ME -MODULE- 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

MODULE – 1 4. Specific Gravity (S)

FLUID It is the density of the substance divided by the density of

another substance which is used as standard.
 A fluid is a substance that has the capacity to
flow. Specific Gravity (S) for liquids = Density of liquid
Density of water
 A fluid is defined as a substance which deform
continuously when subjected to shear force. Specific Gravity (S) for gases = Density of gas
Density of air
 A fluid can be either a Liquid or a Gas.
• Gases are compressible 5. Viscosity or Dynamic viscosity
It is the property of the fluid which offers resistance to
• Liquids are treated as incompressible movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent
Properties of Fluids layer of fluid.
 Kinematic viscosity
1. Mass Density or Density
It is the ratio between dynamic viscosity and
2. Specific Weight
density of the fluid.
3. Specific Volume
Kinematic viscosity = Dynamic viscosity
4. Specific Gravity Density
5. Viscosity 6. Compressibility
6. Compressibility
It is the ability of the fluid to change its volume under
7. Cohesion & Adhesion
pressure.
8. Surface Tension
9. Capillarity Compressibility = 1/ Bulk modulus (K)
1. Mass Density or Specific Mass or Density (ρ) 7. Cohesion & Adhesion

The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. It is The property of a liquid due to which
denoted by the symbol ρ (rho). molecules of the same kind are
attracted to each other is known as
Density (ρ) = Mass
Volume Cohesion.

The property of a liquid due to which

Density (ρ) = M / V molecules are attracted by the
Its unit is Kg/m3 molecules of other liquid or by the
Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3 molecules of a solid is known as
Adhesion.
2. Specific Weight or Weight Density (w)
8. Surface Tension
It is the weight per unit volume of fluid.
The tension of the surface film of a
Specific Weight (w) = Weight liquid caused by the attraction of
Volume
the particles in the surface layer by
Specific Weight (w) = W/V the bulk of the liquid, which tends
to minimize surface area it is known
=Mg/V as Surface tension. It is expressed in
Specific Weight (w) = ρ g force per unit length.

Its unit is N/m3 S.I unit is N / m.

Specific Weight of water = 9810 N/m3 9. Capillarity

3. Specific Volume (v)  It is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a

liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
It is the volume of fluid occupied by unit mass.
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is
Specific volume (v) = Volume held vertically in the liquid.
Mass
 The term used is capillary rise or capillary fall. Its
Specific volume (v) = V / M = 1 / ρ value depends upon specific weight of the liquid,
diameter of the tube and surface tension of the
Its unit is m3/Kg liquid.

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ME -MODULE- 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

 In Water cohesion between liquid particles is less

than their adhesion with the glass tube.
 In Mercury cohesive force between mercury
molecules are greater than adhesive forces
between mercury and glass.
Sample Problems...

Fluid Pressure
The pressure at a point of a fluid is the normal compressive
force per unit area at a point.
Pressure (P) = F/A Absolute pressure: It is pressure equal to algebraic sum of
atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.
Unit is N/m² or Pasca
1 kN/m2 or kpa = 103 N/m2 P abs = p atm + p gauge (Positive pressure)
P abs = p atm - p vacuum (Negative pressure)
1 M /m2 or Mpa = 106 N/m2
1 GN /m2 or Gpa = 109 N/m2 Gauge pressure: This pressure is always above that of
atmospheric pressure. It is the pressure which is measured
1 bar = 105 N/m2 with the help of a pressure measuring instrument.
1 MN / m2 or Mpa = 1N/mm2 Vacuum pressure:
Intensity of pressure It is the pressure below the atmospheric pressure. It is
Intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid is proportional measured by a Vacuum gauge with atmospheric pressure
to its depth from the free surface of the liquid. as datum. It is also called negative pressure
Sample Problems...
Intensity of pressure (P) = ρgh
ρ = density of liquid Measurement of fluid pressure

h = pressure head The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following

gauges.
g = acceleration due o gravity
1. Mechanical Gauges 2. Manometers
Sample Problems of fluid pressure...
Manometers: - Manometers are defined as the devices
PASCAL’S LAW used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
It states that, in a fluid at rest in a closed container, balancing the column of fluid by the same or another
a pressure change in one part is transmitted without loss column of the fluid.
to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the They are classified as,
container.
(a) Simple manometer (b) Differential manometers
Eg: hydraulic jack; hydraulic lift; etc.
Simple manometer: - A simple manometer consists of a
Measurement of Pressure glass tube having one of its end is connected to a point
Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure, also known where pressure is to be measured and other end remains
as barometric pressure, is the pressure excreted by the open to atmosphere.
envelop of air on the Earth surface. a) Piezometer
Standard atmospheric pressure (at sea level) = 101.325 b) U-tube Manometer.
kN/m2 (i.e. 10.33 m of water = 760 mm of Hg) c) Single column manometer.

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ME -MODULE- 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

Piezometer Let,

It is the simplest form of • PA = pressure of liquid in the pipe at the centre

manometer used for measuring • h1 = height of liquid in the left limb.
moderate gauge pressure. One
end of the piezometer is • h2= height of heavy liquid in the right limb.
connected to the point where • S1 = specific gravity of liquid in the pipe.
pressure is to be measured and
• S2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid in the
other end is open to the
manometer.
atmosphere. The rise ‘h’ of
liquid column in the tube gives • ρ1 = density of light liquid in the pipe
the pressure head at that point.
• ρ2 = density of of heavy liquid in the manometer.
Intensity of pressure at point A = ρ.g.h
Pressure in left limb above datum line = Pressure in right
2
Unit is N/m limb above datum line
Limitations of Piezometer tube PA + ρ1g.h1 = ρ2.g.h2
 It can’t be used for measure high pressure which PA = ρ2.g.h2 - ρ1.g.h1
normally requires very long glass tube.
U-Tube Manometer for Negative Gauge Pressure
 Since one end of the tube is open to atmosphere,
it can’t be used for measuring negative or vacuum
pressure.

U – Tube Manometer
It consists of a glass tube bend
in U shape. One end is
connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured &
other end is open to
atmosphere. The liquid used in
the U tube is generally mercury
or any other liquid whose
specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the
liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
Let,
U-Tube Manometer for Positive Gauge Pressure • PA = pressure of liquid in the pipe at the centre
The high pressure of the liquid in the pipe will force the • h1 = height of liquid in the left limb.
heavy liquid in the tube. The downward movement of
heavy liquid in the left limb causes a corresponding rise in • h2= height of heavy liquid in the right limb.
the right limb. The line of separation between the light • S1 = specific gravity of liquid in the pipe.
liquid in the pipe & heavy liquid in the limb is called datum
• S2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid in the
line.
manometer.
• ρ1 = density of light liquid in the pipe
• ρ2 = density of of heavy liquid in the manometer.
Pressure in left limb above datum line = Pressure in right
limb above datum line
PA + ρ1.g.h1 + ρ2.g.h2 = 0

PA = - (ρ1.g.h1 + ρ2.g.h2)

Sample Problems of simple U tube manometers...

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ME -MODULE- 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

Differential Manometer:- It is used to estimate the pressure difference between two

points in the same pipe or in different pipe.
 Differential U-Tube manometer is used to
measure the difference in pressure between two  The manometric fluid is lighter than the working
points in a pipe or in two different pipes carrying fluid in pipe or pipes.
different liquids.  Inverted U-tube manometers are employed for
more accurate measurement of small pressure
 In this arrangement of manometer we connect
difference between two points.
the two ends with different liquids whose
pressure we want to measure. Let;
ρ1 = Density of Liquid A
ρ2= Density of Liquid B
ρm= Density of Manometric Liquid (Light liquid)
h1 = Height of liquid in the left limb h2 = Height of liquid in
the right limb above the heavy liquid.
h = Difference of light liquid.
Equating the pressures at ZZ in the both limbs,
Pressure in left limb below Z-Z = Pressure in right limb
below Z-Z
PA - ρ1.g.h1 = PB – ρm .g.h - ρ2.g.h2
Assume Pressure at a is greater than pressure at B, PA > PB
Let;
PA - PB = ρ1.g.h1 - ρm.g.h - ρ2.g.h2
ρ1 = Density of Liquid A
ρ2= Density of Liquid B
Sample Problems of inverted U tube manometers...
ρm= Density of Manometric Liquid
h1 = Height of liquid in the left limb above datum Z-Z.
h2 = Height of liquid in the right limb above the heavy TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
liquid. 1. Steady & unsteady flow
h3 = Difference in levels of heavy liquid in the left and right 2. Uniform & non uniform flow
limbs. 3. Laminar & turbulent flow
Equating the pressures at ZZ in the both limbs, 4. Compressible & incompressible flow
5. Rotational & Irrotational flow
Pressure in left limb at Z-Z = Pressure in right limb at Z-Z
6. One, Two & Three dimensional flow
PA + ρ1.g.h1 = ρm.g.h3 + ρ2.g.h2 + PB
Assume Pressure at a is greater than pressure at B, PA > PB 1. Steady & unsteady flow
 In steady flow the fluid characteristics like
PA - PB = ρm.g.h3 + ρ2.g.h2 – ρ1.g.h1
velocity, density, pressure etc at a point do not
Sample problems of U tube differential manometers… change with respect to time.

Inverted U-Tube Manometer

Mathematically;
dv/dt = 0; dρ/dt = 0; dp/dt = 0

In unsteady flow the fluid characteristics like velocity,

density, pressure etc at a point changes with respect to
time.
Mathematically;
dv/dt ≠ 0; dρ/dt ≠ 0; dp/dt ≠ 0

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ME -MODULE- 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

2. Uniform & non uniform flow Reynolds number > 4000; it is Turbulent flow
 In Uniform flow the fluid characteristics like
Reynolds number < 2300; it is Laminar flow
velocity, pressure, density etc. at a given instant
remain the same at all points. Reynolds number in between 2300 & 4000 is called
transition region in which the laminar flow changes to
turbulent flow.
4. Compressible & incompressible flow
 A fluid in which the density of fluid changes from
point to point is called compressible flow.

Mathematically;  A fluid in which the density of fluid is constant

during the flow is called compressible flow.
(dv/ds) t=const = 0; (dp/ds) t=const = 0; (dρ/ds) t=const = 0
All liquids are generally considered as incompressible.
 In non uniform flow the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure, density etc. have different 5. Rotational & Irrotational flow
values at different points at a given instant of  Rotational flow is a type of flow In which liquid
time. partials while flowing along a stream line also
rotate about their own axis.

 If liquid partials while flowing along a stream line

and do not rotate about their own axis is called
irrotational flow.
6. One, Two & Three dimensional flow

Mathematically;  A flow in which the stream lines of its moving

particles may be represented by a straight line is
(dv/ds) t=const ≠ 0; (dp/ds) t=const ≠ 0; (dρ/ds) t=const ≠0 called one dimensional flow.
3. Laminar & turbulent flow V = f(x) steady one dimensional flow.
 Laminar flow the fluid particles move in layers,
gliding smoothly over the adjacent layers. V = f(x,t) unsteady one dimensional flow.

The fluid particles in any layer move along a well defined  A flow in which the flow path may be represented
path (Stream line) and all the stream lines are straight & by a curve is called a two dimensional flow.
parallel. V = f(x , y) steady two dimensional flow.
The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to V = f(x , y , t) unsteady two dimensional flow.
turbulent flow is known as critical velocity.
 A flow in which the flow path may be represented
by three mutually perpendicular directions is
called a three dimensional flow.
V = f(x , y, z) steady three dimensional flow.
V = f(x , y , z , t) unsteady three dimensional flow.

 Turbulent flow occurs in nature. This flow is

characterized by random, unpredictable, zig-zag
motion of fluid particles which results in eddies
formation which are responsible for high energy
loss.

Jithesh NP
HOD in Mechanical Engineering
Ma’din Polytechnic College
Malappuram