Q-1 Explain Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Introduction

 Bourdon gauge is used to measure pressure differences that are more than 1.2 bars.
 The pressure to be measure is applied to a curved tube, oval in cross section.
 The pressure applied to the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out, and the
deflection of the end of the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a
recording needle.
 This gauge is widely used for steam and compressed gases.
 The pressure indicated is the difference between that communicated by the system to the
external (ambient) pressure. And is usually referred as the gauge pressure.

Construction and Working

 It consists of a metal tube of elliptical cross-sectional area.

 This tube is bent in the form of a segment of circle and responds to pressure changes.
 One end of the tube is fixed and other end is free to move inward and outward.
 The inward and outward movements of the tube move a pointer with the help of linkage
and gear arrangement (rack and pinion) on a dial, which is graduated in pressure scale
(bar or N/m2).
 When attached to the source of pressure, the internal pressure causes the tube to expand, thereby
inducing circumferential stress. The free end of the tube moves and makes the pointer to move
over the dial, and pressure reading is obtained.

Advantages of Mechanical Gauges (Bourdon tube pressure gauge)

1. These pressure gauges give accurate results;

2. They are portable;
3. They costs low;
4. They gives direct reading;
5. They are simple in construction;
6. They can be modified to give an better electrical outputs;
7. They are safe even for high pressure measurement;
8. Accuracy is high especially at high pressure.

Disadvantages:
1. They respond slowly to changes in pressure;
2. They are subjected to hysteresis;
3. They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations;
4. Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low;
It cannot be used for precision measurement.

Q-2 Difference between Simple Manometer and Differential Manometer

Simple Manometer Differential Manometer

1. It is used to measure pressure at a point or 1. It is used to measure pressure difference
section of pipe. between two points or sections of a pipe
or two different pipes.
2. Here, one limb is connected to the point , 2. Here, both ends are connected to the
where pressure is to be measured and points, whose pressure difference is to be
other end is free or open to atmosphere measured.
3. Here, the reading is obtained by 3. Here is reading is obtained by measuring
measuring the rise of liquid flowing the pressure difference in the level of
through the pipe in the tube open to manometric fluid in the two limbs of U-
atmosphere. tube.
4. Examples: Piezometer, simple U-tube 4. Example: U-tube differential manometer,
manometer. Inverted U-tube differential manometer.
Define Kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity of fluid and write its standard value.
Dynamic Viscosity (µ):- (01 ½ Marks)
The dynamic (shear) viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent
layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. The magnitude (F) of this force or
resistance is found to be proportional to the speed (u) and the area (A) of each plate, and
inversely proportional to their separation (y).
⁄
The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity (specifically, the dynamic viscosity) of
the fluid. The unit of dynamic viscosity is N-s/m2.

Kinematic viscosity (ν): (01 ½ Marks)

The kinematic viscosity (also called "momentum diffusivity") is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity μ
to the density of the fluid. It is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν).

In MKS system and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity in m 2/sec while in CGS units it is written as
cm2/sec.

Define Atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure, vacuum pressure, and absolute pressure.
(01 Marks Each)

Pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. One is absolute zero or complete
vacuum. This is called absolute pressure. The other is pressure measured above the
atmospheric pressure. It is called as gauge pressure.

Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with reference to absolute zero line.

Gauge pressure is measured above and with reference to atmospheric pressure.

Vacuum pressure is the pressure measured below the atmospheric line.

Atmospheric pressure: - The pressure which is exerted due to the weight of air above earth’s
surface.

Standard value- 101.3 KN/ m2 and 760mm of Hg

Figure shows the relation between them….

Mathematically, the absolute pressure is given by…

Pabs = Patm ± Pgauge

Where +ve sign is for gauge pressure is above atmospheric line and –ve sign is for pressure is
below atmospheric line.

Explain Surface tension and capillarity.

Surface Tension (σ):- Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a
liquid in contact with gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquid such that the contact
surface behaves like membrane under tension.
The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the
surface energy per unit area.
In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m while SI units as N/m
Example- 1. Spherical shape of drop of water. 2. Insect can easily walk on the surface of liquid
due to surface tension

Capillarity:-

Capillary is defined as phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid
surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of liquid is known as capillary depression. It is
expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.

If adhesion is greater than cohesion then capillary rise is there. For example water.
If cohesion is greater than adhesion then capillary fall is there. For example Mercury
Define Mass density, Weight density, Specific volume, Specific gravity.

Mass density:It is defined as the ratio of mass of fluid to volume.

It is denoted by letter ‘ρ’.

Mathematically, Mass density (ρ) =

Unit is

Weight density: It is defined as the ratio of Weight of fluid to volume.

It is denoted by letter ‘w’.

Mathematically, Weight density (w) = , Weight density (w) =

Weight density (w) = ρ.g Unit is

Specific volume: It is defined as the ratio of volume per unit mass.

Mathematically,

Specific volume = = Unit is

Specific gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of any fluid to the specific weight
of standard fluid (water).

It is denoted by letter ‘S’. It is unit less term.

S= w = ρ.g hence, S =

Define Centre of pressure and Total pressure.

Numerical on Centre of pressure and Total pressure for circular surface and
isosceles triangle (vertically immersed or inclined to FSL).
Define Steady flow and unsteady flows
Steady flow: Fluid flow is said to be steady flow, if the flow characteristics such as velocity, density,
viscosity pressure, temperature etc. do not change with respect to time.
Example: Flow of water through a tap at a constant rate.

Unsteady flow: A fluid flow is said to be unsteady flow, if the flow characteristics such as
velocity, density, viscosity pressure, temperature etc. changes with respect to time.
Example: Flow of water when the tap is just open.

Uniform and non-uniform flow

Uniform flow is defined as flow in which the velocity of fluid particles at all sections in given time
remains constant with respect to length of direction of flow.
Example: Flow of water in a uniformed diameter pipe, flow of water in an open channel.

In non-uniform flow, the velocity of fluid does not remains constant but goes on changing from section
to section.
Example: Flow of water through a converging or diverging pipe.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow: A flow is said to be laminar flow, if fluid particles have a definite path and do not
cross each other.
Example: Flow of thick oil. Flow of blood in veins.
Here Reynolds number<2000
It is also called as the flow of low velocity.

Turbulent Flow: A flow is said to be Turbulent flow, if fluid particles do not have a definite path and
they move in a zigzag way.
Example: Flow of water in river at the time of flood.
Here Reynolds number>4000
It is also called as flow of high velocity.

State the BERNOULLI’S THEOREM with meaning of each term.

Bernoulli’s theorem state that, “for a perfect incompressible liquid flowing in a continuous stream,
total energy of particle remains same.
This statement is based on the assumption that, there are no losses due to friction in pipe”.
Total energy consists of kinetic energy, potential energy, and pressure energy.
Mathematically,
 Z+ +

Where, Z = Potential Energy

= Kinetic Energy

= Pressure Energy
Let us consider a non-uniform pipe (converging) having a section 1-1 and 2-2.
The fluid flow is passing from section 1-1 to section 2-2, i.e. from left to right.
Now by using Bernoulli’s theorem, we can write,
Total head at section 1-1 = Total head at section 2-2

+ +Z1 = + +Z2

Assumptions and limitations in Bernoulli’s Equation

Assumptions:-

 The fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero.

 The flow is steady and continuous.
 The flow is incompressible.
 The flow is one-dimensional i.e. along a stream-line.
 Velocity is uniform over the cross-section and is equal to the mean velocity.
 The forces like gravity force and pressure force are only considered. Effect of viscous
force is neglected.
 The flow is irrotational.

Limitations:-

 Only applicable to ideal incompressible flow. In actual practice, fluid is not ideal.
 It is assume that, heat transfer from or to the fluid is zero. Actually, some energy addition
or removal may takes place as fluid flows.
 The effect of presence of any mechanical device between two sources is ignored.
 It is assumed that, velocity is uniform. But actually, velocity does not remains constant
across the section.
Explain the term Vena-contracta

On the downstream side, the pressure tap is provided quite close to orifice plate at the section,
where converging jet of fluid has almost the smallest cross-sectional area resulting in almost
maximum velocity of flow and consequently minimum pressure. This place is called as vena-
contracta (i.e. section 2-2). Thus vena-contracta is defined as, “the point in the fluid stream,
where the diameter of the stream is least and fluid velocity is maximum”. Therefore the
maximum pressure difference exists between section 1-1 and 2-2, which is measured by
differential manometer.

What is Pitot tube? Explain with sketch

 Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of fluid flowing through the pipe at any point.
 It works on the principle that, “if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, there ia an
increase in pressure energy”. This point is known as stagnation point.
 Pitot tube consists of a glass tube opened at both ends.
 The lower end is bent through 900 and facing the upstream direction.
 The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy in to pressure
energy.
 The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.

Fig: - Pitot tube

Applying the Bernoulli‟s equation,

+ +Z1 = + +Z2……………………………………………………(i)

But here, V2= 0 and Z1 = Z2

Also, pressure head at section (1) = =H

And pressure head at section (2) = = (H+h)

So equation (i) becomes,

 H+ + 0 = (H+h) +0 +0

=h

= 2gh

Vth = √

Actual velocity, Vact = Cv √

Where, Cv = Coefficient of velocity

Note:- The bent end of the pitot tube should be purely facing the direction of flow of liquid,
otherwise, there will be error in the reading and calculation.

Define different hydraulic coefficients?

1. Coefficient of discharge: It is defined as, “the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical

discharge”.
Cd =
2. Coefficient of contraction: It is defined as, “the area of jet at vena contracta to the area of
orifice”. If A2 is the area of jet at vena contracta and A1 is the area of orifice, then,

CC =
The theoretical value of CC for sharp edge orifice is equal to 0.611, but in actual practice its
value varies from 0.61 to 0.69 and generally taken as 0.64.
3. Coefficient of velocity: It is defined as, “the ratio of actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta
to theoretical velocity of jet”.

Cv =

√
 The difference between theoretical and actual values of velocity is mainly due to
friction at orifice.
 The value of CV varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for different orifices. In general, it is taken
as 0.98
Explain Venturimeter.

 Venturimeter is a device used to measure rate of discharge in a pipeline

 It is fixed permanently at different sections of pipeline to know the discharges at those
points.

Construction

It consists of following three parts:

b) Convergent cones
 It is a short pipe, which converges from a diameter d1(diameter of pipe, in which,
venturimeter is fitted) to a smaller diameter d2 (diameter of throat).
 The slope of converging cone is between 1 in 4 or 1 in 5.
 The total angle of converging cone is 21 + 10.
c) Throat
 It a small portion of circular pipe having diameter d2.
 Diameter of throat varies between 33% - 75% of main pipe diameter. Preferably is taken
as 0.5 times the diameter of pipe i.e. d2 = 0.5 d1
d) Divergent cone
 It is a long pipe, which diverges from a diameter d2 to the pipe diameter d1.
 The length of the divergent cone is 3 to 4 times the divergent cone.
 The included angle of divergent cone is 50 – 70 (preferably 60).

Working

 A U-tube differential manometer is connected to the pipe at the entrance section

(before converging section) and other end is connected at the throat. This differential
manometer is used for the measurement of pressure.
 When the liquid flows through the venturimeter (converging cone), its flow is
accelerated resulting in an increase in velocity. Therefore, the velocity of the liquid at
section 2 (throat) becomes higher than that at section 1. This decreases the pressure at
section 2.
 When the liquid flows through divergent cone, its flow is decelerated (retarded). As a
result of this retardation, the velocity of liquid decreases with a subsequent increase in
pressure.
Thus, venturimeter works on the principle of converging pressure energy (head) into kinetic
energy by reducing cross-sectional area of flow passage. This gives rise to pressure difference,
which is measured by means of U-tube differential manometer.

Working

 A U-tube differential manometer is connected to the pipe at the entrance section

(before converging section) and other end is connected at the throat. This differential
manometer is used for the measurement of pressure.
 When the liquid flows through the venturimeter (converging cone), its flow is
accelerated resulting in an increase in velocity. Therefore, the velocity of the liquid at
section 2 (throat) becomes higher than that at section 1. This decreases the pressure at
section 2.
 When the liquid flows through divergent cone, its flow is decelerated (retarded). As a
result of this retardation, the velocity of liquid decreases with a subsequent increase in
pressure.

Thus, venturimeter works on the principle of converging pressure energy (head) into kinetic
energy by reducing cross-sectional area of flow passage. This gives rise to pressure difference,
which is measured by means of U-tube differential manometer.

Question: Why Divergent cone made 3-4 times longer than the convergent cone.

 In convergent cone, the fluid is accelerated up to throat and in divergent cone; fluid is
retarded up to end section of the venturimeter.
 The acceleration of the flowing fluid is allowed to take place rapidly in a relatively
smaller length (convergent section), without resulting in appreciable loss of energy.
 However, if the retardation of the flow is allowed to takes place rapidly in small length,
then the flowing fluid will not remain in contact with the boundary of the diverging flow
 passage or in other words, the flow separates from walls and eddies are formed. This
results in excessive energy loss.
 Therefore, in order to avoid the possibility of flow separation and consequent energy loss,
the divergent cone is made longer with gradual divergence.
Since the flow separation may occur in divergent cone of venturimeter, this portion is not
used for discharge measurement.

 Venturimeter head is defined as, “piezometric head difference measured and expressed in
terms of column of liquid flowing through pipe”. It is denoted by as ‘h’.

Thus Venturimeter head = ( )

 In case of horizontal venturimeter,

Venturi head (h) =

Derive the expression for Discharge with the help of Venturimeter.

Let, d1 = diameter of pipe

d2 = diameter of throat

A1 = Area of pipe at inlet =

A2 = Area of pipe at inlet =

x = manometer reading

Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid

S = Specific gravity of fluid flowing through the pipe

According to the Bernoulli‟s theorem

+ +Z1 = + +Z2
As Z1 = Z2 ,

+ = +

- = -

But, h = Difference of pressure head = -

h= -

= …………………………………………….(i)

Now applying the continuity equation, we have,

Q = A1 V1 = A2V2

V1 = V2

Put this value of V1 in equation (i)

2gh = .

2gh = [1 ]

2gh = .[ ]

=[ ] 2gh

V2 = √

Also, Q = A 2 V2

Q = A2 √

Qth = √
 Qth = √
√

But the actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge. Therefore, a new term called as,
coefficient of discharge „Cd‟ is introduced in the equation and actual discharge is given by,

Qact = √
√

Where, Cd = coefficient of discharge.

Generally the value of „Cd‟ is taken as 0.98 for venturimeter.

Note: - If, x = Difference of mercury level / manometric liquid in the U-tube manometer then,
1) Case I: Heavier liquid in manometer
h = x. [ ]
Where, = Specific gravity of heavier manometric liquid

2) Case II: Lighter liquid in manometer

h = x. [1 ]
Where, = Specific gravity of lighter manometric liquid.

Q. Continuity Equation or Continuity Theorem

 The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass.

 It states that “If no fluid is added or removed from the pipe, then the mass of
the fluid per second remains constant at all sections of the pipe”.
 Consider two cross sectional area of pipe
Let, A1 = Area of the pipe at section (1)
V1 = Velocity of fluid at section (1)
ρ1 = Density of fluid at section (1)
And A2, V2, ρ2 be the corresponding value at section (2)
 The total quantity of the fluid passing through section (1) = ρ1 . A1 . V1
And the total quantity of the fluid passing through section (2) = ρ2 . A2. V2
 From law of conservation of mass, we have

ρ1 . A1 . V1 = ρ2 . A2. V2 This is known as Continuity equation.

 In case of incompressible fluid, ρ1 = ρ2

 Therefore continuity equation reduced to , A1 . V1 = A2. V2

Also we have,

Discharge, Q = Area x Average velocity

Q = A. V

Where, A = Area of cross section of the pipe

V = Average velocity of liquid

Therefore, Q = A1. V1 = A2. V2

Write the Darcy’s formula for head loss due friction. State the meaning of each term.

 According to the Darcy‟s Weisbach equation, loss of head due friction is given by,

hf =

Where, f is a function of Reynolds number and is known as Darcy‟s

coefficient of friction.
 Value of „f‟ is derived as under,

1. f = , if Re

2. f = , if Re

 We have, Reynolds number , Re = ,

Where, V = Mean velocity of fluid flowing through pipe in m/sec

d= Diameter of pipe in m.

= Kinematic viscosity of fluid in m2/sec

L = length of pipe
 The value of the Reynolds number decides, whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent. In case of circular pipe, if Re 2000, the flow is said to laminar
and if Re , the flow is said to be turbulent.
 If Re lies between 2000 to 4000, the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
Reynolds was the first to demonstrate that, transition of flow from laminar to
turbulent depends upon,
1. Increase in velocity
2. Increase in pipe diameter,
3. Decrease in viscosity.

 Reynolds number, Re = = i.e. a dimensionless number [ ]

V = velocity of fluid, d = Diameter of pipe, kinematic viscosity

𝟒 𝐟 𝐋 𝐕𝟐
……..Darcy‟s equation
hf =
𝟐𝐠 𝐝

But, Q

So, V2

Substituting the value V2 in Darcy’s equation

We get hf
 Chezy’s formula

1. Write Chezy’s equation. State the meaning of each term.(S-11,S13)

 If hf is the loss of head due to friction and L is the length of pipe, then ratio ( ) is called
as head loss per unit length of pipe denoted by i.
 The loss of head due to friction is calculated by using Chezy‟s formula, which is given by
average velocity of fluid as,
V=C√
Where, m = hydraulic mean depth (H.M.D.) =

m=
C = Chezy‟s constant
i = loss of head per unit length of pipe = ( )

Explain different Minor losses.

The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss while loss of
energy due to change in velocity of flowing liquid in magnitude or direction is called as
minor loss of energy. The minor losses are as follows
Explain the different types of minor losses in pipe. (8 marks)
A. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement (Expansion):
 As results of sudden enlargement, liquid flow forming eddies at corners. These eddies
causes the loss of head.

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,

B. Loss of head due to sudden contraction:

 It is observed that the loss of head due to sudden contraction is not due to contraction but
it is due to the sudden enlargement which takes place after vena-contracta.
 Head loss due sudden contraction is

If value of hc is not given then,

Where, V2 is the velocity of flow at section 2-2.

C. Loss of head at the entrance/inlet of a pipe:
 When the liquid enters from large vessel into a pipe, there occurred a sudden contraction
to flow of liquid and this results in the loss of head which is equal to

D. Loss of head at the exit/outlet of a pipe:

 This is the loss head (energy) due to the velocity of liquid at outlet of the pipe, which is
dissipated either in the form of a free jet ( if outlet of the pipe is free) or it is lost in the
tank or reservoir ( if outlet of the pipe is connected to the tank or reservoir).
This loss is denoted by ho and is given by,

Where, V= velocity of liquid at outlet of pipe.

E. Loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe:

 Whenever there is an obstruction in a pipe, the loss of energy takes place due to reduction
of the area of cross-section of the pipe at the place, where obstruction is present.
 There is a sudden enlargement of the area of the flow beyond the obstruction, due to
which, loss of head takes place.
 The loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe is given by,

Where, a = Area of obstruction in m2

A = Area of the pipe in m2

V = Velocity of liquid in pipe in m/sec

CC = Coefficient of contraction (0.62 or 0.65)

F. Loss of head due to bend in pipe:

 Where there is any bend in a pipe, the velocity of the flow changes due to which, the
separation of the flow from the boundary and also formation of eddies takes place. Thus,
the energy is lost.
 Loss of head in pipe due to bend is expressed as,

Where, hb = loss of head due to bend in m

V = velocity of flow in m/sec

 k = coefficient of bend.

The value of k depends on:

a) Angle of bend.
b) Radius of curvature of bend.
c) Diameter of pipe.

G. Loss of head in various pipe fitting:

 The loss of head in various pipe fittings such as valves, coupling etc., is expressed as,

Where, V = Velocity of flow in m/sec

K = coefficient of pipe fitting

Loss of head due to pipe fitting

State the laws of fluid friction for Laminar and Turbulent Flow

LAWS OF FLUID FRICTION FOR LAMINAR FLOW

1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the velocity.

2. The frictional resistance is independent of the pressure.
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the surface area of contact.
4. The frictional resistance varies considerably with temperature.
5. The frictional resistance is independent of the nature of the surface of contact.

LAWS OF FLUID FRICTION FOR TURBULENT FLOW

1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity.

2. The frictional resistance is independent of the pressure.
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the surface area of contact.
4. The frictional resistance slightly varies with temperature.
5. The frictional resistance is depends of the nature of the surface of contact.
6. The frictional resistance is proportional to the density of the fluid.

POWER TRANSMITTED THROUGH PIPE

P=( (H - hf)……………………. [h = H - hf ]

P=( * +…………………….. [Q = A. V]
Condition for maximum power transmission

Or H = 3

EFFICIENCY OF POWER TRANSMISSION

Do the Numerical on Power Transmission and Venturimeter.

Define HGL and TEL

Hydraulic Gradient Line:-

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and datum head (z) of a
flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.
The HGL is below the TEL by

Total Energy Line (TEL):-

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing
fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.

The TEL is above the HGL by

IMPACT OF JET
The liquid comes out in the form of jet from the outlet of a nozzle, which is fitted to a pipe
through which the liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate, which may be fixed or
moving, is placed in the path of jet, a force is exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is
obtained from Newton‟s second law off motion or from impulse-momentum equation. Thus
impact of jet means force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be stationary or moving. In this
chapter the following cases are considered for calculating the force exerted by jet on a plate:

CASE-1: FORCE EXERTED BY JET ON STATIONARY VERTICAL FLAT

Consider a jet of water coming out from nozzle striking on a fixed flat plate kept normal to the
jet.

Let, V = velocity of jet;

D = diameter of jet;

m = mass flow rate;

u = velocity of jet after striking in the same direction u=0

Therefore force exerted by the jet on the fix plate,

F = mass flow rate change in velocity (Initial vel. – Final velocity)

= ……………as u = 0 and

F ρ in Newton

As the plate is fixed work done will be zero

IMP CASE-2: IMPACT OF JET ON A

MOVING FLATE PLATE
Let, V= velocity of jet;

u= velocity of plate

Velocity of jet relative to the plate = (V-u)

Mass of water striking the plate per second =

Therefore we can consider that jet is moving with an initial velocity relative to the plate.

Also the final velocity in the direction of jet is zero.

F = mass flow rate change in velocity (Initial vel. – Final velocity)

= ………… (Final velocity in the direction of jet is zero)

F=ρ

( )

Work done =

CASE-3: IMPACT OF JET ON AN INCLINED FIXED PLATE

Consider a jet of water striking on a fixed inclined plate at an angle θ,

We know that;

 Let a jet of water striking an inclined stationary flat plate with

velocity V;
 Therefore, mass of water striking per second =
 If the plate is smooth, and if it assumed that, there is no loss of energy due to impact of
jet, and then the jet will leave the plate after striking with velocity „V‟ equal to initial
velocity.
 Now, let us find out the force exerted by the jet in the direction normal to the plate. Let F n
be this force.
 If θ = Angle between the jet and plate, then,
Component of velocity of jet before striking in the direction normal to plate = V. sin θ.
 Also, velocity of jet in the direction normal to plate after striking = 0
 Therefore, Fn = ( )
=
 This force can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components i.e. along two
perpendicular directions, one in the direction of jet ( ) and other perpendicular to the
direction of jet ( .
Force in the direction of jet,

ρ θ

Force in the direction normal to the jet,

IMP CASE-4 IMPACT OF JET ON AN INCLINED PLATE MOVING IN THE
DIRECTION OF JET
Let, V= velocity of jet

u= velocity of plate

Velocity of jet relative to the plate = (V-u)

Mass of water striking the plate per second =

 If the plate is smooth, and if it assumed that, there is no loss of energy due to impact of
jet, and then the jet will leave the inclined plate after striking with velocity „(V-u)
 Let us find out the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction normal to the plate.
Let this force be Fn
 Component of velocity of jet before striking in
direction normal to the plate
=
 Velocity of jet after striking in direction normal to the
plate = 0
 Therefore, Fn= ( )

 Fn=

 This normal force Fn can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components, i.e.
along two perpendicular directions, one in the direction of jet (Fx) and other
perpendicular to the direction of jet (Fy).


 Also work done per second by the jet on the plate,
 W.D = in or or watts.
 CHAPTER5
Hydraulic Turbines
Explain the significance or function of draft tube in reaction turbine

Give the classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Differentiate between impulse and reaction turbine

CHAPTER 6

Centrifugal Pump

Q(1)State the functions of impeller and casing in centrifugal pump

Q(2)State the suction head and delivery head of centrifugal pump

Q(3)Differentiate between centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump

Q(4)State static head and manometric head of centrifugal pump

Q(5)Explain with neat sketch construction and working of centrifugal pump

Q(6)Explain the necessity of priming in centrifugal pump. Explain different methods of priming

What are multistage pumps? What are their advantages?

State the types of impeller used in centrifugal pump.state their uses.

What are the different types of casing used in centrifugal pump?

Explain with neat sketch working of Jet pump

Reciprocating Pump
Explain the working of single acting Reciprocating pump with a suitable diagram.
 Explain the working of Double acting Reciprocating pump with a suitable diagram.

17411
Define slip, percentage slip and negative slip of a Reciprocating pump

What is an Air vessel? List down its advantages

Show effect of acceleration and friction on ideal indicator diagram individually

AGNEL POLYTECHNIC, VASHI

Model Answer Winter -2018
Unit Test 1
Subject: Fluid Mechanics and Machinery
Q.No C. O. Questions Marks
Attempt the following.
Define Kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity of fluid and write its
standard value.
Dynamic Viscosity (µ):- (01 ½ Marks)
The dynamic (shear) viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing
flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different
speeds. The magnitude (F) of this force or resistance is found to be
proportional to the speed (u) and the area (A) of each plate, and inversely
1. proportional to their separation (y).
CO1 a 03
⁄
The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity (specifically, the
dynamic viscosity) of the fluid. The unit of dynamic viscosity is N-s/m2.

Kinematic viscosity (ν): (01 ½ Marks)

The kinematic viscosity (also called "momentum diffusivity") is the ratio of
the dynamic viscosity μ to the density of the fluid. It is usually denoted by
the Greek letter nu (ν).
 In MKS system and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity in m 2/sec while in CGS
units it is written as cm2/sec.
State the Bernoulli’s theorem and write the equation.
Bernoulli’s Equation:- (01 ½ Marks)
“For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the
total energy of a particle remains the same, while the particle moves from
one point to another." This statement is based on the assumption that
there are no losses due to friction in the pipe. (01 ½ Marks)

CO2 b 03
Where,

Z= Potential Energy
State the Darcy’s equation for frictional losses with meaning of each terms
used in it.
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some
resistance due to which some energy or head of the fluid is lost. This loss of
energy or head is classified as
i) Major loss
ii) Minor losses

Major loss can be calculated by using Darcy’s equation. (01 ½ Marks)

CO3 c Where 03
f - Darcy’s friction factor
L – Length of Pipe
V- Velocity of flow
d- Diameter of pipe
hf- Head loss due to friction (01 ½ Marks)

OR
Explain HGL and TEL.
Hydraulic Gradient Line:-
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and
datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference
 line. (01 Marks)
Total Energy Line (TEL):-
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head
and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference
line. (01 Marks)

Figure-1:- Representation of Hydraulic Gradiant Line and Total Energy Line

Attempt the following.

Define steady and unsteady flow with example.
2. CO2 a OR 04
Define laminar and turbulent flow with examples.
List the major and minor losses in flow through pipe.
CO3 b When the liquid is flowing through a pipe, the liquid experiences some 04
resistance due to which some of the energy of liquid is lost. There are two
 types of losses.
Major Losses In Pipes(Head lost due to Friction):-
1. Darcy’s Formula for Frictional Losses.
2. Chazy’s equation for frictional Losses. (02 Marks)
Minor losses in pipes (any FOUR)
-Loss of head due to sudden enlargement.
-Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
-Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe.
-Loss of head at the exit of a pipe.
-Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe.
-Loss of head due to bend in a pipe.
-Loss of head due to various pipe fitting. (02 Marks)
Attempt any two of the following.
Define Atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure, vacuum pressure, and
absolute pressure. (01 Marks Each)
Pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. One is absolute
zero or complete vacuum. This is called absolute pressure. The other is
pressure measured above the atmospheric pressure. It is called as gauge
pressure.
Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with reference to absolute zero
line.
Gauge pressure is measured above and with reference to atmospheric
pressure.
Vacuum pressure is the pressure measured below the atmospheric line.
3. Atmospheric pressure: - The pressure which is exerted due to the weight of air
above earth’s surface.
CO1 a 04
Standard value- 101.3 KN/ m2 and 760mm of Hg
Figure shows the relation between them….

Mathematically, the absolute pressure is given by…

Pabs = Patm ± Pgauge
Where +ve sign is for gauge pressure is above atmospheric line and –ve sign
is for pressure is below atmospheric line.
 Figure-2 :- Relationship between pressures.
A simple manometer is shown in fig. Calculate the pressure of water
flowing through pipe.

CO1 b 04

Given:-
S1=1
Sm=13.6
h1=50mm =0.05m
h2= 60mm = 0.06m
Find out:-
PB=? N/m2
Solution:-
a) Pressure on the left hand side of Manometer.
hB + S1 x h1 = 0
hB + 1 x 0.05 =0 --------------------------(1)
b) Pressure on the right hand side of Manometer.
Sm x h2 = 0
13.6 x 0.06 = 0 --------------------------(2) (01 Marks)
 ∴Equating pressure equation (1) and (2)

17411 hB + 1 x 0.05 = 13.6 x 0.06

hB = 13.6 x 0.06 -1 x 0.05
hB = 0.766 m of Water (02Marks)
PB = w x hB
PB = 9.81 x 1000 x0.766 (Weight Density H2O = 9.810 N/m3)
2
PB = 7514.46 N/m
PB = 7.51445 KN/m2 (01Marks)

Alternate Method
Pressure on L.H.S. of Manometer = Pressure on R.H.S. of Manometer
PB + ρ1 x g x h1 = ρm x g x h2 (01 Marks)
PB = ρm x g x h2 - ρ1 x g x h1 (01 Marks)
PB = (13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.06) – (1 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.05)
PB = (8004.96) – (490.5) (01 Marks)
PB = 7514.46 N/m2
PB = 7.51446 KN/m2 (01 Marks)
OR
Explain Surface tension and capillarity.
Surface Tension (σ):- Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting
on the surface of a liquid in contact with gas or on the surface between two
immiscible liquid such that the contact surface behaves like membrane
under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free
surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. In MKS
units, it is expressed as kgf/m while SI units as N/m. (02Marks)
Capillarity:-
Capillary is defined as phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface in a small
tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held
vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise
while the fall of liquid is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in
terms of cm or mm of liquid. (02Marks)

(MODEL ANSWER)

AGNEL POLYTECHNIC, VASHI

Unit Test 2
Course Code: - ME-4G (A&B) Subject Fluid Mechanics and
Machinery
 Time: 1 hour
Marks: 25

C.
Q.No Questions Marks
O.
A) Attempt any two of the following. 3x2=6
What is impact of jet? Write the formula for force exerted when plate is
fixed.
The liquid comes out in the form of jet from the outlet of a nozzle, which is fitted
to a pipe through which the liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate,
which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of jet, a force is exerted by
the jet on the plate. This force is obtained from Newton’s second law off
motion or from impulse-momentum equation. Thus impact of jet means
a force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be stationary or moving.
force exerted when plate is fixed(F) = mass flow rate change in velocity
(Initial vel. – Final velocity)
= ……………as u = 0 and

F ρ
in Newton

1. CO4 Find the force exerted by jet when it strikes on a flat inclined fixed plate.
Consider a jet of water striking on a fixed inclined plate at an angle θ,
We know that;
F
 Let a jet of water striking an
inclined stationary flat plate with
velocity V;
 Therefore, mass of water striking
per second =
b  Now, let us find out the force
exerted by the jet in the direction
normal to the plate. Let Fn be this
force.

 If θ = Angle between the jet and plate, then,

 Component of velocity of jet before striking in the direction normal to
plate = V. sin θ.
 Also, velocity of jet in the direction normal to plate after striking = 0
 Therefore, Fn = ( )

=
 This force can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components
i.e. along two perpendicular directions, one in the direction of jet ( ) and
other perpendicular to the direction of jet ( .
Force in the direction of jet,

ρ θ

Force in the direction normal to the jet,

A jet of water 95 mm diameter is moving with a velocity of 25 m/s, strikes a

stationary plate. Find the normal force on plate when plate is normal to jet.
Given data- d=95 mm=0.095m, V=25 m/s

Area of jet = = = 0.007084

F= 1000 0.007084

F= 4427.890 N

c
 B) Attempt the following 3x1=3
Define Slip and state the condition for negative Slip.
The actual discharge of pump is generally less than the theoretical discharge due
to leakage.

Negative Slip
If actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge, the slip of the pump
will become negative and the slip is called as negative slip. The reason for
negative slip to occur is short delivery pipe, higher rpm. of pump and long
suction pipe.
CO5 c

Or
Define i) Suction Head ii) Delivery Head iii) Manometric Head related to
Centrifugal pump.
i. Suction head (hs): It is the vertical height of the Centre line of centrifugal
pump above the water surface in the tank or sump from which water is to be
lifted.
ii. Delivery head (hd): The vertical distance between the Centre line of the
pump and water surface in the tank upto which water is to be delivered is known
as delivery head.

iii) Manometric head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head
against which the centrifugal pump has to work.

Attempt any two of the following. 4x2=8

Explain with neat sketch construction and working of Pelton wheel turbine.
2.
CO5 This turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. This turbine is used
a
when high head more than 300 m, is available in reservoir and
operates at low specific speed less than 60 rpm.
Working
In this turbine, water strikes the bucket (vanes) along the tangent of the runner.
The energy available at the inlet of turbine, is kinetic energy only, which rotates
the turbine and so electrical energy is produced. The pressure at inlet and outlet
of turbine is atmospheric. The kinetic energy is produced when water from
reservoir flows through the penstock and out through the nozzle. The nozzle
converts pressure into kinetic energy of water flowing through the penstock. To
stop rotation of turbine, the breaking jet which falls on the vanes of turbine in
reverse direction is used.
The main parts of Pelton wheel turbine are:
i. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement

The amount of water striking the bucket (vanes) of the runner, is controlled by
providing sphere in the nozzle as shown in figure.
 ii. Runner with bucket

A circular disk with number of buckets evenly spaced on its periphery

constitutes runner of Pelton wheel. The shape of the bucket is doubled
hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts by
a dividing wall which is known as splitter. The jet of water strikes on splitter.
The splitter divides jet into two equal parts and jet comes out at the
outer edge of the bucket. The buckets are made up of cast iron, cast steel, bronze
or stainless
steel.
iii. Casing: The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of water and to
discharge water to tail rate. It also acts as a safeguard against accidents. It is
made up of cast iron and fabricated steel plate. It doesn‟t perform any hydraulic
function.
iv. Breaking jet: Breaking jet falls on the back of the vane, to stop rotating
turbine. This jet of water is called breaking jet.
b Compare impulse turbine with reaction turbine.
 Draw neat labeled diagram of Hydraulic Power plant layout.

Attempt Any Two of the following.

CO6 a Draw a neat labeled diagram of centrifugal pump. 04
3.

Explain with neat sketch the construction and working of multistage

pump.
If the centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called
multistage centrifugal pump. The impeller may be mounted on same shaft or
different shafts.

b Multi staging is done for two purposes: 04

i. To produce a high head i.e. pressure
ii. To discharge large quantity of liquid.
The high head is generated by connecting centrifugal pump in series.
While to get high discharge pumps are connected in parallel.
i. Multistage centrifugal pump to get high head (series arrangement)
 where, n: number of impellers / pump
Hm: head developed by each impeller or pump

To get high head the impellers can be mounted on the same shaft or output of
one pump is connected to second pump and second pump is to third pump and so
on.

ii. Multistage centrifugal pump for high discharge (Parallel arrangement):

Total discharge = Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ......+ Qn

In parallel arrangement, to get high discharge, all the pumps output is connected
to the common discharge line, i.e., pipe.

Explain any two types of impellers with neat sketch.

Impeller
c The rotating part of centrifugal pump is called as impeller. It consists of series of 04
backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on shaft which is connected to
the shaft of an electric motor with the help of coupling. There are three types of
impellers.
 a. Closed type impeller: In this impeller the vanes or blades are inserted in the
closed walls from both sides. It provides better guidance for liquid and has
higher efficiency. Uses: Used when the liquid is clean and free from
impurities and debris.

b. Semi-closed impeller: The vanes or blades are closed from only one side by
the wall of the material. Uses: It is used for pumping water or liquid containing
debris and impurities to some extent such as sewage water, machine tool
lubricants, paper pulp etc.

c. Open impeller: In this type the vanes are open from all the sides.
Uses: This is used for pumping liquid having debris or impurities of large size
such as mixture of water, sand, clay etc.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR FMM

FOR PASSING AND SCORING
Q1. Explain the construction and working of Pelton wheel turbine. (8 Marks)

Q2. Explain the construction and working of Francis turbine. (8 Marks)

Q3. Explain the construction and working of Kaplan turbine. (8 Marks)

Q4. Explain the function and different types of Draft tube. (8 Marks)

Q5. Differentiate between Impulse and Reaction Turbine. (8 Marks)

Q6. Explain the working of centrifugal pump with neat labeled sketch. (8 Marks)
Q7. Explain the different types of impellers and casing used in centrifugal pump. (8 Marks)

Q8. Define priming state its necessity. (2 Marks)

Q9. Define Slip and state the condition for negative slip? (4Marks)

Q10. Define the different head related to the Centrifugal pump. (4Marks)

Q11. Define Cavitation and state its effects. (4Marks)

Q12. Define the Specific Speed of Pump OR Specific speed of Turbine. (2 Marks)

Q13. Define NPSH. (2 Marks)

Q14. Differentiate between Centrifugal pump and Reciprocating Pump. (8Marks)

Q15. Explain Single acting or Double acting reciprocating pump. (4Marks)

Q. Explain the effect of Acceleration and Friction on Indicator diagram. (8 Marks)

Q16. Explain the effect of Acceleration on Indicator diagram. (4Marks)

Q17. Explain Jet pump.(4 Marks)

Q18. Explain Air Vessel and state its function.(4Marks)

Q19. Explain multi stage pump.(8 Marks)

Q20. Explain Hydraulic gradient and Total Energy Line. (HGL and TEL). (4Marks)

Q21. Define surface tension and capillarity. (4 marks)

Q22. Define Atmospheric pressure, Gauge pressure, Vacuum pressure, Absolute pressure and
show there relation with diagram. (4 Marks)

Q23. Define Different types of flow with examples. (4 marks)

Q24. State Darcy‟s equation and Chezy‟s equation and state the meaning of each term. (4 marks)

Q25. State the law of fluid friction for laminar and turbulent flow. (4 marks)

Q26. Define Kinematic viscosity and Dynamic viscosity with unit. (2 marks)

Q27. Define Centre of pressure and Total Pressure. (2 marks)

Q28. Explain the different types of Minor losses in pipes. (8 Marks)

Q29. State the Bernoulli‟s theorem with meaning of each term. (4 marks)

Q30. State continuity equation. (2 marks)

Q31. Define impact of Jet. (2 marks)

ALONG WITH ABOVE QUESTIONS JUST SOLVE THE NUMERICAL ON TOTAL

PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE FOR CIRCULAR PLATE AND ISOSCELES
TRIANGLE. (8 marks)

TWO NUMERICALS ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TO FIND WORK DONE AND

EFFICIENCY AND DISCHARGE. (4 marks)
ONE NUMERICAL ON POWER TRANSMISSION. (4 marks)
NUMERICAL ON FIRST FOUR CASES OF IMPACT OF JET. (8 Marks)