DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, LAHORE CAMPUS

Submitted To
Dr. Mehwish Batool

Submitted By
Group A7
Huma Saulat FA20-CHE-035
Hadia Saulat FA20-CHE-036
 Experiment 01
Equipment Title: THERMOCOUPLE
Objective
The objective of using a thermocouple in various applications is to measure temperature
accurately and reliably. Thermocouples are temperature sensors that generate an electromotive
force (EMF) or voltage when exposed to a temperature gradient. This EMF is proportional to the
temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions of the thermocouple. The key
objectives of using thermocouples include:
Temperature Measurement
Wide Temperature Range
Ruggedness and Durability
Speed of Response

Process and History

In the year 1821, a physicist named “Thomas See beck” revealed that when two different metal
wires are connected in a circuit at both ends of a junction, the temperature applied to the junction
is the current flowing through the circuit. Is known as the electromagnetic field (EMF). The
energy generated by this circuit is known as the See beck effect. Under the guidance of “Thomas
See beck“, two Italian physicists named Leopoldo Nobili and Macedonia Maloney designed a
thermoelectric battery in the year 1826 called a thermal multiplier. The thermocouple is a
temperature measuring device. It uses for measuring the temperature at one particular point. In
other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the temperature in the form of an electric
current or the EMF. Thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device used to determine the
temperature of a particular point. In other words, it is just a sensor used to know the temperature
in the form of an electric current or emf.

Working Principle of Thermocouple

The working principle of a thermocouple is based on the See beck effect, which is a phenomenon
where a voltage or electromotive force (EMF) is generated in a circuit when two dissimilar
metals are joined at their ends and exposed to a temperature gradient.
The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.

 See back Effect – The See back effect occurs between two different metals. When
the heat provides to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from hot metal
to cold metal. Thus, direct current induces in the circuit

Construction of Thermocouple:

The construction of a thermocouple is as shown in the figure below which consists of different
wires and a meter is placed to measure it. There are three main types of thermocouple
construction which are as follows.

 Ungrounded Junction.
 Grounded Junction.
 Exposed Junction.

1. Ungrounded Junction-
In the Ungrounded-Junction system, the conductor is completely covered by a protective cover.
Ungrounded-Junction is mainly used in applications with high pressure. The main advantage of
doing so is that the effect of the wandering magnetic field is reduced.

2. Grounded Junction-
In this type of junction, the metal wire and the safety cover are connected together. Such a
junction is used to measure the temperature in a corrosive environment. This junction provides
noise resistance.

3. Exposed Junction-
The exposed junction is used in environments where a very fast response is required. Such a junction is
used to measure gas temperature. The material used in the manufacture of thermocouples depends mainly
on the range of measurement of temperature.

Thermocouple Types:
One of the important things before considering the type of thermocouple is that it needs to be
protected protectively to separate it from the ambient temperature. This protection cover will
properly reduce the corrosion on the device.

There are different types of thermocouples available in the market which are as follows:

 Type K Thermocouple.
 Type T Thermocouple.
 Type J Thermocouple.
 Type E Thermocouple.
 Type N Thermocouple.
 Type S Thermocouple.
 Type R Thermocouple.
 Type B Thermocouple.

Apparatus:

 Potentiometer

 Thermocouple

 Water Beaker

 Mercury Filled Thermometer

Experimental Procedure:

1. The standardization of potentiometer is done, when the thermocouple is not connected to

it.

2. After connecting the thermocouple with potentiometer, the thermocouple and a mercury
filled thermometer are inserted into water beaker.

3. The water in beaker is heated up to 50°C, then for every 5°C increase in temperature, a
corresponding change in E.M.F. is noted via potentiometer.

4. The change in E.M.F. along with the change in temperature of the system is plotted on a
graph.

5. Calculate the average error and report the accuracy of thermocouple.

 6. Draw a graph between thermometer reading and thermocouple (e.m.f) reading. If a
straight line is obtained, then the thermistor is good to use.

Safety Observations:

1. Ensure that water tank is at least 80% full.

2. Ensure that at the end of the experimental performance, the heater should be stopped.
3. Wear gloves as this experiment involve heating of water beaker.
4. Cool down the equipment before draining the water inside the glass vessel so that the
heater will not be overheated when there is no water inside the vessel.
5. Make sure tap water used is free from any contamination to prevent blockage inside the
condenser.

Advantages of Thermocouple:
The benefits of Thermocouples are as follows:
 The thermal reaction is instantaneous.
 The measuring range of temperature is wide.
 Wide operating temperature capability.
 Cost low and highly compatible.
 High accuracy.
 It is tough and can be easily used in harsh as well as high-vibration environments.

Disadvantages of Thermocouple:
The disadvantages of thermocouples are as follows:
 The stability of this is minimal.
 Low voltage.
 Reference required.
 Least sensitive.
 Thermocouple recovery is difficult.

Application of Thermocouple:
The following are several applications of Thermocouples:
 It is used as a temperature sensor in thermostats in home offices and businesses.
 It is used in industries to measure the temperature of iron, aluminum, and metals.
 This is used to check the temperature in chemical plants and petroleum plants.
 Thermocouples are used to detect pilot flames in devices used to generate heat from gases
such as water heaters.
 This is used in gas machines to detect pilot flames.
Observations and Calculations:
Water Boiling point= 100oC
 Thermocouple start from= 30oC

No. of Obs. Temperature, Temperature, Error,

T1 T2 E = (T1
- T2)
(Thermocouple) (Thermometer)

℃ ℃ ℃

1. 40 33.6 6.4

2. 45 38.1 6.9

3. 50 44.7 5.3

4. 55 49.1 5.9

5. 60 53.6 6.4

6. 65 58.2 6.8

Graph
Conclusion
A thermocouple is more linear than a thermistor and is the most accurate and stable temperature
sensor available. The slowest and most expensive temperature sensors, though, are
thermocouples. Thermocouple readings are more precise and repeatable than thermistors'
readings. When compared to the thermistor, the thermocouple is more accurate.
 Experiment 02
Equipment Title: THERMISTOR
Objective:

Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of given thermistor with the help of
thermometer.
Process and Applications:

 The thermistor is a kind of resistor whose resistivity depends on surrounding temperature.

 It is a temperature sensitive device. The word thermistor is derived from then word,
thermally sensitive resistor. The thermistor is made of the semiconductor material that
means their resistance lies between the conductor and insulator.
 The variation in the thermistor resistance shows that either conduction or power
dissipation occurs in the thermistor. The circuit diagram of thermistor uses the
rectangular block which has a diagonal line on it.
 Thermistors can be used for temperature measurement, control, and compensation in
various applications.

Selection factors:

The response graph of the thermistor is different from the thermocouple and the RTD in
that it's not linear.. Since the thermistor response is a curve, it's important to locate linear
portions of the curve to provide the best accuracy and repeatability. In some cases a table
should be consulted to determine the exact amount of resistance the thermistor should
provide for any given temperature. Also notice from the graph that the resistance
decreases as the temperature increases, and at some point the temperature will increase
sufficiently to make the resistance equal zero and the thermistor is no longer useful as a
temperature sensor.

Applications:
Temperature Sensing and Measurement:
Medical Devices:
Thermistors are used in medical thermometers, patient temperature monitoring devices, and
incubators to accurately measure and monitor body temperature.

HVAC Systems: Thermistors help regulate and control temperatures in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning systems to maintain comfort and energy efficiency in homes and buildings.

Automotive: Thermistors are employed in automobiles for temperature sensing in the engine,
transmission, and cabin, contributing to engine efficiency and climate control.

Industrial Processes: Thermistors are used in industrial processes to monitor and control
temperature in various manufacturing applications.

Temperature Compensation:
Electronic Circuits: Thermistors are used to compensate for changes in circuit performance due
to temperature variations. They help maintain the accuracy of sensors and electronic components.

Overheating Protection:
Electronic Devices: Thermistors act as protective devices in electronic circuits, shutting down or
triggering alarms when temperatures exceed safe limits to prevent component damage or fires.

Power Supplies: Thermistors can be used to provide inrush current limiting in power supplies to
protect against high initial current surges.

Energy Efficiency:
Energy-Efficient Appliances: Thermistors are used in household appliances such as
refrigerators, ovens, and air conditioners to optimize energy consumption and maintain proper
temperature levels.

Battery Management: Thermistors monitor battery temperature in electronic devices like laptops
and smartphones to prevent overheating and ensure safe charging.

Environmental Monitoring:
Weather Stations: Thermistors are used in weather stations to measure air and soil temperatures,
contributing to climate and weather research.

Greenhouses: Thermistors help control and maintain the temperature and humidity levels in
greenhouses to promote plant growth.

Heating Systems:
Water Heaters: Thermistors are used in water heaters to control and maintain the water
temperature, ensuring comfort and safety. Furnaces: In furnaces, thermistors help regulate and
optimize heating processes for energy efficiency.

Automated Systems:
Industrial Automation: Thermistors play a role in industrial automation by providing temperature
feedback for control systems that manage manufacturing processes.

Diagram:

Figure: Labeled figure of thermistor setup

Apparatus:

 Potentiometer

 Thermistor

 Water Beaker

 Mercury Filled Thermometer

Experimental Procedure:

1. The standardization of potentiometer is done, when the thermistor is not connected to it.

2. After connecting the thermistor with potentiometer, the thermistor and a mercury filled
thermometer are inserted into water beaker.

3. For every 5°C rise in the temperature of water in the beaker, note the temperature of both
thermometer and thermistor.
 4. Calculate the average error and report the accuracy of thermistor.

5. Draw a graph between thermometer reading and thermistor reading. If a straight line is
obtained, then the thermistor is good to use.

Calculations

Formula`s for the Experiment:

Average Error = Sum of all errors reported i.e., E1+ E2 + E3 + E4 + E5

Formula Used:

% age accuracy = (1- %age error) *100

Observations and Calculations:

Water Boiling point= 100 oC

Thermistor start from= 30oC

No. of Obs. Temperature, Temperature, Error, E =

T1 T2 (Thermistor) (T1 - T2)

(Thermometer)

℃ ℃ ℃

1. 40 11.4 28.6

2. 45 14.9 30.1

3. 50 17.9 32.1

4. 55 21.0 34

5. 60 25 34.6
Graph

Conclusions:

Thermocouples are superior to thermistors in that their readings are more accurate and more
repeatable. The thermocouple has high accuracy as compared to the thermistor. The thermistor has
leaded whose resistance reduces their accuracy.
 Experiment 03
Equipment Title: RTD

Objective
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a device to measure temperature by relating it to
changes in the electrical resistance of a metallic sensing element. The resistance of a typical RTD
increases by about 0.3% to 0.4% of its room temperature value for every degree Kelvin of
temperature increase.
Process and Applications
Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is an
electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an electrical
wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature with
high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a wide
range of temperatures. Other common electronics devices used to measure temperature include a
thermocouple or a thermistor.
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the temperature is given as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC temperatures. α and β are the constants
depends on the metals.
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small range of temperature, the expression
can be,

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These three metals are
having different resistance variations with respective to the temperature variations. That is called
resistance-temperature characteristics.

Working Principle:

An RTD works by using a basic principle; as the temperature of a metal increases, so does
the resistance to the flow of electricity. An electrical current is passed through the sensor,
the resistance element is used to measure the resistance of the current being passed through
it.

Construction:

The construction is typically such that the wire is wound on a form (in a coil) on notched mica
cross frame to achieve small size, improving the thermal conductivity to decrease the response
time and a high rate of heat transfer is obtained. In the industrial RTD’s, the coil is protected by a
stainless-steel sheath or a protective tube.

So that, the physical strain is negligible as the wire expands and increase the length of wire with
the temperature change. If the strain on the wire is increasing, then the tension increases. Due to
that, the resistance of the wire will change which is undesirable. So, we don’t want to change the
resistance of wire by any other unwanted changes except the temperature changes.
This is also useful to RTD maintenance while the plant is in operation. Mica is placed in between
the steel sheath and resistance wire for better electrical insulation. Due less strain in resistance
wire, it should be carefully wound over mica sheet.

Types

There are two main types of resistance temperature detectors, thin-film and wire-wound.

 Wire-Wound RTDs:

 Thin Film RTD Elements:

Applications:

 RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine temperature, an oil level sensor,
intake air temperature sensors. In communication and instrumentation for sensing the over the
temperature of amplifiers, transistor gain stabilizers .
 RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer electronics, food handling and
processing, industrial electronics, medical electronics, military, and aerospace.

Formula`s for the Experiment

Average Error = Sum of all errors reported i.e., E1+ E2 + E3 + E4 + E5

Average %age error = 94.5 %

Formula Used:

% age accuracy = (1- %age error) *100

Results:

% age accuracy = 94%

Observations and Calculations:

Water Boiling point= 100oC

RTD start from= 30oC

 No. of Obs. Temperature, Temperature, Error, E =
T1 (RTD) T2 (T1 - T2)

(Thermometer)

℃ ℃ ℃

1. 25.5 40 -16.5

2. 28.5 45 -16.5

3. 31.5 50 -18.5

4. 35.1 55 -19.5

5. 36.5 60 -23.5

Graph

Conclusions:

Thermocouples are superior to thermistors in that their readings are more accurate and
 more repeatable. But RTDs are superior to thermocouples and thermistors. The RTD
has high accuracy as compared to the thermistor and thermocouple. The temperature
measuring ranges of the thermistor is °C and of the thermocouple is °C whereas of the
RTD is °C.

Comparison of Thermocouple, Thermistor, RTD

The thermistor's low range in comparison to other sensors and its reading accuracy of 80% are
the first two reasons why it exhibits non-linear behavior. The behavior exactly matches the
mathematical non-linear behavior described by Stein Hart, as seen below:
𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ (lnR)2 + c(lnR)3

Where R is the non-linear resultant output signal of the thermistor.

The thermocouple has a high reading accuracy of about 95% and exhibits totally linear behavior
over the whole trial range. The following equation explains the linear behavior.
𝐸 = 𝛼𝛥𝑇
The following quadratic equation predicts that while the RTD exhibits good linearity at low
temperatures, it exhibits some type of nonlinear behavior at higher temperatures.
𝑅 = 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏2 ∗ 𝑇
The reading's precision is also higher than Thermistor, but lower than 93.33% for the
thermocouple.

Linearity
6
5

6
0

Thermistor linearity

5 Thermocouple
linearity
RTD
4

3
5

3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
Temperature of thermometer(oC)