
• Manure can also be used for fuel either as manure cake or
methane gas and hence reduce the pressure on natural
vegetation.
• iv.Sources of income and living bank: Livestock are
important sources of income for at least 200 million
smallholder farmers in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Since the rural capital market is limited, livestock are
farmers‟ largest capital asset (live bank), and cash at
hand. They are often sold to generate cash for the purchase of
food and agricultural inputs and to meet social obligations etc.
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• Source of employment: Some of the livestock (dairy, the
meat sectors and small scale processing and marketing,
etc.) enterprises are labor-intensive.
• Backyard goat, sheep and poultry are important sources of
work for landless households especially women and
children.
• vi. Foreign currency: livestock also plays a significant role in
producing export commodities such as hides and skins, live
animals, meat, honey, beeswax to earn foreign exchange to the
country.
• vii. Social activity; Beyond the important role that livestock
play in the provision of food and nutrition in people‟s diets,
they also have important social functions.
• They raise the social status of owners and contribute to
gender
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balance by affording women and children 16the
opportunity to own livestock, especially small stock.
 1.4 Livestock Production Systems in Ethiopia
• The principal livestock production system in Africa is
extensive grazing.
• However, livestock production systems in the tropics can
be divided into two major types, namely traditional and
modern. They are distinguished mainly through the following
four general points:
• 1.General production factors, such as land, labor and
capital.
• 2.Feed sources, namely range, pasture, crop residues,
forage, household waste, concentrate feed.
• 3. Movement of people and their herd such as Nomadic,
transhumance, semi-sedentary, sedentary and
• 4. Intensity of management (intensive, semi-intensive and
extensive).
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 1.4.1. Traditional Livestock Production Systems
Traditional livestock production systems are far more
prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa than modern systems.
Traditional systems mainly rely on family labour and the
extensive use of land while modern systems have large
capital requirements and employ substantial amounts of
hired labor. Traditional livestock systems can be sub-
divided into three as pastoral, agro-pastoral and mixed
crop-livestock. Classification is based on the following
factors.
• a. Degree of dependence on livestock products for
income or food of household
• b. Types of agriculture practiced in association with
livestock
• c. Mobility and duration of movement
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 Nomadic-year round movement without a fixed base

 Transhumance/semi-sedentary-seasonal movement
with fixed base

 Sedentary- no movement with fixed base

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 A classification of livestock production systems in the tropics

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 CHAPTER 2
CATTLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

 Learning Objectives:
 At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 Explain origin domestication and distribution of cattle
 Explain indigenous breeds and exotic breeds of cattle in
the world.
 Explain the role of cattle production in Ethiopian
economy.
 Clarify challenges and opportunities of cattle
production in Ethiopia.
 Explain cattle production system, genetic
improvement and important diseases.
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Explain housing and routine management of cattle.21
Scientific Classification
The classification of the breeds of cattle which are now
used in beef production is

 Phylum Chordata (animals with a backbone)

 Class Mammalia (milk producing)
 Order Artiodactyla (even-toed, hoofed)
 Suborder Ruminata (cud chewing)
 Family Bovidae (hollow horn)
 Genus Bos (ruminant quadripeds)
 Species taurus indicus (European domestic breeds) (humped
cattle)

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
 2.1 Origin and distribution of cattle

• The family of animals that includes all types of

domestic cattle are known as the Bovidae.
• They are the dominant family of hoofed mammals
and one of the most recent to evolve.
• Cattle are domesticated bovine farm animals that
are raised for their meat, milk, hides or for draft
purposes.
• The animals most often included under the term
are the Western or European domesticated cattle
as well as the Indian and African domesticated
cattle
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 The origin of domestic cattle has perplexed
archaeologists for more than a century.
 A genetic study of cattle has claimed that all modern
domesticated bovines are descended from a single herd of
wild ox (aurochs)(an extinct large horned wild) which
lived 10,500 years ago. The aurochs were huge animals.
 It is an extinct species of large wild cattle. Modern cattle
are descendants of Bos taurus and Bos indicus.
 Bos taurus are domestic cattle that came from either the
Aurochs or the Celtic Shorthorn.

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• The Aurochs were common in Europe.
• Bos indicus are the humped cattle originating in tropical
countries and are common in modern cattle
production.

• They are more resistant to some diseases, parasites, and

heat than are cattle that came from Bos taurus.

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 Some are specialized for dairy production, others for
beef.
 The dual purposed animal has also found its place for
the combined production of beef and milk.
 In many areas triple purpose animal have been the
primary type, providing man with milk, meat and
draft power.
 In still other areas, where religious taboos prohibit
the eating of beef, emphasis has been on animals for
draft or for milk production or for the combination of
these two functions.

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• This host of local types and breeds may be classified
broadly in to two major group or types, the hump-less
cattle of European and northern Asiatic origin(Bos
taurus)
• and the humped zebu cattle of southern Asiatic origin
(Bos indicus).
• In the terminology used to describe the sex and age of
cattle, the male is first a bull calf and if left intact
becomes a bull; if castrated he becomes a steer and in
about two or three years grows to an ox.
• The female is first a heifer calf, growing into a heifer
and becoming a cow.

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 2.2 Domestication and major purposes of cattle

• As we have discussed in chapter one, exactly

when individual animal species were
domesticated is unknown,
• However most authorities considered that the
first steps towards cattle domestication were
taken in southwest Asia and that domesticated
cattle entered Europe with pastoralists
migrating from this region.

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• Domesticated taurine cattle were thought to have entered
Africa in successive waves from southwest Asia, while
zebu cattle migrated into Africa at a later date from
Arabia and the Indian subcontinent.
• Cattle were probably tamed early in the Neolithic
(New Stone) Age.
• The Neolithic Age occurred about 18,000 years ago.
Early man used cattle for draft, meat, and milk.
• Cattle were also a measure of wealth.
• They are mentioned in records at least 4,000 years old.
Various types of cattle were known at that time.

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 2.3 Cattle breeds and production systems in Ethiopia

• Breeds as they are known today did not always exist, and
many are of recent origin.
• The definition of a breed is difficult and inexplicit,
(which does not identify)although the term is commonly
used and, in practice, well understood.
• It may be used generally to connote(in addition)
animals that have been selectively bred for a long time so
as to possess distinctive identity in color, size,
conformation, and function, and these or other
distinguishing characteristics are perpetuated in their
progeny.

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• Breeds have been established by generations of breeders
aiming at the attainment and preservation of a particular type
with its identifying characteristics.
• The two species of cattle are Bos indicus and Bos taurus.
• Bos indicus have loose skin, large ears, and humps over their
shoulders.
• Bos indicus cattle are resistant to heat and insects and are well
suited to hot, humid climates.
• They are more rarely used than Bos taurus breeds. Bos taurus
cattle originated in Europe.
• In comparison to Bos indicus species, they have tight hides
and small ears.
• Bos taurus cattle do not have humps. They are more tolerant of
cold weather.
• Breeding cattle from these two species has created several
breeds
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• Most of the cattle breed in the tropics evolved
through natural selection, for adaptability and
survival to local environments.
• Most indigenous cattle breeds in the tropics are
multipurpose (milk, meat, draught) and that only a
few breeds have good milk potential.
• Cattle can be classified in to indigenous and
exotic breed.

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 2.3.1 Indigenous Cattle Breeds
• The term indigenous mean originating or occurring
naturally in a particular place; native.
• Indigenous livestock breeds are important because,
through many generations of natural selection and
selective breeding, they are adapted to local conditions
and farming systems, and are more likely than exotic
breeds to tolerate seasonal variations in climate and
forage supply, and resist local diseases and parasites.
• Indigenous livestock breeds and landraces provide an
invaluable/very useful reservoir of genetic variation and
breeding potential for adaptation to changing climatic
and farming conditions.
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• Fogera: found in the area around Lake Tana in Gondar
and Gojam.
• They are large sized being tall animal with long leg.
• The breed have black and white or black and gray
coat.
• Muzzle and hoofs are almost always black.
• The horns and hump are very small and the animal is
docile. Currently they are used as meat, milk and
draught animals; potentially they are excellent in milk
production (1500 kg/lactation) and can be improved
genetically for the trait.

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• Barka: derived from west Eritrea. It is a tall animal with
long legs, the coat color is variable but black pied is
common.
• The hump is very large in male and often falls to one
side. The head is small and short.
• The cattle have good milk yield and they can be
genetically improved for milk production.
• Borana: originated from Borana area of south Ethiopia.
At present these breeds are found in Somalia and Kenya.
They are fairly large and long-legged animals with
good body conformation. They are whitish-grey in color;
the male has black color on their hump. and directed
forward.
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 The hump is very well developed in the male and
smaller in females.
 Horns are usually small, thick at the base, pointed and
directed forward.
 Have huge body conformation and thick skin, drought
and pest resistance and ability to travel long distance.
 The breed is used by semi nomadic people primarily
for milk and if selected for milk Borana cows are
moderately good milker.
 Currently, the breed is used for milk production
especially in crossbreeding programs. On the ranches
they have been selected for beef and have potential for
beef. It is found to be excellent beef breeds in Africa.
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• Sheko breed: - The only hump less short horned taurine
breed in east Africa and it is distributed in the humid
parts of southwestern Ethiopia around Bench-Maji zone.

• Relatively better adaptive with trypan tolerance polled

or has floating type of horn and brown or black and white
colour and glossy-red hair.
• Comparing with other breeds in the country better
attention has been given to breeding and conservation.

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 Horro Cattle
 Distributed in Horro Gudru of Eastern Wollega; also in
Western shewa, and adjoining areas of Illubabora and
Shewa, Zenga type.
 Adaptive in to humid and wetter agricultural area
dominantly brown or reddish brown coat color thin
skin; horns moderate but larger than the common zebu.
 Not only these Abergelle, Anuak, Afar, Arsi, Begait,
Guraghe, Ogaden, Hammer Cattle etc are there.
 In general currently, 28 breeds of cattle have been
recognized in Ethiopia with an estimated total number
of 59.5 million, of which 98.2% of are indigenous cattle

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 2.3.2. Exotic Cattle Breeds
• Most temperate breeds are artificially selected for
productive traits and they are hence improved breeds for
either beef or dairy production.
• Dairy breeds
• Holstein Friesian:
• They originated in Netherlands.They are large breed,
producing lean meat.
• They are either black and white or red and white in color.
They rank 1st in their milk production producing 6577 kg
/lactation and rank 5th in their milk fat content (3.5%).
Lactation refers to the period in which the cow gives milk
after one birth: it is approximately 10 months. They are
poor grazers they need intensive feeding, and they produce
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more in cool regions.
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• They originated in the island of Jersey in UK and they are
the smallest dairy breed, with yellowish-brown or fawn
in colour.
• They have a strong udder attachment, rank 5th in their
milk production (4536 kg /lactation),
• 1ts in their milk fat content (5.4%), are relatively good
grazers and good in feed conversion efficiency and can
produce well in tropics.

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04/01/2024 42
• Guernsey:
• Originated in Guernsey Island, in UK are Yellowish-
Brown or Fawn in color.
• Their milk is especially yellow in color: they rank 4th
among dairy breeds in their milk production (4808kg)
and 2nd in their milk fat content (5%).
• Guernseys are well known for having the minimum of
calving complications.

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• Brown Swiss:
• Brown Swiss breed are originated in Switzerland.
• They are solid brown in color.
• They are larger breeds and relatively heat tolerant.
• They rank 2nd among the dairy breeds in their milk
production (5488kg) and 3rd in their milk fat content
(4.1%).

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04/01/2024 45
 Beef breeds
• Many modern beef breeds had their origin in Europe.
There are approximately 250 breeds of cattle recognized
throughout the world, and several hundred breeds that
are not currently recognized.

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04/01/2024 47
 Recognized breeds of meat animals are characterized by
- Early maturity
- High quality meat seen as a marbled appearance due to
deposition of fat between the muscle fibres and
- High percentage of carcass weight (60%) or more
i.e. minimum of offal and high proportion of important
cuts with low proportion of bone.
2.1. Breeds of Beef Cattle
Tropical Breeds
1. American Brahman:
 This breed was developed by crossing of Native American cattle with
Asian Zebu cattle, where it is widely used for beef production in
the
tropics.
 The Brahman is usually white in colour with large droppy ears and a
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large dewlap
2. Boran cattle:
 Originated from the Borena province of Southern Ethiopia. But,
today the Boran breed is found in Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia and
Tanzania.
 It is the most outstanding beef breed in East Africa and is raised
primarily for meat production.
 Semi-nomads in Ethiopia use Boran for milk production and milk yield
is between 454 to 1814kg; which is moderately good milk yield.

 The common colour is white and white grey. Horns are short and
upright and occasionally polled animals appear.

 The hump and umbilical cord are well developed in the male and
moderate in the female.
 The Ethiopian Boran is fairly large, long legged with good body
conformation, which is large framed and has beef conformation
 Weight ranges for bulls between 539 to 653 kg and 346 to 417 for
cows.
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 Fig. 1. Boran
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 Fig. 1. Boran---
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 3. Sanga Cattle:-
 Originated from the hump-less longhorn and zebu cattle.
 The sanga cattle came with immigrating tribes to South Africa.
 Raised especially for beef in Southern Africa countries and the
common breeds under Sanga are Africander, Mashona and Tuli.
 All Sanga have cervico thoracic humps and a small dewlap.
 It is believed that the zebu which came into the South East Africa are
more resistant to rinder pest than the Sanga.

3.1. Africander: The Africander are among the large breeds in Africa,
bulls weigh 840-950 kg and cows weigh 450-555 Kg though heavier
animals can be found.
 The Africander are red varying from deep to pale red, its original
homeland was the Cape province of South Africa.
 The horns bend down wards and curves foreword and upwards.

 Africander cattle exhibit good resistance to heat, a high level of tick

resistance, quiet temperament a satisfactorily high level of fertility
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under harsh conditions.
3.2. Mashona :
The homeland of the Mashona is in the Zimbabwe. The breed is compact fine
boned and small in size. Cows weigh from 275 -400 Kg. The common colors
of Mashona breeds is black and red though other colors are observed.

 The horns tend to be of medium size, growing upward and outwards while
polled animals are also common.
 The animals have got reputation of high fertility, docile and mature early.

3.3. Tuli : The Tuli are large, long horned Sanga of yellow or dun color with
well-developed hindquarters.

 The homeland of the breed is Botswana and southern Zimbabwe.

 The breed has reputation for high fertility with calving percentage of over
90%.
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A) Modern Beef Breeds
1. Aberdeen Angus

 They are black polled early maturing cattle producing high quality
beef with an ever deposition of fat in the muscle.
 The bone is small and fine there is a high proportion of meat in
the carcass.
 This is the newest of the great beef breeds a bout hundred year old.

 Thrive (gain weight) on a simple diet. The high carcass quality is

passed on to crossed progeny. This quality is closely associated with
early maturity, which means a compact, light bone frame, giving
smaller joints, thickly covered with well-marbled muscle at 18
months of age.

 It has a high killing out percentage when killed at the right age
before 2 and ½ years of age.
 They are used for specialized beef production by crossing with beef
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type dams and also for producing beef from dairy herd crossings.
 Fig. 2. Aberdeen Angus
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2. Gallonay
 They are hardy beef cattle. These are black with a brownish tings
(shade), and with a white belt encircling the body.

 They are frequently bred on poor land in severe weather

conditions. Crossed calves are belted and polled.

 Although slow maturing, the carcasses are of good quality without

an excess of fat.

3. Charolais
 It is the French beef breed. It is white or very light in color.
 It is horned with a proportionately small head.

 In France they have been extensively used for crossing with dairy
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cows to give calves with good beef characteristics
04/01/2024 Fig. 4. Charolais--- 57
4. Hereford

 A red coat color and a white face are characterize Herefords.

 Polled Herefords have the same characteristics, but are hornless

(polled) Most strains are horned, but a polled type has been
evolved.

 Hereford cattle are relatively early maturing and are

particularly suitable for fattening on grass pasture, as they
are excellent grazers.

 They are hardy and the breeding cows are normally kept out
at grass all the year round.

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 Fig. 5. Hereford
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Simmental
 This breed originated from Swithzerland but it is now popular in other
parts of Europe.

 It is a dual-purpose breed. It is red in color with white markings on

the head, belly, legs and tail switch.
 In general, Simmental cattle have a large mature size, grow rapidly and
lay down fat at a later age than the smaller breeds.

 Bulls of these breeds are useful for crossing with cows of the dairy breeds
particularly Ayrishire, Guernsey and Jersey.

 Their early maturing qualities improve the growth rate of their

progeny out of slow maturing cows and the carcasses tend to have a
higher muscle to bone ration. However, the calves of some of these
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crosses are large at birth.
 Fig. 5. Maine Anjou
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 Challenges and opportunities of cattle production in
Ethiopia

• The major problems identified from the review of

previous studies in Ethiopia include:
• Shortage and poor quality of feed
• The scarcity of land for the production of forage
• Low genetic potential of the indigenous cattle.

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• Traditional husbandry practices
• Absence of marketing infrastructure and lack of improved
technologies
• Livestock Marketing Constraints
• Inadequate health service and Disease Problem
• Poor Livestock Breeding and Husbandry Practices Lack
of Trained Manpower
• Management and Technology Constraints
• OPPORTUNITY:
• Increasing of income,
• food supply,
• Urbanization etc.
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 Improvement Measures of Livestock Production

• 1. Improve the quality and quantity of feed

• a. By adjusting the stocking rate in the highlands and by selling
animals in nomadic areas.
• b. Introduction of improved forage species.
• c. Fertilize the grass lands with chemical fertilizers like urea to
increase the biomass of forages and increase the nitrogen content.
• d. Cultivation of improved grass and legume species.
• e. Practicing supplementary feeding.
• 2.Improve cattle through systematic breeding program Through
selection and culling.
Proper mating of the selected progeny.
• 3. Protecting the animals from the diseases.
• 4. Use improved management practices.
• 5. Strong extension services.
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 2.6 Feed classification and Cattle nutrition requirement

• 2.6.1 Feed classification

• The aim of animal production is to transform humanly
inedible products such as roughages and agro- industrial
by-products to highly desirable and nutritious human food
(milk, meat, and egg), wool, manure, hide, skin, power etc.
• Thus, Animals to produce optimally need to be supplied with
the necessary nutrients in the appropriate proportions and
quantity.
• Nutrition contributes to wellness and productivity of
animals. Many common health problems can be prevented or
alleviated with good nutrition. Poor nutrition results in poor
reproduction, poor growth, poor productivity, and higher
feed costs because of over feeding.
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• Animals are dependent on plants for the continuation
of their function because plants by virtue of possessing
chemical compounds called chlorophyll are in a
position to convert the less-complex inorganic forms
of nutrients into organic or highly complex type of
chemical compounds.
• The animal system needs inorganic nutrients mainly
in the form of minerals but it needs organic nutrients
in the form of carbohydrates, protein, lipid (fat
specifically), minerals and vitamins.
• The primary source of organic material is totally plant
tissues.
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• The various feeds and fodders used in livestock feeding are broadly
classified as: A) Roughages; B) Concentrates; C) Feed supplements and
Feed additives.
• Roughages – Roughages are the feed stuffs which contain more than 18
percent crude fiber and
• less than 60 percent Total Digestible Nutrients. Due to higher crude fiber
content, they are more bulky and have low digestibility as compared to
concentrates.
• 1) Maintenance type – Containing 3-5 percent DCP e.g. Green maize, oat.
• 2) Non-maintenance type – containing less than 3 percent DCP e.g.
Straw,
• 3) Production type – containing more than 5 percent DCP e.g. Berseem,
lucerne. (DCP – Digestible Crude Protein) The roughages are further
classified into two major groups as:
• 1) Green / succulent roughages – They contain about 60-90 percent
moisture Example; Pastures, cultivated fodders, tree leaves, root crops and
silages.
• 2) Dry roughages – They contain about 10-15 percent moisture e.g. Straw,
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Hay.
• Concentrates - These are the feedstuffs which contain less than
18 percent crude fibre and more than 60 percent TDN.
• They are less bulky and have higher digestibility. They are
concentrated source of nutrients and therefore, they have higher
nutritive value than roughages.
• The concentrates are further classified as: 1) Energy Rich
Concentrates – e.g. Cereal grains, cereal grain by-products,
Roots and tubers.
• 2) Protein Rich Concentrates – i) Plant origin e.g. Oilseed
cake, pulse chuni, Brewer‟s grains and yeast.
• Most plant proteins contain less than 47% crude protein.
• ii) Animal origin e.g. Fish meal, Meat meal, Blood meal.
Most animal proteins contain more than 47% crude protein with
essential amino acids.
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• Feed Supplements and Feed Additives
• Feed supplements are the compounds used to improve the
nutritional value of the basal feeds so as to take care of any
deficiency.
• Commonly used feed supplements are
• 1) Vitamin supplements e.g. Rovimix, Vitablend, Arovit etc. 2)
Mineral supplements e.g. Minimix, Milk min, Nutrimilk, Aromin etc.
• Feed Additives
• Feed additives are the non-nutritive substances usually added to
basal feed in small quantity for the fortification in order to improve
feed efficiency and productive performance of the animals.
• Some commonly used feed additives are as below: 1) Antibiotics
e.g. Terramycin, Zinc bacitracin, Flavomycin etc. 2) Enzymes e.g.
Amylase, lipase, protease, pepsin etc. 3) Hormones eg. Estrogen,
progesterone, hexosterol etc. 4) Thyroprotein e.g. Iodinated casein
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• 2.6.2 Cattle nutrition requirement
• All living organisms need nutrients to survive. The essential
nutrients required by grazing animals are water, energy,
protein, minerals, and vitamins. These nutrients are needed to
maintain body weight, growth, reproduction, lactation, and
health.
• Plants can obtain the molecules required for cellular function
through the process of photosynthesis, most animals obtain their
nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. At the cellular
level, the biological molecules necessary for animal function are
amino acids, lipid molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars.
• However, the feed consumed consists of protein, fat, and
complex carbohydrates. Animals must convert these
macromolecules into the simple molecules required for
maintaining cellular functions, such as assembling new
molecules, cells, and tissues.
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• Nutrient requirements define the specific nutrients and amounts that
must be included in complete and balanced diets for healthy animals.
Nutrient requirement is generally agreed to be the average amount
nutrient required for a particular function.
 Nutrient requirements of animals affected by the following factors:
 Species
 Breed
 Weight
 Body condition
 Age
 Environment
 Others (genetic potential, disease, stress)
 Sex
 Growth
 Stage of gestation
 Level of milk production
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 Work
• The nutrient requirements can be broken down
into four principal components:
• Maintenance, Lactation, Growth, and Reproduction.
From these components, requirements for energy, protein,
minerals, and vitamins are calculated. By understanding
the different factors that affect requirements, producers
can make adjustments to changes such as a month of cold
weather, moving to a hilly pasture, or the last third of
pregnancy.

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• Maintenance - The maintenance component includes
all the nutrients required for the animal to breath,
move, digest food, keep warm, repair tissues, and
maintain body weight. Weight, age, breed,
physiological status, activity, and environmental
conditions are the primary variables impacting
maintenance requirements.
• Lactation- Heavy lactation has greater nutrient demands
than any other production state.
• Nutrient requirements for lactation are based on the
amount of milk at peak lactation and the composition of
the milk.
• Animals that produce more milk, and milk with more
fat and protein, will have higher nutrient requirements.
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• Growth - Measured as an increase in body weight. Most
rapid early in life, declines gradually until puberty, then
even slower rate until mature size is reached.
Requirements for growth are determined by actual
weight, average daily gain (growth rate), weight at
maturity, and composition of gain. For example,
protein requirements will be higher for young animals
because they are gaining more muscle than fat.
• Reproduction - Adjustments to requirements for
reproduction are based on expected birth weight and
stage of gestation. Requirements include development of
maternal tissue as well as the fetus.

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 2.7 Reproduction and Cattle Genetic Improvement

• 2.7 1. Reproduction of Farm Animals

• Reproduction is the process of an individual
perpetuates (bring about) its own kind.
• Higher animals especially mammals produce specialized
reproductive cells known as female and male gamete.
These two gametes unit as a result of mating and
products the Zygote.
• The process of fusion of gametes known as fertilization.
• The sex gametes are haploid where as the Zygote is
diploid. The gametes produced in the male and female
reproductive organs.
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• Puberty (sexual maturity):- is the period during which
the reproductive organ first becomes functional. It is
characterized by the development of secondary sexual
characteristic in both females and male animals (viable
ovum, spermatozoa and sexual desire development).
• The female experiences her first estrus cycle at puberty.
• The age of puberty varies in different species of animals
and also there is a great variation with in single spices
depending on
•  climatic condition,
•  mode of nutrition,
•  heredity (individual genetic)
•  management factor and health of the animals
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 Approximate average age of puberty

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 2.7.1.1 The Male Reproduction System

• The anatomy of the male reproductive system consists

of the following
The anatomy of the male reproductive system consists of
the following
A. Testis B. Epididymis C. Vas( ductus) deferens
D. Urethra
E) Accessory reproductive organs
F. The copulatory organ ( penis)

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• A. Testis
• The copulatory organ ( penis)
• Testis is an organ of production, which produces
spermatozoa and reproductive hormones. Testis together with
the Epididymis is enclosed by the scortum.
• The scortum gives size, shape and location for testis.
• The scortum is composed of externally skin, fibro- elastic
tissue and cremaster muscle.
• This muscle retracts (pulls) the tests up against the external
inguinal ring, particular in cold weather. The temperature of
the scrotum is 4-5oc below the body temperature. This helps
for storage of spermatozoa. In cold temperature the cremaster
muscles under the skin of the scrotum contract and pull the
testes closer to the warm body.
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• B. Epididymis
• The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the
backside of each testicle. It transports and stores sperm
cells that are produced in the testes.
• It also is the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to
maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the testes are
immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual
arousal, contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.
• C. Vas Deferens
• The vas deferens is a tube that connects the epididymis
with the urethra. Sperm cells move through the vas
deferens to the urethra. The vas deferens is inside a
protective sheath called the spermatic cord
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• Urethra
• The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the
bladder.
• This tube is found in both male and female mammals.
In the male animal, both semen and urine move
through the urethra to the end of the penis. The urine is
the liquid waste that is collected in the bladder.
• The semen contains the sperm and other fluids that
come from accessory glands.

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• E. Accessory sex Glands
• The three accessory glands are the seminal vesicles, the
prostate gland, and Cowper‟s gland.
• The seminal vesicles open into the urethra. They
produce seminal fluid, which protects and transports the
sperm.
•  The prostate gland is near the urethra and the bladder.
It produces a fluid that is mixed with the seminal fluid.
•  The Cowper’s gland produces a fluid that moves
down the urethra ahead of the seminal fluid. This fluid
cleans and neutralizes the urethra. This helps protect the
sperm as they move through the urethra.
• Generally, the mixture of the seminal and prostate fluid
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• F. Penis
• The penis deposits the semen within the female
reproductive system. The urethra in the penis is
surrounded by spongy tissue that fills with blood when
the male is sexually aroused.
• This causes an erection that is necessary for copulation
to occur. The sigmoid flexure (found in bulls, rams, and
boars) and the retractor muscle extend the penis from the
sheath, a tubular fold of skin.
• After copulation, the blood pressure in the penis
subsides and the retractor muscle helps draw the penis
back into the sheath.

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 Male reproductive organ of cattle

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 2.7.1.2 Hormones of male reproduction

• A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by an

organ of the body.
• When released into the bloodstream, it triggers a specific
response in another organ. Reproductive hormones affect
the activity of the parts of the reproductive system.
• Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) is a
reproductive hormone produced by the hypothalamus
gland, which is found in the brain; GnRH is not present
in fowl.
• GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland in the
brain to release both FSH and LH, which are essential to
reproduction.
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• The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) as well as luteinizing hormone
(LH).
• FSH (Follicular stimulating hormone) affects the tubules in
the testicles, causing them to produce sperm.
• LH (Luteinizing hormone) is also sometimes referred to as
interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH). LH causes the
interstitial cells in the testicles to secrete androgens.
• The sex hormones that control male reproductive development
and behavior are collectively called androgens. The androgen
testosterone is produced in the testicles. Androgens like
testosterone stimulate the development, growth, and activity of
reproductive parts. The production of androgens triggers a
maturing stage called puberty, in which the reproductive parts
mature as the ideal hormone level is reached.
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 2.7.1.2 Female Reproductive Systems

• The reproductive anatomy and physiology of the

female is far more complex than that of the male, since
after fertilization they also nourish, carry and protect
the developing embryo.
• Then their mammary glands produce milk to nurse the
new born after it is born. The female reproductive organ
consists of ovary and tubular reproductive tracts.
A) Ovaries: Female farm mammals have two ovaries
that produce the ova and two female sex hormones
(estrogen and progesterone).
They are located caudal to the kidney suspended from the
dorsal wall of the abdomen by a ligament.
They are oval shaped in most species of animals.
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• There are hundreds of tiny follicles on each ovary.
• The ova are produced in the follicles. After the ovum is
released (ovulation) from the matured ovarian follicle, the
follicle collapses and filled with blood.
• This latter develops in to corpus luteum, which
produces a female sex hormone known as
progesterone.
• However, if the egg is not fertilized the corpus luteum
develops into scar tissue (regress it (go back)).

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 B. Tubular Reproductive Organs

• 1. Oviducts (fallopian tube/ uterine tube):- is paired

twisted muscular tube that extends from each ovary to the
horns of the uterus. Anatomically the oviduct consists of
three regions (segments)
• Infundibulum is a proximal funnel shaped structure
which surrounds the ovary during ovulation. It receives
the ova from the ovary and transports the ova to middle of
the oviduct.
• Ampulla is the middle portion of the oviduct. It is the site
of fertilization Isthmus is the distal portion of the
oviduct which joins the uterine horn.

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 Generally oviduct transport ovum and Zygote to uterine
horn and transport sperm towards ovum. The movement is
achieved by the contract of smooth muscles in the oviduct
and the oviduct is suspended by the part of broad ligament.
2.Uterus: - uterus of mammals is a Y-shaped structure
consisting of the body, two uterine horns, and the cervix.
The upper part of the uterus consists of the two uterine horns
that develop into the oviducts or Fallopian tubes. In all species
of farm animals, the fetus grows within the uterus, where it
remains until parturition.
The cervix is the lower outlet of the uterus. It is relatively
relaxed during estrus to allow the passage of sperm into the
uterus; during pregnancy it remains tightly closed to block the
entrance
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of any foreign matter into the uterus. 90
3.Vagina: The vagina is the passage between the cervix and
the vulva. The lining of the vagina is moist during estrus
and dry when the animal is not in estrus.
During copulation, the semen is deposited in the vagina.
The vagina expands to allow the fetus to pass through at
birth.
4. Vulva: is the external part of the female gentalia, which
extends from the vagina to the exterior.

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 2.7.1.2 Female Reproductive Hormones

• Some of the hormones produced by females are also

found in males.
• For example, as in the male, gonadotrophin releasing
hormone (GnRH) is produced by the hypothalamus.
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) are also secreted from the anterior pituitary
gland.
• Other hormones, however, are unique to the female, such
as estrogen, which is secreted by the follicles in the ovary.
Another hormone produced in the ovary is progesterone,
which is secreted by the corpus luteum, a body that
develops from a follicle that has released an ovum. The
hormone prostaglandin is released by the uterus.
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• The hormones must interact in a balanced manner to
ensure the proper development and functioning of the
reproductive system.
• As it does in the male, GnRH stimulates the pituitary to
release FSH and LH.
• In the female, FSH stimulates the follicles in the ovaries
to develop a mature ovum. FSH also triggers the secretion
of estrogen.
• Estrogen causes the sex organs and secondary sex
characteristics to develop and stimulates a desire to mate.
Estrogen has an effect on other hormones as well; when
estrogen is released, it suppresses the production of FSH
and encourages the production of LH by the pituitary.
Estrogen also causes uterine contractions that aid in
transporting
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sperm to the oviduct to fertilize the egg. 93
 Estrous and Estrous Cycle

• The estrus, or heat, period is the time during which the female will
accept the male for copulation or breeding. The female mammal
begins to have estrus periods when it is old enough to be bred.
• The signs of estrus in cattle include:
• Standing when mounted by another cow
• Nervousness.
• Swelling of the vulva.
• Swollen appearance on lips of the vulva.
• Frequent urination.
• Mucus discharge from the vulva.
• Trying to mount other cattle (cattle not in estrus may do this).
• Estrous cycle is the recurring physiological changes that are induced
by reproductive hormones in most mammalian females. Estrous
cycle of different specious of animals & duration of estrus
different.
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04/01/2024 95
• Gestation period – is the period from the time of
fertilization to the time of parturition (the expulsion of
the Fetus from the uterus). Gestation period of different
animals.

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 2.7.2 Cattle genetic improvement

• Genetic improvement of livestock depends on access to

genetic variation and effective methods for exploiting this
variation.
• To make cattle profitable; Productivity (milk, meat,
production per animal) needs to be increased. There
are two main ways in which we can attempt to increase
the performance of cattle.
• We can either improve their environment or try to change
their genetic make-up in order to increase their
potential.

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 2.7.2 Cattle genetic improvement

• Genetic improvement of livestock depends on access to

genetic variation and effective methods for exploiting this
variation.
• To make cattle profitable; Productivity (milk, meat,
production per animal) needs to be increased.
• There are two main ways in which we can attempt to
increase the performance of cattle.
• We can either improve their environment or try to change
their genetic make-up in order to increase their potential.
Environment improvement consist all non-genetic
improvements like management.

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• Genetic improvement thus does not come free of cost but
once attained it is genetically there without the need for
further effort.
• The essential steps for a successful genetic improvement
program are:
1.Identification and recording of large number of
animals of the selected breed in an area.
2. Identification of best performing animals (Bulls and
Cows) for producing next generation of bulls and heifers –
called “Selection”
3. Maximize use of these ''Selected" animals in breeding
program to produce all the replacement heifers – called
“Multiplication”.
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 2.7.2.1 Selection
• Selection: - is the process of choosing some individuals in
preference to others as the parents of the next generation.
It is the basic method used by both nature and by humans
to change the attributes of animals.
• Basically, there are two types of selection which are as
follows:
• Natural selection: - is the process in nature by which
organisms better adapted to their environment tend to
survive and reproduce more than those less adapted to
their environment.
• it depends up on the genetic difference among the
individuals in fitness characters such as disease
resistance, libido, mating behaviors and anatomy and
physical superiority. It is the survival of the fittest.
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• Only strong and those adapted to the environment can
survive and produce large number of offspring.
• Artificial selection: - it is a type of selection performed
by man. It is the most powerful with which the breeder
determines which animal to be reproduced and which to
be retained for replacement.
• Thus, selection acts by allowing selected individuals to
be parents of the next generation and contribute more
traits to the next generation than other individuals in the
same population.

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• Methods of Artificial selection
• 1. Tandem selection: - here selection is practiced for only
one trait at a time until satisfactory improvement is done
in this trait. The second trait is considered for the selection
and so on. If there is a positive correlation between the
first trait selected and any other trait both will improve.
• If there is negative correlation, progress in one trait is
affected by a decrease in another and will invalidate the
effect. E.g. Milk yield and fat percentage, heat tolerance
and milk yield
• Disadvantage: - it is least efficient method and more
effort and time consuming. Negative correlation between
several economic traits will invalidate the improvement.
Methods of Artificial selection
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• 1. Tandem selection: - here selection is practiced for
only one trait at a time until satisfactory improvement
is done in this trait.
• The second trait is considered for the selection and so
on. If there is a positive correlation between the first
trait selected and any other trait both will improve.
• If there is negative correlation, progress in one trait
is affected by a decrease in another and will invalidate
the effect. E.g. Milk yield and fat percentage, heat
tolerance and milk yield
• Disadvantage: - it is least efficient method and more
effort and time consuming. Negative correlation
between several economic traits will invalidate the
improvement.
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2.Independent culling method: - is a selection strategy
whereby animal is culled if it does not meet the requirement
for a single trait, regardless of its levels on other traits. Is
practical for two or more trait at a time.
For each trait a minimum standard is set. Animal should
meet standard for selection. Failure to meet the settled
standard for any one trait will disqualify the animal.

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04/01/2024 106
• Advantage
• a. Selection for more than two traits at a time will bring
about simultaneous improvement.
• b. Animal can be culled at an early age for failure to
meet the minimum standard, thus reduce the cost of
maintenance.
• Disadvantage
• a. Animal is culled for failure to meet the minimum
standard set for one trait although it is superior in other
traits.
• b. Animal may be culled at an early age for its failure to
meet the minimum standard without giving chance to
reveal superiority in later stages of its life.
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 2.7.2.2 Basis for selection/the production records

• Individual selection: - selection is based on the performance of

individual itself. The phenotype of individual is the sole criteria for
estimating his genotype. This is also most commonly used basis for
selection in livestock.
• Advantage
• a. Simple since the characteristics such as milk yield,
growth rate, weight gain etc can be directly evaluated from
the individual itself.
• b. Selection can be made even without the knowledge of
the pedigree.
• c. Less time consuming compared to progeny testing (son
and daughter).
• d. It can be used as preliminary selection before progeny
testing.
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 Disadvantage

• Many of the economically important traits are sex limited

and hence expressed in one of these sexes (female).
Therefore selection of males cannot be based on their
own performance for the traits (milk yield, egg yield).
• 2. Pedigree selection
• This is a method of selection based on the performance of
ancestors. Pedigree information is most useful when no
data are available for the individual animals, either
because it is too young or because the expression of the
trait is sex linked.

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 Many of the economically important traits are sex limited and
hence expressed in one of these sexes (female). Therefore
selection of males cannot be based on their own performance for
the traits (milk yield, egg yield).
• 2. Pedigree selection
• This is a method of selection based on the performance of
ancestors. Pedigree information is most useful when no data
are available for the individual animals, either because it is too
young or because the expression of the trait is sex linked.
• 3. Progeny testing
• The assessment of the breeding value of an animal on the basis
of the performance of its offspring is known as a progeny test.
As in most livestock species males produces many more
offspring during their life time than females, progeny tests are
usually applied to males.
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• 2.7.2.3 Breeding
• The aim of breeding is to produce outstanding and
improved types of animals which can give better services
to man. Selection and system of breeding constitute the
only tools available to the breeder for improvement of
the animals.
• General Objective of Breeding
• To produce the future progeny of good genotype to make
further profit.
• To bring together the desirable gene combination after
selection.
• To enhance the effect of heterozygosis.
• To overcome hereditary defects.
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To form a base for synthesis of new strain/line/breed. 111
• Systemic breeding (mating): It is mating of female
animal with male, which are either closely related or
distantly related. Common types of systemic breeding
include the following:
Inbreeding: mating of closely related individuals such as
families. This system results in more homozygous traits.
Cross breeding: mating of distantly related breeds. They
can be two pure breeds.
In this system of breeding more heterozygous is expressed.

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 2.8 Cattle health, disease and disease controls

• Being familiar with the diseases and parasites that

affect cattle can help farmers plan preventive
programs that reduce health problems and increase
profits. Scheduling routine visits by a veterinarian can
save money by helping prevent health problems before
they become serious.
• Observing the vital signs (temperature, pulse rate, and
respiration rate) in an animal can help in the early
detection of health problems

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• Vital signs will vary with activity and environmental
conditions. Normal vital signs in beef
• cattle are: • Temperature (normal range is 100.4°F to
102.8°F [38°C to 39.3°C]; average is 101.5°F [38.6°C]).
(Usually temperature is higher in the morning than in the
afternoon; younger animals will show a wider range of
temperature than mature animals do.) • Pulse rate
(normal range is 60 to 70 heartbeats per minute). •
Respiration rate (normal range is 10 to 30 breaths per
minute).
• It is better to prevent health problems than to try to
cure them once they have occurred.
• Good sanitation programs are essential in preventing
diseases and parasites.
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• Some common disease of cattle
• Mastitis: - is an inflammation of the mammary gland or
udder.
• Mastitis in dairy cows is caused by udder infections,
usually resulting from bacteria introduced either during
the milking process or from environmental contact.
• Examples include contamination from milking
equipment, milking personnel, manure contamination
or dirty stalls.
• Antibiotics can be administered to treat mastitis in dairy
cows.

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 • Anthrax
• Anthrax is a disease caused by bacteria that may remain in
the soil for 40 years or longer.
• Certain conditions cause the bacteria to become active.
• Anthrax affects mainly cattle and sheep. Infection may result
from grazing on infected pastures.
• The bacteria usually enter the animal‟s body through the
mouth.
• They may enter through the nose or through open wounds.
Biting insects, such as horseflies, may spread the disease from
one animal to another.
• The first sign of anthrax is often the sudden death of the
infected animal. Less acute infections show symptoms of
high fever, sudden staggering, hard breathing, trembling, and
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collapse
• Care must be taken when handling the carcass of an
animal suspected of having anthrax since the disease
can be transmitted to people.
• Vaccines may be used to control anthrax. In areas
where anthrax is a problem, animals should be
vaccinated on a yearly basis. Where it is not a common
disease, vaccination should be done only on the advice of
a veterinarian.

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• Brucellosis
• Brucellosis, a disease caused by a microorganism,
causes heavy economic losses in the cattle industry.
• The germs that cause brucellosis are also dangerous to
humans, causing undulant (Malta) fever.
• Cattle with brucellosis often abort during the last half
of pregnancy. Infected cows may retain the afterbirth
• 6(placenta).
• Other symptoms include sterility in cows and bulls,
reduced milk flow in cows, and enlarged testicles in
bulls. Calves born to infected cows may be weak.

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• Brucellosis is spread by infected cattle that are brought
into the herd.
• It may also be picked up by fence- line contact with
infected animals.
• An aborted fetus that carries the Brucella organisms
may be brought from one farm to another by dogs or other
carnivorous animals.
• Unborn calves may be infected by their mothers and
become sources of infection after birth. Cattle can also
contract brucellosis by eating or drinking feed or water in
which the organism is present. Sniffing or licking an
aborted fetus or a calf from a cow with the disease can
also spread the disease.
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• There is no cure for brucellosis. Prevention is
accomplished by good management practices. Calves
should be vaccinated between 2 and 6 months of age to
increase their resistance to the disease.
• Parasitic disease
• External parasites of beef cattle include flies, lice, mange,
mites, and ticks. There are high losses from these parasites.
• Some of these parasites irritate the animals; others are
bloodsuckers. They slow down weight gains and, in some
cases, damage the hides of the animals.
• Others carry diseases from one animal to another.
Chemical, biological, mechanical, and cultural control
methods are used to reduce losses from parasites.
Chemical control methods are the most economical.
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• A program of parasite control includes sanitation. Pens,
barns, and feedlots must be kept clean. There are a
number of internal parasites that affect cattle.
• The most common are roundworms, flatworms,
coccidia, and anaplasma. Economic loss results from
internal parasite are loss in weight, lower milk
production, poor growth, wasted feed, and lower breeding
efficiency.

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 • Bloat
• It is nutritional health problems affecting animal
production in the world.
• Rapid fermentation (breakdown of carbohydrates by
enzymes) in the rumen causes too much gas to be
produced. The rumen swells and the animal cannot get rid
of the gas.
• This condition is called bloat. The animal is unable to get
rid of the gas by normal physiological means. Bloat easily
kills ruminants.
• The major cause of bloat is eating too much green legume
too fast. Other feeds can also cause bloat. Some animals
will bloat on dry feeds.
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• One of the main ways to avoid bloat is to prevent animals
from overeating legumes in too short a period of time.
Feeding grain, dry roughage, or silage before turning
the animals onto legume pasture also helps in
prevention.
• Free access to water should be provided at all times.
• A stomach tube passed through the mouth helps the
animal get rid of the gas. Other treatments include
walking the animal on rough ground

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• Bloat: is a disease of all ruminants. Bloat also called
tympani, which is characterized by the distension of the
rumen and reticulum with gases of fermentation. The
animal is unable to get rid of the gas by normal
physiological means. Bloat easily kills ruminants.
• Causes of bloat
• Bloat can occur when the animal grazes on lush young
pasture, particularly if the pasture is wet.
• Some plants, e.g. clover, lucerne and alfalfa are
especially dangerous in causing bloat but any fast
growing plants can cause it. Sometimes ruminants kept
by the household and fed only feed such as dry bread can
develop bloat.
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• Bloat is caused by not only accumulation of gas in the ruminant
stomach but also by the production of a froth or foam.
• The foam makes the gases to be mixed with the content of the
paunch and belching out these gases is impossible.
• Symptoms of Bloat:
• a swelling high in the left flank
•  the animal stops grazing
•  the animal shows signs of discomfort, and may lie down
•  lying down and kicking at the belly
•  increased rate of breathing
•  breathing is through the mouth which is held open; the tongue
protrudes, and there is copious saliva production

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• Preventing bloat
• Avoid moving animals to wet pasture, especially first thing in the
morning.
• Do not allow very hungry animals to graze a pasture.
• Offer dry, cut grass first before turning out to graze.
•  Keep a watch on animals at pasture.
• Treatment
• Give a drench (drink) to the animal. The drench used can
be one of the following:
•  Two large spoons of washing up liquid, e.g. Fairy, Lux.
•  A solution of sodium bicarbonate (cooking or baking
soda) and water.
•  A small amount of kerosene (paraffin) in warm milk.
• 04/01/2024
 A small bottle of peanut, soya or linseed oil.  Use
126
 2.9 Housing and routine management of cattle

• Management is a general term, denoting all operations

connected with the maintenance of cattle.
• It includes feeding, housing, providing drinking water,
grooming and washing animals, providing exercise,
treating sick animals and training young stock.
• The feeding of cattle has already been dealt with.
• Housing
• Cattle are kept in sheds or stalls of various types, which
are designed to give adequate protection to the animals
against the weather.
• The sun is rather severe in the tropics and cattle are
affected when they are exposed to the hot midday sun,
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particularly during summer.
• Cattle may commonly be seen stopping grazing during
noon and seeking the protection of trees in the grazing
grounds.
• If the animals are exposed to rain and cold winds,
considerable body energy is taken up for maintaining
the body temperature and this leads to lowered health and
predisposition to diseases.

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 Factors to consider when planning house construction are

 Number of cattle in the farm.

 Space requirements per head.
 Kind of facilities used.
 Environmental requirements.
 Feed storage and handling methods.
 Amount of land needed.
 Amount of money and labour that is available.
 Opportunity for expansion of the enterprise .

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• The type of housing constructed depends on climate,
geographical, economical and the type of farming, which has
impact on the growth, and productivity of the animal.
•  Generally there are two types of livestock houses namely
loose and conventional barn (stanchion type).
• A. Loose housing: - is the types of housing where by the
animals are kept in an open paddock or pasture throughout the
day and night except at milking time.
•  The open paddock is provided with shelter along one side
under which the animals can retire when it is very hot or cold.
•  A common watering tank is provided and fodder is fed in
common managers.
•  Concentrate are fed at the time of milking. This type of
housing system is suitable to most countries except temperate
region
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• B. The stanchion type of housing (conventional barn)
•  This refers to housing in which the cows are confined
together in the house and may secured at neck by
stanchion of neck chain.
 The cows are fed as well as milked in this barn.
 Has pens equipped with feed and watering trough and
also drainage.
 The barns are completely roofed and walls with better
ventilation.
 The cows are kept and fed individually using manager.
 The animals are kept tied the whole day except 2 or 3
hours when they are allowed on the paddock for some
exercise, cleaning, washing.
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 The arrangement of cow shade in conventional barn can
be single row or double row based on the number of
animals.
 In double row, the housing can be arranged in tail to tail
system or face to face housing system.
 It should be simple and easily done from the available
material.
• There are different sections of this housing type.

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• Cattle crush
• b. Feeders
• c. Waterer
• d. Feed stores
• e. Offices
f. Isolation pen
g. Calf pens
h. Maternity pens
i. Loading and unloading rump

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• CHAPTER THREE
• CAMEL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
• Introduction
• This chapter encompasses general points under camel
production and management.
• Origin domestication and socio economic importance of
camel will be firstly discussed. Features of camels that
differentiate them from other animal will be also
explained. Feed and feeding practice of camel also
enlightened.

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• 3.1 Origin and Domestication of Camel
• The word camel is derived from Latin word: “camelus”
which refers to any of the seven members of the family
Camelidae.
• A camel is in the genus Camelus that bears distinctive fatty
deposits known as "humps" on its back. Camels are cud
chewers like ruminants such as cows and buffalo but lack
the split hooves of most ruminants.
• A camel stomach has three compartments while that of
cattle has four (Omasum absent).
• The Camel is one of the most unique mammals on the planet
and has adapted perfectly to life in the desert where feed and
water can often be scarce and the temperature changes
rapidly from the scorching-hot days to the cooler nights.
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• Camels are belong to the family Camelidae and
thereby, to the suborder Tylopoda.
• Tylopoda themselves belong to the order Artiodactyla
animals.
• The family Camelidae contains the genera Camelus (old
world camel) and Lama (new world camel).
• The Camelidae originated in North America, where the
earliest fossil remains have been found.
• The genus Camelus migrated from North America in
the late tertiary across the existing land bridge to Asia and
Africa.
• The Lama on the other hand reached South America
in the ice age across the Central American landbridge
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• The genus camelus has two species. The heavily built,
two-humped Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),
which inhabits the deserts of central Asia. The name
"bactrian" for the two-humped
• camel refers to the area "Baktria" in North Afghanistan
where this type of camel is thought to have originated.
Bactrian camels are hairy double humped animals.
• Found primarily in Central and East Asia, they are
adapted for cold regions and have reddish brown or black
hair and have relatively thin, short legs, and heavy
bodies.

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The zoological classification can be put as
 Kingdom :Animalia
 Phylum :chorodata (animals with a backbone
 Class: Mammalia (milk producing)
 Order :Artiodactyla (even-toed, hoofed)
 Family: Camelidae

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Genus 1. Camelus (Old world camel)
2. Lama (New world camel)
Under genus Camelus (Old world camel),
there are two species which are called
1. Camelus dromedarius (dromedary) or
Arabian camel.
This camel has one hump.
2. C. bactrianus ( Bacterian camel) which have
two humps
 The name dromedary derived from Greek word
“dromedos” meaning running where as the word
Bactrain was drived from the name of the place
Bactrain found in Afghanistan.
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 Figure 2. Camelus dromedarius ( Male)
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 Figure 3. Camelus bactrianus

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 Under genus Lama (New world camel) or
South American camel there are four species
which are called
1. Lama glam (llama) =domestic
2. L. pacos (alpaca) = domestic

3. L. guanicoe (guanaco) = wild

4. L. vicugna or Vicugna (vicuna) =wild
The species under genus Lama have no hump
(they are humpless).

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 Figure 4. Lama glama
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04/01/2024 Figure 5. Lama pacos 144
 Figure 6. Lama guanicoe
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 Old world camel

 belong to the genus Camelus

 are found in deserts/plains

 They are bigger in body size and weight.

 Dromedary

• Common names

 Dromedary

 Arabian camel

 One-humped camel

 The dromedary lives in the hot arid lands of northern Africa

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and eastern Asia.
 Domestic Bactrian
 Cold desert regions of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China.
• Common names
 Bactrian camel
 Two-humped camel
 Physical characteristics
 2 humps: large, irregularly shaped, may become flaccid and flop to
one side in adult.
 Height: 1.8 m (6.0 ft) (shorter than dromedaries)
 Weight: 600-1,000 kg
 Legs: short and stout (Heavy)
 Feet: broad, cushioned by fat
 Hair: long and dark; annual molt

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 New World Camel

 placed in genus Lama

 are much smaller in size and body weight
 are found in areas located at much higher altitudes.
 They are hump less.
 Their habitat is restricted to South America and is thus
also called South American camels.

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 3.2 Socio economic importance of camels

• Camels act as an essential element of human life

supporting, over vast dry land areas.
• This is due to its unique physiological features and it‟s
complementary of resources use with other domestic
species.
• Camel utilizes resources in friendly manner with the
ecosystem. In Ethiopian pastoral communities, camel is
greater than any material wealth.

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• Camel were primarily used in the past for transport of
people and goods in desert and semiarid areas.
• Milk, meat, hair and hides were the subordinated to
by product status of the supposed primary function.
Camel hide is used for making suitcases.
• Camels are playing very important roles in the life of
nomadic tribes rearing them.
• Socially, herd size is a very important indicator for
the standing of the man in nomadic community
• (for example Camel man is a man;
• goat man is half- man; cow man is not a man at all
Somali proverb).
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• Humans have used camels can carry about 170 to 270
kilograms on their backs. This earned these beasts of
burden a nickname, "ships of the desert".
• A female may yield about 3-5 liters daily. Camel milk
on average consists of 5.1% lactose, 4.8% fat,
3.8%protein and 0.9% ash.
• The milk composition varies with breed, plain of
nutrition, stage of lactation etc. the milk is
consumed mostly as liquid milk.
• It usually gives milk 10 to 18 months since parturition.

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 3.3 Distinguishing Features of Camels

Contrary to popular belief, a camel does not store water

in its hump. It is in fact a mound of fatty tissue from
which the animal draws energy when feed is hard to find.
When a camel uses its hump fat for sustenance, the
mound becomes flabby and shrinks.
If a camel draws too much fat, the small remaining
lump will flop from its upright position and hang down
the camel‟s side.
Feed and a few days‟ rest will return the hump to its
normal firm condition.

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• For survival in desert environment, camels have
physiological, anatomical and behavioural
adaptation mechanisms.
• Water conservation ability, the unique features of
blood, thermoregulation, and efficient digestion and
metabolism are among the physiological adaptations.
Anatomically the nature of skin coat, eye, nostril and
lips, large body size and long height and large foot pads
contribute for their survival.

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 2. Physiological Adaptation

• Low water turnover: In comparison with the

camel, sheep and cattle need far more water per
day per kg body weight even when drinking
water is available Camels drink far less
frequently and take in relatively smaller volumes
of liquid than do sheep, horses or cattle.

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• Less water is required by the camel because the
rate of water turnover is low.
• Most of physiological changes that occur in the
camel during dehydration are water conserving
mechanisms which keep the turnover low.
• These include:
• A. Ability to fluctuate body temperature
• B. Efficient sweating mechanism
• C. Ability to reduce fecal and urine water loss
• D. Ability to reduce respiration (O2
consumption)
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• production of small, hard and very dry droppings
Cattle lose 20 to 40 liters of fluid daily through
feces, whereas camels lose only 1.3 liters, this is
one of the primary methods for resisting water
deprivation in the desert..

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 3. Behavioural Adaptation

• Water and temperature control in the camel are assisted by

many aspects of its individual and group behaviour.
Principal among these is a preference for feeding at night,
in the early morning or late evening, or when the sky is
clouded over.
• Camels on unrestricted rangeland and not confined in night
enclosures will browse and graze at any time of the day or
night.
• They tend to forage more actively at certain periods, As
major feeding periods have been noted to occur just before
and just after sunset.
• These and other similar observations led to certain
management practices being used by military and transport
formations during the colonial period in many countries 157
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 The end
Thank you for your
nice attention

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