UNIT-IV DESIGN OF PCB

Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

Definition - What does Printed Circuit Board (PCB) mean?
A printed circuit board (PCB) is an electronic circuit used in devices to provide mechanical support
and a pathway to its electronic components. PCB is also known as printed wiring board (PWB) or
etched wiring board (EWB).
The circuits are produced by a slight layer of conducting material deposited on the outside of an
insulating board called as the substrate.Separate components are located on the surface of the
substrate & soldered to the connected circuits.
A PCB can hold various electronic components that may be soldered without using visible wires,
which facilitates its use.
PCBs are found in nearly every electronic and computing device, including motherboards, network
cards and graphics cards to internal circuitry found in hard/CD-ROM drives.
The construction of the PCB can be done in three ways, namely single sided, double sided and multi
layered.The components on a PCB are connected electrically to the circuits by two different methods
such as hole technology and surface mount. In hole technology, every component consists of thin
leads, which are pressed through tiny holes in the substrate & soldered to connection boards in the
circuits on the reverse side. A solder paste includes a glue, solder and flux are applied at the contact
point to grip the components in position until the solder is liquefied.

History of PCB
Before printed circuits became the common component used in electronics, point to point
construction was used. This meant some extremely bulky and unreliable designs that required large
sockets and regular replacement. Most of these issues were directly addressed when PCBs went into
regular production.
1920s – The early PCB material could be almost anything, from Bakelite and Masonite to plain old
thin pieces of wood. Holes could be drilled into the material and flat brass wires would be riveted
onto it. It may not have been pretty, but the concept was there, and it worked. It was often used in
radios and gramophones at the time.
1947 – First double sided PCB’s with plated through holes produced.
1950s – 60s – The types of materials used for the board was shifting to different resins and other
materials, but they could still only be printed on a single side. The wiring would be printed on one
side and the electrical components would be on the other. Still, it was a much more efficient option
than bulky wiring, so it was starting to see a wider adoption.
One of the biggest steps forward came in 1956 when the U.S. Patent Office granted a patent to a
small group of scientists representing the U.S. Army for the “Process of Assembling Electrical
Circuits.” At the time, the process involved drawing the wiring pattern and then photographing it onto
a zinc plate. This plate could then be used to create a printing plate for an offset printing press. This is
what was used to print the wire in acid resistant ink on the copper foil, which could then be etched by
an acid solution.
1957 – IPC (The Institute of Printed Circuits) formed and hold first meeting in Chicago IL.
1960 – Multilayer (4+ layer count) PCB’s begin production.
1960s -70’s – Boards were designed using 4:1, red-and-blue line vellum method for hand-taping
components and tracks. A precision camera then produced the 1:1 negative manufacturing film. An
experienced designer could layout and tape a board at the rate of about two hours for each equivalent
14-pin IC on the board.
1970s – The circuitry and overall size of the boards were starting to get a lot smaller by the 70s, and
hot air soldering methods began to be used. This is also when the Japanese developers began to create
screen processes that used various aqueous developed LPIs (liquid photo imageable masks). This
became the industry standard over the years.
Gerber Scientific introduces RS-274-D as a machine-based format for vector photo plotters.
1980s – Surface mount parts became the preferred option over through-hole components, which led
to further size reductions while maintaining the same level of functionality.
1986 – RS-274X released as an enhancement to RS-274-D data format. New version supports
embedded aperture information relieving the need for external aperture definition files.
1992 – Valor Computerized Systems founded introducing Genesis 2000 software for PCB CAM and
DFM.
1990s– While the complexity of modern circuit boards continues to go up, the size of the boards and
costs of materials has generally been able to go down. Once developers were able to start using multi-
layer circuit boards they were able to minimize the size and incorporate combinations of rigid and
flexible PCBs in a range of devices. Going forward, new developments will continue to produce more
efficient circuits that can effectively meet the needs of rapidly growing technology.
1995 -US PCB production reaches $7.1 billion, topping $7 billion for first time.
1995 – Use of micro-via technology in PCB production starts, ushering in the era of HDI (High
Density Interconnect) PCB’s.
1997 – Valor Computerized Systems releases ODB ++ printed circuit board manufacturing data
format into public domain.
2000- US PCB fabrication market peaks at more than $10 billion.
2000s – PCB Real Estate becomes even tighter with 5-6mil trace & space becoming commonplace.
Hi-tech shops fabricating boards with 3.5 to 4.5mil trace & space in production quantities. Flex and
Rigid–Flex PCBs become an affordable option and widely used.
2010s – ELIC (Every Layer Interconnect) production begins.
Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards
PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are located,they are
specially designed for each and every circuit and build construction very easy. Though, making the
PCB necessitates special tools. The different types of printed circuit boards mainly include the
following
 Single Sided PCBs
 Double Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs
Single Sided PCBs

This single sided printed circuit board includes just one layer of base material or substrate. One end
of the substrate is coated with a thin layer of metal, usually copper because it is a good electrical
conductor. Generally, a protecting solder mask be seated on the peak of the copper layer, and a last
silkscreen coat may be applied to the top to mark elements of the board.

fig. Single
Sided PCBs
This PCB consists of various circuits and electronic components on the only single side. This kind of
module works most excellent for easy electronics, and beginners often design and build this type of
board first. These boards tend to cost less to mass-produce than other types of boards. But although
this low cost, they’re used rarely because of their intrinsic design limitations.

Double Sided PCBs

This type of PCBs is much more familiar than single-sided boards. Both sides of the board’s substrate
include metal conductive layers, and elements attach to both sides as well. Holes in the PCB let
circuits on a single side to attach to circuits on the other side.
 Fig. Double Sided PCBs
These kind of circuit boards used to connect the circuits on every side using one of two techniques:
through-hole & surface mount technology. Through-hole technology engages feeding small wires,
called as leads through the holes & soldering every end to the suitable component.
Surface mount technology is different from through-hole technology, it does not utilize wires. In its
place, many little leads get soldered straight onto the board. Surface mount technology permits many
circuits to be complete in a lesser space on a board, meaning the board can execute more functions,
typically at a lesser weight and at faster speeds than through-hole boards let.
Multilayer PCBs

These PCBs further enlarges the density and complexity of PCB designs by adding extra layers
beyond the top & bottom layers seen in a configuration of double sided. With the accessibility of over
many layers in multilayer printed circuit board configurations, multilayer PCBs let designers to make
very thick and highly compound designs.

Fig. Multilayer PCBs

The extra layers used in this design are power planes, which both provide the supply to the circuit
with power and also decrease the levels of electromagnetic interference which are emitted by designs.
Lower EMI levels are attained by placing signal levels in the middle of power planes.
Rigid PCBs
In addition to having different numbers of layers & sides, Printed circuit boards can also come in
changing inflexibilities. Most customers usually think of inflexible PCBs when they image a circuit
board. Rigid printed circuit boards use a solid, rigid substrate material like fiberglass that remains the
board from twisting. A motherboard within the tower of a computer is the best example of an
inflexible PCB.

Fig. Rigid PCBs

Flex PCBs
Generally, the substrate in a flexible board is a flexible plastic. This fundamental material permits the
board to fit into forms that inflexible boards cannot & to turn or shift during use without harmful the
circuits on the printed circuit board. Though flex boards tend to charge more to intend and create than
rigid PCBs, they come with a number of advantages. For instance, they can restore heavy or bulky
wiring in superior gear like satellites, where weight & space matter. Flex boards can also come in
three formats, namely single sided, double-sided or multilayer formats.

Fig. Flex PCBs

Rigid-Flex PCBs
Rigid flex boards merge technology from both flexible and rigid circuit boards. An easy rigid-flex
boards comprises of a rigid circuit board that joints to a flex circuit board. These boards can be more
compound if design requests demand.
 Fig. Rigid-Flex PCBs
Thus, this is all about different types of printed circuit boards, which includes Sided PCBs, Double
Sided PCBs, Multilayer PCBs, Rigid PCBs, Flex PCBs, Rigid-Flex PCBs, etc. We hope that you have
got a better understanding of this concept Single. We hope that you have got a better understanding of
this concept or to implement bread board projects, please give your valuable suggestions by
commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you, what are the software’s are
available for PCB design?

Common applications and uses for PCBs

Because so many different sectors use PCBs, you can find them almost everywhere in everything
from small consumer devices to huge pieces of machinery. Here are 10 of the most common PCB
applications by industry.
I. Medical Devices
The healthcare sector is using growing numbers of PCBs as technologies advance, revealing new
capabilities. PCBs play a role in devices used for diagnostics, monitoring, treatment and more.
II. LEDs
Light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, are an increasingly popular lighting technology used for residential
and commercial lighting and across numerous industries including the automotive, medical and
computer technology sectors. LEDs are favored for their energy efficiency, long life and
compactness.
III. Consumer Electronics
Smartphone, computers and the many other consumer products that people use daily require PCBs to
function. As we add electronics to more of our products, PCBs become a bigger part of our daily
lives.
III. Industrial Equipment
Printed circuit board uses in the industrial sector vary widely. Electronic components power much of
the equipment in manufacturing and distribution centers as well as other types of industrial facilities.
IV. Automotive Components
Automotive manufacturers are using growing numbers of electronic components in their vehicles. In
earlier times, PCBs were only used for things like windshield wipers and headlight switches, but
today they enable many advanced features that make driving safer and easier.
V. Aerospace Components
The electronics used in aerospace applications have similar requirements to those used in the
automotive sector, but aerospace PCBs may be exposed to even harsher conditions. PCBs may be
used in a variety of aerospace equipment including planes, space shuttles, satellites and radio
communications systems.
VI. Maritime Applications
All sorts of marine vessels and systems rely on PCBs to function. This includes small vessels, large
cargo ships, submarines, communications systems and navigation equipment.
VII. Safety and Security Equipment
Many aspects of security systems, whether for homes, businesses or government buildings, rely on
PCBs. They play a role in our safety and security more often than many people realize.

VIII. Telecommunications Equipment

PCBs are a critical part of the telecommunications industry. They're necessary for consumer devices
such as Smartphone but also for the infrastructure that enables those devices to work.
IX. Military and Defense Applications
The military uses PCBs for a wide range of applications, including communications equipment,
computers, vehicles, firearms and more.
BASIC PCB DESIGN RULES YOU SHOULD KNOW.
Board Size and thickness
PCB manufacturer needs to set a maximum size for all the PCB boards. As well as their panel size
limit. In order to save more space and reduce the costs in mass production, people always use more
boardsonasinglepanel.Board thickness also need to be specified. A standard thickness and type of
board is FR4 .062″ and .010″, .020″, .031″, and .092″.
Width and Spacing
The parameters are always specified as “x/y rules” where x is for the minimum of trace width and y is
for the minimum trace spacing. As an instance, “8/10 rules” would indicate 8 mil minimum trace
width and 10 mil for the minimum trace spacing. There is a requirement on the minimum spacing
between traces and minimum width of trace when producing a PCB. There is some chance trace will
open if a trace is made smaller than this minimum width when manufactured. There is also some
chance they will short if two traces are closer together than the minimum spacing when
manufactured.
In the modern process, the rules of x/y is 8/8, but the small values as 2/2 is also available. Those
beginner developers can use 12/12 rules, and larger value can make work consistently. Nevertheless,
please remember that the board must be soldered and a trace within 8 mils as 8/8 rules. A pad is easier
to short, use one with greater spacing when hand soldered instead. Like 10/10 rules is much easier to
solder if you have such spacing in your designed board.
PCB Thickness
The 63 mil PCB thickness appears often as the thickness specification for PCBs. The question often
asked is why is this thickness specified and is it an industry standard? This is one of those topics that
warrants looking at the history of PCBs as they have evolved from simple single-sided boards to
dozens of layers. After this review it will be seen that this is one of those specifications not unlike the
often-told story of how American railroad rails came to be 4’ 8.5” apart.
The variety of laminate thickness options offered to our customers are range from 0.008 inches to
0.240 inches and they include 0.2 mm (0.0079 inch), 0.4 mm (0.016 inch), 0.5 mm (0.020 inch), 0.6
mm (0.024 inch), 0.8 mm (0.032 inch), 1.0 mm (0.04 inch), 1.2 mm (0.047 inch), 1.5 mm (0.062
inch), 1.6 mm (0.063 inch), 2.0 mm (0.079 inch), 2.3 mm (0.091 inch), etc.

The manufacturers process four-layer PCB boards with final thickness of 0.020″, 0.031″, 0.040″,
0.047″, 0.062″, 0.093″ and 0.125″. Six-layer boards are produced in thickness of 0.031″, 0.040″,
0.047″, 0.062″, 0.093″ and 0.125″ with the same inner layer foil options. Both eight- and ten-layer
boards are available in finished thickness of 0.062″, 0.093″ and 0.125″.
How Many Layers are Best?
Depending on the complexity of the overall circuitry being designed, a designer must decide how many layers
the PCB should be.
Single-Sided
Very simple consumer electronics are sometimes fabricated on single-sided PCBs, keeping the raw
board material inexpensive (FR–1 or FR–2) with thin copper cladding. These designs frequently
include many jumper wires, simulating the circuit routing on a double- sided board. This technique is
only recommended for low-frequency circuitry. For reasons described below, this type of design is
extremely susceptible to radiated noise. It is harder to design a board of this type, because of the
many things can go wrong. Many complex designs have been successfully implemented with this
technique, but they require a lot of forethought.
If a single-sided PCB is a requirement, remember the trace resistance! The op amp is not a 3-terminal
device (inverting input, noninverting input, and output). It is a 7-terminal device as shown in Figure
below

Fig. Op Amp Terminal Model

Resistance in the power leads of the device must be taken into account, as well as resistance between
the return for the inputs and the load. Both the input and load must return somewhere. If these are at
different potentials due to trace resistance, there can be problems.

Double-Sided
The next level of complexity is double-sided. Although there are some double-sided FR–2 boards,
they are more commonly fabricated with FR–4 material. The increased strength of FR–4 material
supports vias better. Doubled-sided boards are easier to route because there are two layers of foil, and
it is possible to route signals by crossing traces on different layers. Crossing traces, however, is not
recommended for analog circuitry. Wherever possible, the bottom layer should be devoted to a
ground plane, and all other signals routed on the top layer. A ground plane provides several benefits:
 Ground is frequently the most common connection in the circuit. Having it continuous on the
bottom layer usually makes the most sense for circuit routing.
 It increases mechanical strength of the board.
 It lowers the impedance of all ground connections in the circuit, which reduces undesirable
conducted noise.
 It adds a distributed capacitance to every net in the circuit — helping to suppress radiated
noise.
 It acts a shield to radiated noise coming from underneath the board.
Multi-Layer
Double-sided boards, in spite of their benefits, are not the best method of construction, especially for
sensitive or high-speed designs. The most common board thickness is 1.5 mm. This separation is too
great for full realization of some of the benefits listed above. Distributed capacitance, for example, is
very low due to the separation.
Critical designs call for multi-layer boards. Some of the reasons are obvious:
 Better routing for power as well as ground connections. If the power is also on a plane, it is
available to all points in the circuit simply by adding vias.
 Other layers are available for signal routing, making routing easier.

 There will be distributed capacitance between the power and ground planes, reducing high
frequency noise.
There are other reasons for multi-layer boards, however, that may not be obvious or intuitive.
Better EMI/RFI rejection. There is due to the image plane effect, which has been known since
the time of Marconi. When a conductor is placed close to a parallel conductive surface, most
of the high frequency currents will return directly under the conductor, flowing in the opposite
direction. This mirror image of the conductor within the plane creates a transmission line.
Since currents are equal and opposite in the transmission line, it is relatively immune to
radiated noise. It also couples the signal very efficiently. The image plane effect works equally
well with ground and power planes, but they must be continuous. Any gap or discontinuity
causes the beneficial effects to quickly vanish. There is more on this in the following
paragraphs.
  Reduced overall project cost for small production runs. Although multi-layer boards are more
expensive to manufacture, EMI/RFI requirements from the FCC or other agencies may require
expensive testing of the design. If there are problems, it can force a complete redesign of the
PCB, leading to additional rounds of testing. A multi-layer PCB can have as much as 20-dB
better EMI/RFI performance over a 2-layer PCB. If production volumes are going to be small,
it makes sense to make a better PCB to begin with, than try to cut costs and take the risk of
failing $25,000 to $50,000 tests.
The Order of Layers
There has been a lot of confusion in the past over what is the optimum order for PCB layers. Take, for
example, a 4-layer board consisting of two signal layers, a power plane, and a ground plane. Is it
better to route the signal traces between the layers, thus providing shielding for the signal traces – or
is it better to make the ground and power planes the two inner planes?
In considering this question, it is important to remember that no matter what is decided, there will still
be signals exposed on one or both of the top and bottom planes. The leads of the op amp PCB
package, and the traces on the board leading to nearby passive components and feed-throughs will be
exposed. Therefore, any shielding effects are compromised. It is far better to take advantage of the
distributed capacitance between the power and ground plane by making them internal.
Another advantage of placing the planes internally is that the signal traces are available for probing
and modification on the top and bottom layers. Anyone who has had to change connections on buried
traces will appreciate this feature.
For more than four layers, it is a general rule to shield higher speed signals between the ground and
power planes, and route slower signals on the outer layers.
Grounding
Good grounding is a system-level design consideration. It should be planned into the product from
the first conceptual design reviews.
The Most Important Rule: Keep Grounds Separate
Separate grounding for analog and digital portions of circuitry is one of the simplest and most
effective methods of noise suppression. One or more layers on multi-layer PCBs are usually devoted
to ground planes. If the designer is not careful, the analog circuitry will be connected directly to these
ground planes. The analog circuitry return, after all, is the same net in the netlist as digital return.
Autoroutes respond accordingly and connect all of the grounds together, creating a disaster.
After the fact separation of grounds on a mixed digital and analog board is almost impossible. Every
ground connection in the analog circuitry must be lifted from the board and connected together. For
surface mount boards, this results in a colossal mess of “tombstone” passive components and floating
IC leads.
Other Ground Rules
 Ground and power planes are at the same ac potential, due to decoupling capacitors and
distributed capacitance. Therefore, it is important to isolate the power planes as well.
 Do not overlap digital and analog planes (Figure below). Place analog power coincident with
analog ground, and digital power coincident with digital ground. If any portion of analog and
digital planes overlap, the distributed capacitance between the overlapping portions will
couple high-speed digital noise into the analog circuitry. This defeats the purpose of isolated
planes.
 Fig. Digital and Analog Plane Placement

GENARAL LAYOUT DESIGN

In general layout designing, the following are considerations
 Component interconnections
 Effects of parasitic
 Physical accessibility of components
 Power dissipation
Parasitic Effects
When two electrical conductors are at different voltages are close together, the electric field between
them causes electric charge to be stored on them this effect is called parasitic effect or parasitic
capacitance.
1. Conductance between two conductor tracks
Parasitic conductance or astray capacitance is an unavoidable and usually unwanted capacitance that
exists between the two parts of electronic component or circuit simply because their proximity to
each other. When two electrical conductors at different voltages are close together, the electric field
between them causes electric charge to be stored on them; this effect is parasitic capacitance. All
actual circuit elements such as inductors, diodes, and transistors have internal capacitance, which can
cause their behavior to depart from that of 'ideal' circuit elements. Additionally, there is always non-
zero capacitance between any two conductors; this can be significant at higher frequencies with
closely spaced conductors, such as wires or printed circuit board traces.
Tracks opposite each other
 Run supply lines above each other
 Don’t let signal line tracks overlap for any significant distance
Tracks next to each other
 Increase spacing between critical conductors
 Run ground between signal lines
2. Resistance & Inductance of conductor track
All conductors possess resistance and inductance and the principles of duality ensure that where there
is inductance, there will also be capacitance. Component designers will strive to minimize parasitic
elements but are unable to completely eliminate them.
Parasitic resistance is resistance that you encounter in a circuit but not included in the original design
or undesirable, unintended consequence of putting a concept into manufacturing. This effect is
pronounced in high-frequency AC applications. The reason for this is that the impedance of a resistor
rises with the applied voltage at high frequency due to the increase in its reactance.
Electric inductance is a property of all conductors. A change in the current flowing through the
conductor creates induced voltage in that conductor, as well as all nearby conductors. The induced
voltage opposes the change in the current thatinduced the voltage. Parasitic inductance is the
unwanted inductance created as a result of the current flowing through a conductor. This effect is
more pronounced at high frequency.

LAYOUT DESIGN FOR ANALOG CIRCUITS

1) Supply and ground conductors
Separate GND (& Vcc) lines for analog & digital circuits and create independent ground for reference
voltage circuits. Connect different ground conductors at most stable reference point. Supply lines
with sufficient width and high capacitive coupling to GND(use decoupling capacitors). The supply
line should first connect to high current drain circuit line and each supply line should be independent
for voltage references

2) Signal conductors for reducing the inductive and capacitive coupling

Special considerations for
 Power output stage circuits
 High gain direct coupled circuits
 HF oscillator /amplifier
  Low level signal circuits

Routing Guidelines for Analog PCBs

Traces in your analog PCB should be made as short as possible for several reasons. First, traces
carrying analog signals can transition to transmission line behavior if the trace is too long. This
transition occurs if the propagation delay is larger than one-quarter of the oscillation period of the
analog signal.

Keeping traces short, especially in higher frequency circuits, will help prevent transmission line
effects. Upon transition to transmission line behavior, analog signals can reflect from an impedance
mismatch, potentially leading to analog signal resonance in the trace. This forms a standing wave on
the transmission line that generates strong EMI in nearby components.

The use of vias on critical traces should also be minimized. All vias have inherent self inductance
thanks to their geometry. While signal resonance for vias are typically in the GHz range, inductance
adds when multiple vias are placed in series, lowering the resonant frequency for the trace in
question. Another problem with routing analog traces between layers is that the vias require placing
holes in ground planes, creating a high impedance discontinuity that can cause ground loops. Instead,
try to place all analog signal traces on a single layer.

HF oscillator /amplifier
o Decoupling capacitor between Vcc & GND →Capacitive load on o/p
o Reduce capacitive coupling between output & input lines
o Vcc decoupling for large BW ckts. (even for LF operation)
o Separation between signal & GND to reduce capacitive loading

Circuits with High Power O/P Stage

  Resistance due to track length & solder joints →modulation of Vcc & GND and low freq.
oscillations
 Large decoupling capacitors
 Separate Vcc & GND for power & pre- amp stages

High Gain DC Amplifier

 Solder joints →thermocouple junction
 Temp gradients →diff. noisy voltages Temp .gradients to be avoided
 Enclosure for stopping free movement of surrounding air

Low Level Signal Circuits

A) High impedance circuits - Capacitive coupling
B) Low impedance circuits - Inductive coupling

High -Z circuits

If R >> 1⁄ jw(Cxy+Cy)
then coupled Vy = Va × [Cxy/(Cy+Cxy)]

• Increase separation between low level high Z line and high level line (decrease Cxy)
• Put a ground line between the two (guard line)
Example: Guard for signal leakage
from FET output to input
Low – Z Circuits
 Voltage induced in ground loops due to external magnetic fields
 Current caused in the low- Z circuit loop due to strong AC currents in nearby circuits

Vm= - (d/dt) ∫B dA
 Avoid ground loops
 Keep high current ac lines away from low level, low Z circuit loops
 Keep circuit loop areas small

Power electronics
Power Electronics refers to an interdisciplinary subject within electrical engineering that deals with
the design, control and conversion of power in its electric form. A system that converts electric energy
to an electric load through a control circuit is known as a Power Electronic System.

Power Electronics refers to the process of controlling the flow of current and voltage and converting
it to a form that is suitable for user loads. The most desirable power electronic system is one whose
efficiency and reliability is 100%.

Take a look at the following block diagram. It shows the components of a Power Electronic system
and how they are interlinked.

A power electronic system

converts electrical energy from
one form to another and ensures
the following is achieved –

1.Maximum efficiency
2.Maximum reliability
3.Maximum availability
4.Minimum cost
5.Least weight
6.Small size
Applications of Power Electronics are classified into two types − Static Applications and Drive
Applications.
Static Applications

This utilizes moving and/or rotating mechanical parts such as welding, heating, cooling, and electro-
plating and DC power.

DC Power Supply

Drive

Applications

Drive applications have rotating parts such as motors. Examples include compressors, pumps,
conveyer belts and air conditioning systems.

Air Conditioning System

Power electronics is extensively used in air conditioners to control elements such as compressors. A
schematic diagram that shows how power electronics is used in air conditioners is shown below.

A power electronic switching device is a combination of active switchable power semiconductor

drivers that have been integrated into one. The main characteristics of the switch are determined by
internal correlation of functions and interactions of its integrated system. The figure given below
shows how a power electronic switch system works.
Microwave Circuits

A microwave integrated circuit (MIC) is an integrated circuit (IC) designed for operation at
frequencies of approximately 1 gigahertz (GHz) or more.
Microwave systems, such as radars, and radio and other communication devices are made of many
electronic parts called “circuits” or “components.” These are designed and constructed to manipulate
electromagnetic phenomena into carrying out different microwave signal processing functions such as
generating, modulating, controlling, and amplifying signals. They are also used in frequency
translation (conversion). The construction of such electronic circuits is usually quite different from
those used in low-frequency equipment’s, such as television sets or AM/FM radio, for example.
In the early development of microwave circuits and systems (during and just after World War II)
heavy and bulky microwave circuits in the form of voluminous, hollow metallic pipes and tubes
(called waveguides) were used. These large, three-dimensional waveguides are still in use today for
certain high-power applications. However, since the 1960s, planar transmission line circuits (or planar
circuits, which are referred to as two-dimensional flat-surface layered topologies) have been the more
popular choice. They are relatively cheap, lightweight, and can be made very small (the principle of
miniaturization). Also in the 1960s, the concept of microwave integrated circuits (MICs) was
introduced. Instead of building individual microwave components separately and then connecting
them on a piece-by-piece basis, it was thought it would be more cost effective and mass-producible to
laminate or “print” an entire circuit on a single planar dielectric substrate (that looks like a small, flat
chocolate chip) with various components connected to each other (usually by soldering) in a
continuous integrated fashion.

Figure 1.3 Comparison of the “big” non-planar waveguide on the left and the “small” planar
transmission line one the right.
 A planar circuit always consists of a number of specific, but carefully dimensioned, very thin,
metallic line and/or slot patterns that are formed on or between planar dielectric substrates. These
metal lines or patterns connect microwave components such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors,
and may perform other circuit functions. Typically, the thickness of those conducting patterns is
around 0.5 micrometer through 50 micrometers (about the thickness of fine paper, such as tissue
paper). The substrate thickness ranges from 50 to 1000 micrometers (about the thickness of a compact
disk), depending on the processing technique and user requirements.

If a MIC is fabricated on a non-semiconductor substrate such as alumina (ceramic) and low-

loss plastics, microwave diodes and transistors as well as other “active” and “passive” components
may be mounted on the substrate to realize a specific application. Such a resulting circuit is usually
referred to as a hybrid MIC. Integrated parts on the substrate only deal with passive functions
(passive components) such as filter and power divider, which process the microwave signal in their
own ways without additional (external) electric intervening. Of course, all the parts, including the
active ones, can be completely integrated on a single “chip” with semiconductor technology. The
circuit thus becomes a monolithic MIC (MMIC). The MMICs are today’s preferred choice for size
miniaturization and mass production, as they can be made much smaller than the hybrid MIC. A
typical MMIC chip is about the size of the shirt’s small button (although they’re usually rectangular),
and require the use of a microscope to see fine details of its electronic pattern.

Generally, the size of a microwave planar circuit is directly proportional to a certain “average”
value of wavelengths “seen” by the transmission lines (effective wavelength). This is inversely
proportional to the operating frequency. Its size also depends on the dielectric constant of the
substrate. Further miniaturization of the circuit can be made by many techniques such as the use of a
high dielectric constant substrate. In this way, the “effective wavelength” becomes shorter, and the
circuit can be made smaller.

Now there are many new techniques used for making more and more small, compact, and complex
circuits.
Figure 1.4 A hybrid microwave integrated circuit (MIC) fabricated on a ceramic sheet is shown on the
left. On the right is a much smaller monolithic MIC (MMIC) chip, which was fabricated on a
semiconductor wafer.

Figure 1.5 High frequency microwave PCB

Applications include:

1.Self-contained cellular telephones.

2.Receivers and transmitters for wireless systems.

3.Electromagnetic transponders.

4.Receivers for GPS (Global Positioning System) applications.

5.Collision-avoidance systems for automobiles and trucks.

6.Pollution detection and measurement devices.

7.Medical devices.

8.Imaging systems.

9.Robot control systems.

LAYOUT DESIGN FOR DIGITAL CIRCUITS

1) Ground & supply line noise

Noise generated due to current spikes during logic level switching, drawn from Vcc and
returned to ground.
• Internal spike: charging & discharging of transistor junction capacitances in IC ( 20 mA, 5ns in
TTL)
External spike: charging & discharging of output load capacitance Ground potential increases, Vcc
decreases: improper logic triggering. Problem more severe for synchronous circuits.
Severity of problem (increasing): CMOS, TTL.
Solution for ground and supply noise
Decoupling C between Vcc & ground for every 2 to 3 IC’s :

 ceramic, low L cap. of 10 nf for TTL & 0.5 nF for ECL & CMOS
 Stabilizes Vcc-GND (helps against internal spikes
 Not much help for external spikes
Low wave impedance between supply lines (20 ohms):
 5 to 10 mm wide lines opposite each other as power tracks
Ground plane : large Cu area for ground
 To stabilize it against external spikes

Closely knit grid of ground conductors

(Will form ground loops, not to be used for analog circuits)
Twist Vcc & GND line between PCBs

2) Cross-talk between neighboring signal lines

Occurs due to parallel running signal lines and its more severe for logic signals flowing in opposite
directions. This can be resolved by reducing the long parallel paths, increase separation between
signal lines and decrease impedance between. signal & ground lines.

3) Reflections (signal delays, double pulsing)

Caused by mismatch between the logic output impedance & the wave impedance of signal tracks.
• Signal delay (low wave imp.) • Double pulses (high wave imp.)
TTL (Z: 100 - 150 _)
0.5 mm signal line with GND plane, 1 mm without GND plane.
Signal lines between PCBs twisted with GND lines.
CMOS (Z: 150 – 300 _)
0.5 mm signal line without GND plane. Gnd not close to signal lines.
PCB PARAMETERS
In order to design PCBs intelligently it becomes important to understand, among other things, the
electrical properties of the board material. Understandably, these materials are the foundations for
many circuits, and they are characterized by many different parameters, some related to applications,
some to fabrication issues, some to environmental and mechanical concerns. Having a good
understanding of different PCB material properties can certainly ease the task of choosing a material
for a given set of circuit performance requirements.
1. Dielectric Constant, Ɛr
The dielectric constant is a starting point for many PCB material selection processes.Although it can
be measured in all three axes of a PCB material the value in the z-direction at a particular test
frequency, such as 10 GHz, is typically used for comparison in highfrequencyRF/microwave
applications.
2. Dissipation factor, Df, tanδ
The dissipation factor, Df or tangent delta (tanδ), or loss tangent, is a measure of how much dielectric
losses are associated with a particular PCB material. In general, a PCB material’s dissipation factor
will increase with increasing frequency; knowing values at different frequencies provides insight into
the broadband loss performance of that material.

3. Thermal coefficient of Ɛr (TcDk)

Since high-frequency circuits must often perform across a range of operating temperatures, a critical
material parameter not always properly considered is thermal coefficient of Ɛr. It isan indicator of
how much Ɛr will change as a function of temperature. Sometimes even asmall change in the value of
a material’s Dk can result in a change in the frequency responseof a well-defined resonant circuit,
such as a microstrip patch antenna.TcDk values can beeither positive or negative, with positive values
denoting an increase in the Ɛr value forpositive changes in temperature, and negative values
representing materials having adecrease in Ɛr value with a positive change in temperature.
4. Electrical strength
Electrical strength is associated with the dielectric strength of a circuit material. The test
method measures for the dielectric breakdown point of a material with voltage applied as
DC. Although this property may not be critical for lower-power circuits, it can be important for high-
power applications or RF/ microwave circuits employing very high DC bias.
5. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE)
The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), for example, indicates how a circuit material
expands and contracts with temperature. It is typically of greatest concern in the z direction or
thickness of a circuit material because of the use of plated through holes (PTHs) for electrical
connections from one side of a PCB to the other and in multilayer constructions.
6. Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)
Glass transition temperature, or Tg, is the temperature range in which a PCB substrate
transitions from a glassy, rigid state to a softened, deformable state as polymer chains become more
mobile. When the material cools back down, its properties return to theiroriginal states. Tg is
expressed in units of degrees Celsius (ºC).
7. Decomposition Temperature (Td)
Decomposition temperature, or Td, is the temperature at which a PCB material chemically
decomposes (the material loses at least 5% of mass). Like Tg, Td is expressed in units of degrees
Celsius (ºC). A material’s Td is an important ceiling when assembling PCBs, becausewhen a material
reaches or surpasses its Td, changes to its properties are not reversible
8. Moisture Absorption
Moisture absorption is the ability of a PCB material to resist water absorption when
immersed in water. It is given by percentage increase in weight of a PCB material due to
water absorption under controlled conditions as per standard test methods. Moisture absorption
affects the thermal and electrical properties of the material, as well asthe ability of the material to
resist conductive anode filament (CAF) formation when a PCBcircuit is powered.
PCB DESIGN RULE FOR DIGITAL HIGH FREQUENCY

INTRODUCTION

The components are developing towards high speed, low consumption, small value and high anti-
interference. PCB design is an important stage of electronic product design. It can realize the
connection and function between electronic components and also an important Part of power circuit
design.

High frequency circuit has the higher integration and higher layout density, so it very vital to make
layout more reasonable and more scientific. When the electrical schematic diagram has been
designed, several function plates shall be adopted according to the structural requirements and
functional division, and the physical size and installation method of each functional plate PCB shall
be determined. The convenience debugging and maintenance, as well as shielding, heat dissipation
and EMI performance shall also be considered. Engineer are required to determine the layout wiring
plan, such as the key circuits, the signal lines, the detail of the wiring methods, the wiring rules
should be followed to complete the design.

DESIGN RULES

1. The less alternating leads of the pins between the layers of high frequency circuit, the
better operation.
This means that the less Via is used in connection, the better the operation. A Via can bring
about a distribution capacitance of 0.5pf, reducing the number of via can significantly increase
the speed and reduce the possibility of data error.

2. The shorter the leads between the pins of high frequency circuit is, the better it is.
The radiation intensity of the signal is directly proportional to the routing length of the signal
line. The longer the high frequency lead is the more easily it can be coupled to its
components. Therefore, for high frequency signal lines such as signal clock, crystal oscillator,
DDR data and DMI the shorter routing length is required.
3. Less bend between the pins of high frequency circuit is required.
High frequency electrical wiring leads had better use full straight line. If a break over is
required, a 45-degree broken line or arc can be used. This requirement is only used to improve
the bonding strength of copper foil in low frequency circuits, while in high frequency circuits,
meeting this requirement can reduce the external emission and coupling of high frequency
signals.

4. Pay attention to the crosstalk introduced by the signal line parallel to the close distance.
For high frequency circuit wiring, attention should be paid to the "crosstalk" introduced by the
signal line parallel in a close distance. Crosstalk refers to the coupling phenomenon between
signal lines without direct connection. Since high frequency signals are transmitted along the
transmission line in the form of electromagnetic waves, the signal line will act as an antenna,
and the energy of electromagnetic field will be emitted around the transmission line. The
unwanted noise signals between signals due to the coupling of electromagnetic fields are
called Crosstalk. The parameters of PCB plate layer, the spacing of signal lines, the electrical
characteristics of driving and receiving terminals and the signal line connection mode all have
certain influence on the crosstalk. Therefore, in order to reduce the crosstalk of high frequency
signals, it is required to do the following as much as possible in the layout process.
 If there is a serious crosstalk between two lines, a ground line or ground plane can be
inserted with, under the condition that the cabling space allows, it can play the role of
isolation and reduce crosstalk.
 When the space around the signal line itself has time-varying electromagnetic fields,
if the parallel distribution cannot be avoided, a large area of "ground" can be
arranged on the opposite side of the parallel signal line to greatly reduce the
interference.
 On the premise of sufficient wiring space, we can increase the space between
adjacent signal lines and reduce the parallel length of signal lines. The clock line
should be perpendicular to the key signal lines rather than parallel.
 If parallel lines in the same layer are almost unavoidable, they must be perpendicular
to each other in the adjacent layers.
 In digital circuits, the usual clock signal is the edge changes fast signal, the external
crosstalk is large. Therefore, in the design, it is advisable for the clock lines to be
surrounded by the ground lines and digging more holes for the ground lines to reduce
the distributed capacitance and thus reduce the crosstalk.
  The low voltage differential clock signal should be used as far as possible for the
high frequency signal clock, and the integrity of the perforation should be paid
attention to.
 The idle input is not to be suspended, but to be grounded or connected to a power
supply, because the suspended line may be equivalent to the transmitting antenna,
grounding can inhibit transmission.
5. High frequency digital signal ground line and analog signal ground line for isolation.
The analog ground line, digital ground line and so on connect to the common ground line to
use high frequency choke magnetic bead connection or isolate directly and select the
appropriate single point connection. High frequency digital signal of ground wire ground
potential is not consistent, both directly there is often a voltage difference, and the high
frequency digital signal ground wire is often contain very rich, the harmonic component of
high frequency signal ground when connected directly to a digital signal and analog signal
ground, the high frequency signal harmonic will through the way of the ground coupled to the
analog signal interference. Therefore, in general, the ground line of high-frequency digital
signal and the ground line of analog signal should be isolated, and the single point
interconnection mode can be adopted in the appropriate location, or the high frequency choke
magnetic bead interconnection mode can be adopted.
6. Increasing the high frequency decoupling capacitance of the power pins of IC block.
The power pins of each IC block add a high frequency demultiplexing capacitance nearby.
Increasing the high frequency decoupling capacitance of the power pins of IC block, which
can effectively inhibit the interference of high frequency harmonics on the power supply pin.
7. Avoid loops when wiring.
All kinds of high frequency signals should not form a loop when wiring. If it is unavoidable,
the loop area should be as small as possible.
8. Good signal impedance matching must be ensured.
During the transmission process, when the impedance does not match, the signal will be
reflected in the transmission channel, which will make the synthetic signal overshoot, causing
the signal to fluctuate near the logical threshold. The basic method to eliminate reflection is to
make the impedance of the transmission signal a good match. As the difference between the
load impedance and the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is larger, the
reflection is larger, so the characteristic impedance of the signal transmission line should be
equal to the load and impedance as much as possible. At the same time, it should also be noted
that the transmission line on the PCB cannot present sudden changes or corners, and keep the
impedance of each point of the transmission line continuous as much as possible, otherwise
reflection will occur between each segment of the transmission line. This requires the
following wiring rules to be followed when conducting high-speed PCB wiring:
 LVDS wiring rules. The LVDS signal is required to make differential routing, with
line width of 7mil and line distance of 6mil.
 USB wiring rules. USB signal is required for differential routing, line width is 10mil,
line distance is 6mil, ground line and signal line spacing 6mil;
 HDMI wiring rules. HDMI signal differential routing is required, with line width of
10mil and line spacing of 6mil, each spacing between the two sets of HDM1
differential signals is more than 20mil.
 DDR wiring rules. DDR1 routing requires the signal not to go through the hole as far
as possible. Signal line width is equal, and line and line are equidistant. Routing must
meet the 2W principle to reduce crosstalk between signals.
In addition to the above-mentioned design methods, engineers should try to avoid high-speed
signal routing branches or tree stumps when designing PCB signal wiring. High frequency
signal line is easy to generate large electromagnetic radiation when walking on the surface. If
the high frequency signal line is wired between the power source and ground line, the
radiation generated by absorbing the electromagnetic wave through the power source and the
bottom layer will be greatly reduced. To sum up, high-frequency circuits are often highly
integrated and with high wiring density. The use of multilayer boards is both a necessary and
effective means to reduce interference. In PCB Layout stage, reasonable choice of a certain
layer printed circuit board size, the middle tier can be fully used to set the shielding, better
implement nearby ground, and effectively reduce the parasitic inductance and shorten the
length of the transmission of signals, but also can greatly reduce the cross interference of
signals etc., all of these methods are good for the reliability of the high frequency circuit.

CAD DESIGNING
 Computer aided design (CAD) is the use of computer system to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis or optimization of design.

 It increases the productivity of the designer, quality of the design.

 Improve communication through documentation.
 Used to create a database for manufacturing.

NOTE: CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machine or other

manufacturing operations.

Fields of usage

 It is used in designing electronic systems known as electronic design automation (EDA).

 In mechanical design known as mechanical design automation (MDA) which includes a technical
drawing with the use of computer software.MDA uses
Vector-based graphics which depict the object of traditional drafting.
Raster graphics shows the overall appearance of designed objects.
 It is used to convey the information such as materials, processes, dimensions and tolerances.

Applications of CAD in different sectors

 Applied in automotive, shipbuilding, aerospace industries, architectural designs and industrial

applications in general.
 Used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical
manuals often called digital content creation (DCC).
 Used as driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics both hardware
and software, and discrete differential geometry.

PCB design can be done with the help of CAM, KiCAD, EAGLE and many other softwares but
few are explained below

CAM
 CAM computer aided manufacturing is the use of computer software to control machine tools
and related machinery in the manufacturing of work pieces. It is used to designs 3D images.

 CAM can generate excellon formats of drilling holes and routing pads.
 CAM can generate gerbber formats of dry film PIT, solder masking

EAGLE SOFTWARE

EAGLE is a scriptable electronic design automation (EDA) application with schematic capture,
with schematic capture, printed circuit board (PCB) layout, auto-router and computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) features. EAGLE stands for Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor
(German: Einfach Anzuwendender Grafischer Layout-Editor) and is developed by CadSoft Computer

GmbH. The company was acquired by Autodesk Inc. in 2016.

EAGLE is a software application that makes it possible to design circuit boards. Boiled down to its
essentials, EAGLE consists of six features:

 Component library—The set of devices that can be inserted into a design

 Schematic editor—An editor that makes it possible to draw the circuit’s preliminary design

 Board editor—An editor that defines the circuit board’s physical layout and routing

 Device editors—Editors used to design new components

 Autorouter—A tool that automatically determines how circuit elements can be connected
  CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) processor—A tool that reads in a board design
and produces files for the board’s fabrication

This section briefly describes each of these features and how they relate to the overall process of
circuit design.

1.1.1 The Component Library

One of the most important features of any circuit design tool is the set of available parts. This set of
components is called a library, and the larger the library, the less time the designer needs to spend
defining new devices.

Thanks to its longevity, EAGLE’s set of libraries has expanded to thousands and thousands of
components, from vacuum tubes to field programmable gate arrays. No matter how complex the
design, the odds are that EAGLE will have most of the required parts. If it doesn’t, the
site http://www.cadsoftusa.com/downloads/libraries provides more libraries for free download. If a
part still can’t be found, Chapter 8, “Creating Libraries and Components,” explains how to design
custom parts.

One new feature of EAGLE 6 is the format used by the library files. Each library is defined within a
*.lb. file, and the format for this file is the extensible Markup Language (XML), which is popular
throughout the world of computing. Appendix A, “EAGLE Library Files,” describes the XML schema
that defines the structure of EAGLE’s library files.

1.1.2 The Schematic Editor

After you verified that your circuit’s components are available, you can select and connect them
inside a schematic design, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: The EAGLE Schematic Editor

As with most schematic editors, this keeps track of four important pieces of information:

 Which components are present in the design

 Connections between the components’ pins

 Names and values associated with the components

 Properties of the components’ connections

EAGLE’s schematic editor makes it easy to design a preliminary circuit. Just select a part from the
library, move it to a position, and draw connections between it and other components. Afterward, you
may assign names and values to the component, such as a resistor’s resistance in ohms. Chapter 3,
“Designing a Simple Circuit,” and Chapter 4, “Designing the Femtoduino Schematic,” discuss the
schematic editor in detail.

1.1.3 The Board Editor

After a schematic design is complete, EAGLE can generate a board file (*.brd) that defines the layout
of the actual circuit board. Board files are modified in EAGLE’s board editor, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: The EAGLE Board Editor

In this editor, the designer positions the real-world devices corresponding to the components in the
schematic. This position includes not only x and y coordinates, but also whether the components are
on the top or bottom layer.

1.1.4 The Device Editors

If the EAGLE library doesn’t contain a crucial part, the device editors make it possible to design a
new one. This process has three steps:

1. Create a design for the schematic editor. This is called a symbol.

2. Create a design for the board editor. This is called a package.

3. Create an association between the symbol and its package. This is called a device.

EAGLE provides editors for laying out a component’s symbol and package. These are collectively
called the device editors, as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: The EAGLE Device Editors

The left side of the figure displays the symbol for Analog Devices’ SSM2167 component. The right
side displays the component’s package, which can be used in the board design.

Don’t be concerned about terms like symbol, package, and device just yet. These topics will be
explored throughout this book, and Chapter 8 presents the entire process of designing new
components. Appendix A explains the file format used by EAGLE to store these designs.

1.1.5 The Autorouter

After the boards’ devices are in place, the next step is to create the connections between them. This is
called routing, and even with high-end design tools, this process can be complex and time-
consuming.

EAGLE’s autorouter simplifies the routing process and provides insight into how circuit components
can be connected. But for large-scale circuits, it generally isn’t capable of completely routing a board
on its own. However, if a designer manually creates initial routes, it will help the autorouter do its
job. Chapter 6, “Routing,” explains all the different routing methods supported by EAGLE.

1.1.6 The CAM Processor

Most fabrication facilities don’t accept EAGLE design files, so EAGLE’s CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing) Processor converts EAGLE designs into different formats. Figure 1.4 shows the
processor’s dialog.
Figure 1.4: The CAM Processor

When the Process Job button is pressed, the processor executes a sequence of tasks called a job. A
designer can load a job from a file (*.cam) or create a new job from scratch. As a job executes, each
of its tasks reads a portion of the board design and creates a file of the selected type.

To fabricate a circuit board, most manufacturers require two types of files. To define a circuit’s
geometry and connections, the accepted file format is RS-274X, also called the Gerber format. To
specify drill diameters and drill locations, the accepted format is the Excellon format. The CAM
Processor generates files of both types.

KI-CAD software

• KiCad is anopen sourcesoftware suite forElectronic Design Automation(EDA).

• KiCad provides a suite of programs forSchematic Capture, andPCBLayout with Gerberoutput.

• The first release date was in 1992 by its original author, Jean-Pierre Charras, but is now currently
under development by theKiCad Developers Team. The suite runs on Windows, Linux and OS X
and is licensed underGNU GPL v2.

• Important points about KICAD:-

• With KiCad you can create schematic diagrams and printed circuit board up to 16 layers. KiCad
comes with a rich set of libraries with 3D models as well.KiCad is a mature EDA software tool
underactive developmentby a team of developers and a vibrant user group. KiCad team counts
three main developers and a dozen of regular contributors.

KiCad includes a project manager and four main independent software tools:

1. Eeschema,- schematic editor.

2. Pcbnew, -printed circuit board editor.

3. Gerbview, - GERBER file viewer.
4. Cvpcb, -footprint selector for components association.

KiCad in 4 Steps

KiCad allows you to develop your printed circuit board via three interconnected and

independent main applications: Eeschema, Cvpcb, Pcbnew, gerbiview. This is, simply

put, done in three steps.

STEP 1, schematic capture. With the KiCad schematic editor Eeschema, you can create a
sophisticated electronic sheet or a group of hierarchical sheets. Several schematic components
come with the default KiCad library. Electrical Rules Check tool (ERC) is available.

STEP 2, component association.PCB new allows you to associate each single schematic
component with its footprint component. A very large component footprint library comes with
KiCad.

STEP 3, PCB layout. The PCBnew board editor can handle up to 16 copper layers plus 12
technical layers (silk screen, solder mask, etc.) and allows you to layout the final printed circuit
board.

STEP 4, Gerbicview.For the generation of the necessary compliant files for manufacturing your
printed circuit board (GERBER files for photo-plotters, drilling files and component location
files) Pcbnew and Gerbview are used. Postscript or PDF file generation is also possible.

After generating tracks, schematic capture, component association,pcblayout,gerbiview.

Kicad software will generates After generating all this circuit will send to CAM working zone.

EXAMPLE OF KiCAD SOFTWARE

Designing using KICAD software with example:-

We will be considering a simple a stable multivibrator circuit using 555 timers IC.

We will be designing a PCB for this well known simple circuit.

Simple a stable multivibrator circuit using 555 timers IC. Circuit diagram is given below

-AstableMultivibrator can be designed by using 555 timers IC, Op Amps and also using
transistors. The 555 IC provide accurate time delay from mille seconds to hours.The frequency of
oscillation can be controlled manually by simple modification.555 is suitable for circuit
designers with a relatively stable, cheap, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable
and astableapplications.The 555 timers IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics
Corporation as theSE555/NE555.

This is a simple 555 timer circuit project. AstableMultivibrator is simply an oscillator circuit that
produces continuous pulses. The frequency can be controlled by changing the values of R1, R2
and C1.
1. NE 555 or SE 555

2. Resistor (1MΩx2, 1KΩ)

3. Capacitors (0.01Fµ, 1Fµ)

4. LED

8.6 The kiCAD software mainly has the following utilities:

1. Eeschema - Schematic editor
2. Cvpcb - Components to modules
3. Pcbnew - Pcb editor
4. Gerbview - Gerber viewer

The main window of the kicad looks like this:

Your recent project might have been listed in the project tree. To start a new project selects the
“New Project Descry”. The most important thing that you should take care of is that, all the files
generated by while doing the project should be saved in a single folder, and the title of all the
files should be the same.
So let us save this new project in our project folder. The extension should be .pro
 Let us start with editing the schematic.

Editing the schematic

• Now you need to convert the required circuit diagram into the schematic in kicad.

• For that you need to select the schematic editor. The schematic editor window is shown below:

• Before start drawing the schematic, we have to do a few important things; Page settings – To
set the page size, title etc.
• Page settings window: When you press OK, you can see the title of your work sheet has been
changed like this: Now we need to set the preference General options window: Press OK and
then save the preferences: To make our design process faster we have to use a lot of shortcut
keys. We can have a list of currently using shortcuts like the following. Current hotkey list:

• Now we have set most of the necessary things, so we can start drawing the schematic.

• It’s all about selecting the right component, placing the component, connecting them and do the
annotation.
• First we add all the components. To add a component to the worksheet, press A, and the
component selection window will open up. If you know the key word for the component, just
enter the key word and press OK.
• The key word for resistor is R and the capacitor is C, like thatComponent selection

Window:

• Use insert key to add the same component again. Press M to move a component after placing the
cursor on it. Use ctrl + scroll to move entire page left/right, shift + scroll to move the entire page
up/down

• So far we have added the resistors and capacitors to the schematic, now we have to add the 555
IC, LED and 3 pin connector. If you don’t know the key word of the component you can use “by
library browser” button, which will list you all the library components.

• Once you have selected the required component you can use the export to schematic link to add
the component to your schematic.
• Selecting 555 IC from the component list:
 When you finish adding the components for the particular circuit, the schematic editor will look
like this.

Now we need to do the connections. You can keep the cursor at any point and press W to add a
wire.

• After you have finished the connections, it would be better if you add some text labels at the
necessary areas. You can do that by using the T button as shown in the above figure.
• Now our schematic diagram is almost finished. Next step is to annotate the components. We can
automatically annotate the components using schematic annotation button. It will open up the
following window..Press annotate key to automatically annotate the components.
 Our finished schematic will look like this:

• For this particular tutorial it is not important whether the circuit is correct or not, all I’m trying to
explain you nothing but, how to convert your circuit to a pcb.
• Now if you wish you can do the ERC (Electric Rules Check) using the “schematic electric rules
check” button.Press “Test Erc” button for the following window:

• If there are errors, which mean you have violated some rules. The errors will be shown in the
schematic using markers and you can easily identify and correct those errors. If you have no idea
about the ERC, don’t worry, it is not going to affect most of the simple circuits in anyway. Now
you must save the schematic .
• Components to modules .
 Next step is to generate a netlist of the components using “Netlist generation” button:

• Click the button “Netlist” for the following window:

• Save the netlist file using the extension .net:

• Now run cvpcb by to convert the components to modules which we can use, while we actually
design the circuit board:
• The cvpcb window will look like this. For each component listed we must select the required
footprint. It would be better if you list the entire footprint without filtering:

• How could I identify which footprint will be appropriate for a particular component??

• Which all footprint you will select, it should match up with the physical dimensions of the
components in your collection. You can view the entire available footprint in a pdf format using
the button as shown below:

Here is the footprint in detail:

 If you want to see the component in 3D, you can press the 3D button.3D view of the component:

Close both the windows and double click the required footprint to get it selected. If you finish
selecting the footprints, the page will look like the following:

• Save the netlist using the save button:

• Now run the pcb editor using the button “Run Pcbnew” either from schematic editor or from the
main window.

8.8 PCB Editing

Here is the PCBNEW window:
• Before we proceed further I recommend you to do the required page settings like we have done
for the schematic editor. After that it would be better if we draw an initial outline for the board,
which we may change later if required.Select the current working layer as “Edges Pcb”.

• Use the graphic line button to draw the edges. You can set the coordinates at any corner as both
zero by keeping the mouse pointer over it and pressing the space bar. Double click to finish the
outline as you complete drawing it.Here I’ve drawn a square outline for the PCB.

• Now we are going to link the schematic and the PCB editor by reading the netlist.

• Press “read” button for the following window.In the following figure you can see that the
modules corresponding to the components in the schematics have been added to the pcb editor.
Now press the cancel button.Now arranges the components by moving them into appropriate
positions and orientations. Use M to select a component to move with the cursor.

After rearranging the components:

• Now it seems that the outline of the pcb is too large for the circuit. Now I will show you how to
delete items, in this case we are deleting the outline only..Drag the cursor across the block
holding the left button down and then release so that the entire block will get selected. Now right
click and select the option delete block.
• For this particular case, select the “include edge layer” and press OK. You can use the same
technique to delete the tracks, modules, zones, texts, drawings etc.
• After deleting the current outline, we will draw a much smaller one. After rearranging the
components and redesigning the outline, the pcb editor will look like this.

• At this point you should make sure that your arrangement of components in the board is
physically realizable. If it is not, you will run into a lot of troubles while assembling the
components. In order to avoid such issues, there is an option for the 3D view of your board.
Click the 3D display button.

• If you are happy with the arrangement of the components in your board, you can startrouting.
• Before that you have to set a few things. Go to general options, where you can set the number of
layers required, maximum links shown etc.I’m going to make a 2 layered board, which is
 actually not required for this simple circuit, but I can show you how to add vias and adding
tracks in both the layers. Press OK button to save the settings.
•
• Now we will be working mainly on the two important layers of our board

1. Copper layer – normal bottom layer if we consider a single layer board, where we do the
soldering.
2. Component layer – The opposite side of the board, where we place the components.

Now your pcb editor window will look like this.

• You can click on any pins to highlight the corresponding connected pins after you have clicked
the “Net highlight” button as shown above.
• In the following pins a set of highlighted pins are shown. Now you can add tracks connecting
those pins using the “Add tracks and vias” tool. Make sure that you have selected the “Copper
(page up)” from the drop down list as marked in the figure.

• Now you can place track connecting the pins. Use END key to release the track once you have
reached the end point.
• In the following figure it is shown that I’m having trouble connecting the pin7 and the pins of
two resistors R2 and R1.

• So I’m going to place a part of the track in the component layer and connect the rest in the
copper layer through vias.First connect the two ends of the resistors normally. Now start adding
track from pin 7, and once you have reached the point where you wish to add the via, right click
and select “place Via” or just press V.

• Now you can just route through the component layer and connect both the parts through another
via as shown in the following figure.

• Keep in mind that your component’s pin can also act as a via, as it is Printed Through Hole
(PTH), connecting both the layers.I’ve finished routing and my design is shown below.
 Now let us have a 3D view of our board.

• Generating Gerber file

• Select plot after clicking the file, to open the plot window. Do the things in the plot window as
shown in the following figure:

• Now go to the main window and click the “gerbview” button to open up the Gerber viewer.The
following figure shows the Gerview window. Select “Load Gerber file”Let us view the copper
layer first.

Gerber view for the copper layer:

 • In order to view another file without mixing the view with the previous one, use the option
“Clear and Load gerberfile”.This time we select the component layer:The Gerber view of
component layer will look like in above figure.In order to view all the layers at once use the
option “Inch Layer and Load gerberfile”.Gerber view of the selected layers will look like the
following:Now you select the option “Save setup”.

• Save the gerview file as the extension. cnf now clicks the save button and we finished. Next step is to
send the Gerber files to your PCB manufacturer. Which all files you have to send depends on the pcb
manufacturing process they have.
Important point:-

 While opening Ki-CAD, it’s better to disable the internet access because software will be
directly access to web browser.
 During Ki-CAD standing, we have to save each and every file like given below

a. Save project desc and save project files.

b. In schematic editor, we have to save schematic project, save current sheet and save current sheet
as “xxx.sch”. Save prefaces and plot post script,HPGL,SVG and clipboard.
c. In cvpcb(components to modules), we have to save as “xxx.net” file.

d. In PCB new (PCB editor), at post process we have create modules pos, create drill file, create
cmp files. We have to save as “xxx.brd” file.
e. In gerber view, we have save “xxx.whl” file.
 With this over CAD working is finished. This design is send to PCB manufacturing and there for
the convenience they modify CAM work.

So requirements for the CAM file is specified formats they are

a) Gerbber format.

b) Excellon format.

These files have to send to CAM work for PCB manufacturing.