Electrical Temperature Instruments

• Electrically temperature measuring sensors

use any electrical
circuit.
• Three types of electrical temperature sensors
which are generally used,
1. Resistance temperature detectors
2. Thermistor
3. Thermocouple
Resistance Temperature Detectors

Principle
• Resistivity of most of the metals increase with the
increase in temperature, and on cooling to the
original temperature, resistivity starts to decreased.
• Different types of materials which are used for such
type of detectors are platinum, copper and nickel in
industries
General equation for RTD material
R t = Ro(1 + At + Bt2 + Ct 3 - - - - - Wt4 )
B,C - - -W are negligibly small.
Rt = Ro(1 + At)
 Requirements for RTD material

• High temperature coefficient

• High resistivity to ensure small wire length

• Linearity of relation between resistance and

temperature
Platinum RTD: R versus T
Common Resistance Materials
for RTD's
• Platinum (most popular and accurate)
• Nickel
• Copper
• Balco (rare)
• Tungsten (rare)
Graph for different materials
 Construction
• A thin Platinum wire wound in form of a free spiral by an
insulated carrier such as mica or ceramic.
• Diameter of wire should be 0.02mm to 0.2mm.
• Wire should be smooth, free from defects, ensurity of constancy
of resistance to avoid resistance changes due to dimension
changes.
• Wire generally enclosed in a protective tube made of glass,
quartz etc.
Thin-Film RTDs
RTDs: Characteristics
• Resistive device, linear
• Large range:-200 to +850oC for Platinum
• High accuracy: +0.001OC
• Low sensitivity: 0.39 % per oC
• Don't need reference temperature
RTD's small resistance change
requires
Bridge circuit:
 Can detect small resistance changes
Advantages Of RTD's
• High accuracy of measurement
• Wide temperature range from -200 to 650 degc
• Small size
• Fast response
• Good reproducibility
• Stable and accurate performance over many
years
• Temperature compensation not required
 Limitations Of RTD's

• Cost is very high.

• It needs power supply for bridge circuit.
• Low resistance/small change
• It cause mechanical abuse and vibration.
• It has large bulb size than theimocouple.
• Self heating.
Latest development :Miniature RTD
 Introduction to Thermistors
• Thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor, exhibiting
significant resistance variation with temperature changes.
• The word thermistor is a contraction of words thermal and
resistor. Thermistors also measure the change in resistance
with temperature.
• Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than
RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples) and can
detect very small changes in temperature. They are also very
fast.
 Types of Thermistors
NTC Characteristics: NTC thermistors exhibit decreasing
resistance as temperature rises, permitting precise temperature
measurements across various ranges.
PTC Characteristics: PTC thermistors display increasing
resistance with rising temperatures, functioning effectively as over-
current protection devices in circuits.
Graphical Representation: Graphs depicting NTC and PTC
provide visual insight into resistance behavior across varying
temperature scales.
Thermistor Non-Linearity
 Construction of Thermistors

• Thermistors are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal

oxides) like manganese, nickel, cobalt, and iron for temperature
sensitivity.
• The construction involves mixing materials, shaping, heat treatment,
and coating for enhanced durability.
• Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control
and any time very small temperature differences must be detected.
• The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-
linear.
• Forms of Thermistors: Common thermistor forms include beads, disks, and
surface-mount types, catering to diverse applications.
 Thermistor Resistance
. As temperature increases, its resistance gets
decreasing according to the R vs. T equation
RT = Ro exp(β / T - β / To)
Where
RT = Resistance of T degree K
Ro = Resistance of T o degree K
β = Material Constant
Advantages of Thermistors

• Thermistor has the small size and low cost

and easily available.
• These are having comparatively a large
change in resistance with a given change in
temperature.
• These sensors give a fast response over a narrow
temperature range.
 Limitations Of Thermistors
- • The temperature vs resistance
characteristics are
highly non-linear.
• These are not suitable for the wide range of
temperature.
• It requires the electrically supply for working
and also a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• More susceptible to permanent decalibration
at
high temperatures.
• Respond quickly to temperature
changes, thus, especially susceptible to self-
Working Principle of Thermocouple
 Seebeck Effect

• In, 1821 T. J. Seebeck observed the existence of an

electromotive force (EMF) at the junction formed
between two dissimilar metals (Seebeck effect).
• If two dissimilar homogeneous metals are formed two
junctions & temperature difference is maintained
between these two junctions, a thermo EMF is produced
in the circuits.
• Seebeck effect is actually the combined result of two
other phenomena, Thomson and Peltier effects.
Construction & Operation of Thermocouple
• Thermocouple comprises of at least two metals joint together to
form two junctions: Hot junction & Cold junction
• hot or measuring junction : connected to the body
• cold or reference junction: connected to the body of known
temperature.
• Thus the thermocouple enables measuring the unknown
temperature of the body with reference to the known
temperature of the other body
• Two alloys joined at one end and free at the other
• At the open end, the emf is a function of temperature T1 at closed
end.
• As T rises, emf increases.
• T2 must be kept at a standard temp (0°C)
• If two wires of dissimilar
metals are joined at both
ends and one end is
heated, current will flow.
• If the circuit is broken,
there will be an open
circuit voltage across the
wires.
• Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types
• For small DT’s, the relationship with temperature is linear
V T
• For larger DT’s, non-linearities may occur
 Measuring the Thermocouple Voltage

If you attach the thermocouple directly to a voltmeter, you will have

problems.

You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be
proportional to the difference between J1 and J2 (and hence T1 and T2).
Note that this is “Type T” thermocouple.
 Which materials should be
used?
Depends on requirements: Temperature range,
Required accuracy, Chemical resistance issues,
Abrasion or vibration resistance, Installation
requirements (size of wire), & Thermal
conduction requirements
Thermocouple Material Vs
EMF
Most commonly used three materials:
Iron-Constantan (Type J),

Copper-Constantan (Type T), and

Chromel-Alumel (Type K).

Advantages
Wide Temperature Range: Thermocouples operate effectively
from -200°C to 2300°C, covering extreme temperature
measurement needs.
Rapid Response Time: Their low thermal mass ensures fast
response times, making them ideal for dynamic temperature
processes.
Robust Durability: Thermocouples withstand harsh
environments and physical shocks, ensuring reliability in
demanding industrial applications.
 Disadvantages/
Limitations
Lower Accuracy: Thermocouples typically have an accuracy
range of ±1-2°C, which may limit precise measurements.
Non-Linearity Issues: The output voltage of thermocouples
exhibits non-linear characteristics with increasing temperature,
complicating calibration.
Cold Junction Compensation Requirement: Accurate
temperature readings necessitate cold junction compensation,
introducing complexity and potential error sources.
Compensation in Thermocouple
1. Cold Junction Compensation
• The Temperature cannot be determined by output voltage
alone. It is subjected to error that is caused by the voltage
produced by reference junction.
• A solution is to put J2 in an ice-bath; then you know T2,
and your output voltage will be proportional to T1-T2.
 2. Lead Compensation

• If reference junction is placed far away from the

measurement junction, the connecting wires are very
long and are not at the same temperature throughout
their length. This cause error and need compensation.
• This compensation can be provided by using connecting
wires made of the same material as the thermocouple
wires. These wires are called as compensating leads.
• In a such case, materials are chosen such that relationship
between emf & temperature is almost same as that of
thermocouple wires.
 3. Isothermal Block

• If the two terminals aren’t at the same temperature, this also

creates an error.
• The block is an electrical insulator but good heat conductor.
This way the voltages for J3 and J4 cancel out. Thermocouple
data acquisition set-ups include these isothermal blocks.

• If we eliminate the ice-bath, then the isothermal block

temperature is our reference temperature
V  T1  Tblock 
Thermocouple Types
Solid State Sensors-LM35
• It is a type of sensor that uses semiconductor technology
to measure a physical quantity, like temperature, by
detecting changes in its electrical properties
• outputs a voltage directly proportional to the surrounding
temperature in degrees Celsius
• easy to read and interpret without needing external
calibration
 LM-35 Working
• Semiconductor-based sensing mechanism
• As the temperature increases, the output voltage
from the LM35 also increases linearly
• For 10 mV there will be 1 degree change in
temperature

• The Operating temperature range is from -55°C

to 150°C (-550 mV to 1500 mV)
• Operates with 4V to 30V supply
• Can measure negative temperatures (in LM35C
model, with negative voltage supply)
•Simple circuit to read temperature
•Use with Arduino and ADC
Advantages
•High accuracy and stability
•No need for external calibration

Limitations
•Factors affecting accuracy (e.g., noise, wiring length)
•Proper placement for precise readings