Cell Cycle and Cell Division

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Edustudy point
Cell division: Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells.

• All cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving
rise to two daughter cells each time they divide.

• The cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a

structure consisting of millions of cells. Fig. Cell division

Cell cycle: The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises the other
constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.

Phases of cell cycle: The duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism. For example- typical
eukaryotic cells divide once in approximately every 24 hours, whereas yeast cell divides only in 90 minutes.

The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:

1) M Phase (Mitosis phase): The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis
occurs.

• The M Phase starts with the nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of daughter
chromosomes known as karyokinesis and usually ends with division of cytoplasm known
as cytokinesis.

2) Interphase: the interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases.

• The interphase, though called the resting phase, is the time during which the cell is preparing for
division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.

• The interphase is divided into three further phases:

I. G1 phase (Gap 1): G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA
replication, where the cell is metabolically active
and continuously grows but does not replicate its
DNA.

II. S phase (Synthesis): During S or synthesis phase,

the amount of DNA per cell doubles, but there is no
increase in the chromosome number.

o In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA

replication begins in the nucleus, and the
centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm.
Fig. Phases of cell
cycle
III. G2 phase (Gap 2): During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while
cell growth continues.

o The cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage
called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
 • In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells and the plants can show
mitotic divisions in both haploid and diploid cells.

M phase
Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational
division.

• Mitosis is divided into the following four stages:

1) Prophase: Prophase is the first stage of mitosis, which follows the S and G2 phases of interphase.

• The centriole moves towards opposite poles of the cell.

• Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic

chromosomes.

• Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached

together at the centromere.

• Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules, the

proteinaceous components of the cell cytoplasm help in the process.

Fig. Prophase

cycle

2) Metaphase: Metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are held together
by the centromere.

• Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the

centromeres are called kinetochores, where spindle fibres
attach.

• Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned

along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.

• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is

referred to as the metaphase plate. Fig. Metaphase

cycle

3) Anaphase: At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate is split
simultaneously and the two daughter chromatids begin their
migration towards the two opposite poles.

• The centromere of each chromosome is towards the pole with

the arms of the chromosome trailing behind.

Fig. Anaphase
cycle
 4) Telophase: Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles, decondense, and lose their individuality.

• Nuclear envelope assembles around the chromosome clusters.

• Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.

Cytokinesis: Cells divide itself into two daughter cells.

• In animal cells, a furrow develops in the plasma membrane,
which gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing
the cell cytoplasm into two.

• In plant cells, wall formation starts in the centre of the cell.

• The formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation
of a simple precursor, called the cell-plate that represents the
middle lamella between the walls of two adjacent cells.

• In some organisms, karyokinesis is not followed by

cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleate condition arises
Fig. Telophase and cytokinesis leading to the formation of syncytium. Example- liquid endosperm in
coconut.

Significance of mitosis: Mitosis results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical
genetic complement usually.

• Cell divides by mitosis to restore the nucleo-

cytoplasmic ratio.

• Helps in cell repair.

• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues

result in a continuous growth of plants
throughout their life.

Meiosis
Meiosis I
➢ Prophase I: It has been further subdivided into five phases.
1. Leptotene: In leptotene stage, the chromosomes condense and become visible.

2. Zygotene: In zygotene, chromosomes start pairing together to form homologous chromosomes by

the process of association called synapsis, which is accompanied by the formation of a complex
structure called synaptonemal complex and the complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous
chromosomes called a bivalent or a tetrad.
 3. Pachytene: In pachytene, exchange of genetic
material between two homologous chromosomes
known as crossing over takes place between non-
sister chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes.

4. Diplotene: Diplotene stage is characterized by the

dissolution of the synaptonemal complex, and X-
shaped structures called chiasmata form by the
tendency of the recombined homologous
chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each other except at Fig. Prophase I
the sites of crossovers.

5. Diakinesis: In diakinesis, the chromosomes are fully condensed and the meiotic spindle is assembled
to prepare the homologous chromosomes for separation and by the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus
disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks down.

➢ Metaphase I: The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.

• The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair
of homologous chromosomes.

➢ Anaphase I: The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids

remain associated at their centromeres.

➢ Telophase I: The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows and this is called
as diad of cells.

• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis, which
is followed by prophase II.

Meiosis II
➢ Prophase II: In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal mitosis.

• The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II and the chromosomes again become
compact.

➢ Metaphase II: The chromosomes align at the equator and the microtubules from opposite poles of the
spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
➢ Anaphase II: The centromere of each chromosome splits, allowing them to move toward opposite poles
of the cell.

➢ Telophase II: The two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.

• Cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells i.e., four haploid daughter cells.

Fig. Meiosis II

Significance of meiosis: Specific chromosome number of each species is achieved across generations
in sexually reproducing organisms by meiosis.

• It also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms.

• It results in reduction of chromosome number by half.

KHATAM