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Instrumentation and Metrology (PCCME603T)

Name of Topic:- UNIT-II: Temperature, Strain, Pressure, Force & Speed
Measurement
Contents:-
• Temperatures measurement: Thermocouple, Thermistor, Pyrometer.
• Strain measurement: Type of strain gauges, Strain gauge circuits.
• Pressure measurement: Bourdon tube, Dead Weight and McLeod pressure gauges
• Force measurement: Hydraulic Pneumatic Load cell, Piezoelectric Load cell, Strain gauge Load cell
• Speed measurement: Tachometers, Stroboscope, and anemometer for velocity measurement.
• Liquid Level Measurement

TEMPERATURES MEASUREMENT
• Temperature is the measurement of the hotness and coldness of a body.
• It is measured with the help of a device called a thermometer.
• The three units in which temperature is measured are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and
Kelvin. Hence, there are three different scales for measuring temperature.
• What Is Temperature?
• The definition of temperature says that it is a measure of the hotness and
coldness of a body.
• It is not easy to give an exact definition of temperature. Based on our
physiological sensations, we can express the level of temperature qualitatively
with words like hot, cold, warm, etc.
• Temperature is simply an average measure of the kinetic energy for particles of
matter, the more their kinetic energy, the higher the temperature of the
body/object.
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• Measurement of Temperature
• Measurement of temperature describes the process of measuring the
temperature of an object or a body.
• For accurate measurement of temperature, scales based on reference
points must be used.
• There are three main scales commonly used to measure temperature:
• The Fahrenheit scale, whose symbol is (°F).
• The Celsius scale, whose symbol is (°C).
• The Kelvin scale, whose symbol is (K).
• Each of these scales has different reference points and uses a
different set of divisions based on them.
• The Celsius scale is generally used for most temperature measuring
purposes.
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• Device to Measure Temperature

• There are several materials whose properties change with the temperature
in a repeatable and predictable manner and this forms a way for accurate
temperature measurement.
• The glass thermometer is one of the most common devices for measuring
temperature.
• The glass thermometer is a glass tube filled with mercury or some other
liquid, in which mercury acts as the working fluid.
• Temperature increase causes the fluid to expand and mercury changes its
property with respect to the temperature.
• As the temperature increases the volume of mercury also increases. So, the
temperature can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid and
temperature can be read simply by observing the level of the fluid in the
thermometer.
• Generally, we use a mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Thermometer

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Similarly, there are a few other instruments that are used for the
measurement of temperature:

• Thermocouples
• Thermistors
• Infrared thermometer
• Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
• Pyrometer
• Langmuir probes (for measuring the electron temperature of a plasma)

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Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is a transducer that converts thermal
energy into electrical energy and is constructed by
joining wires made from dissimilar metals to form a
junction. Voltage is produced when the temperature at
the junction changes.
• The concept of the thermocouple is based on the
Seebeck Effect, which states that if dissimilar metals are
joined at a point they will generate a small measurable
voltage when the temperature of the point of connection
changes. The amount of voltage depends on the amount
of temperature change and the characteristics of the
metals.
• The structure of a thermocouple consists of two
insulated wires connected to a measuring device.
Thermocouples serve as a safety and monitoring gauge
for various processes and equipment.
• The process of a thermocouple can be seen in the image
below where the temperature is raised at the junction of
the wires on the left, and the change in temperature is
displayed on the gauge at the right.

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• hermocouple assemblies are designed for use in harsh, severe, and stressful environments. The
choice of what thermocouple to use depends on the temperature range, ambient atmosphere,
and the type of media. The specific size and shape of a thermocouple is determined by the
application and the required accuracy and speed of response.
• How Does a Thermocouple Work?
• When the two wires of a thermocouple are joined to form a junction, one of them is connected to
the body of the thermocouple and measures temperature. It is referred to as the hot or measuring
junction. The second junction is attached to the body of a known temperature and is the reference
junction or cold junction. A thermocouple measures an unknown temperature and compares it to
a known temperature.
• The idea of a thermocouple is based on three principles of effect discovered by Seebeck, Peltier,
and Thomson.
• Seebeck effect:The Seebeck effect happens when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions and an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions,
which is different for different types of metals.
• Peltier effect:An emf is generated in a circuit when two dissimilar metals are joined to form two
junctions due to the different temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.
• Thomson effect:The Thomson effect is when heat is absorbed along the length of a rod whose
ends are at different temperatures. The temperature of the heat is associated with the flow of
current to the temperature along the rod.

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• Describing How a Thermocouple Works

• The circuit of a thermocouple is shown in the image below,
where A and B are two dissimilar wires that are joined to form
a junction. The two junctions are at different temperatures to
generate the Peltier emf in the circuit, which is the function of
the temperatures of two junctions.
• Electrons carry heat and electricity. If a piece of copper wire is
heated at one end, the electrons will move along the wire to
the cooler end and create a temperature gradient along the
wire. The heat has been changed into energy. This same
principle, as discovered by Volta and Seebeck, applies to a
thermocouple.
• A millivolt signal is generated if the junctions are at different
temperatures, which is unique for a pair of conductor
materials and specified in the International Electrotechnical
Commission’s standards IEC 1977. Thermocouples
manufactured to these standards are interchangeable
regardless of their manufacturer or country of origin.
• For a thermocouple to be of value, it has to have a cold
junction compensation using an ice or water bath to set the
reference temperature. The two ends of the thermocouple
are kept at the same temperature while the hot junction is
compared to the cold junction as seen in the diagram above.
The thicker the thermocouple wire is, the higher the
temperatures it is able to measure but at a slower response
time.

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• If the temperature of the junctions of a thermocouple

is the same, an equal and opposite EMF will be
generated at the junctions, and the current flow will
be zero. If the junctions have different temperatures,
the EMF will not be zero, and the current will be
flowing through the circuit much like the heat flowing
through the copper wire. The flow of the EMF through
the circuit depends on the metals and the
temperature of the two junctions, which is measured
by a meter.
• The EMF in the thermocouple circuit is very small, in
millivolts, and requires a highly sensitive instrument
for determining the generated EMF. A measuring or
reading instrument is needed to amplify the millivolt
signal, interpret the voltage as a temperature reading,
and display the reading. Galvanometers and voltage
balancing potentiometers are normally used
Potentiometers are used the most often.
• A potentiometer, also known as a pot or potmeter,
measures potential difference by comparing an
unknown voltage to a reference voltage. It can provide
high precision measurements. It is defined as a three
terminal variable resistor and acts as an adjustable
voltage divider.

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• A galvanometer measures very small electric

currents. They are used to measure null
deflection or zero current.
• For a thermocouple to make an absolute
measurement, it must be referenced to a
known temperature, such as freezing, on the
other end of the sensor cable. The hot
junction is the measuring assembly, while the
cold junction, as seen in the diagram below,
is the reference where a cold junction
compensation chip is located. The cold
junction temperature may vary but provides
a reference. The cold junction can be fixed by
immersing it in water or ice to maintain a
constant temperature.
• Ambient air can influence the reference
temperature. It can be calibrated and
adjusted by a reference junction
compensation device.

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• Types of Thermocouples
• According to different types of combinations of alloys, the thermocouples are available in different types.
The type of thermocouple is chosen according to the application, cost, availability, stability, chemical
properties, output, and temperature ranges.
• Here we will discuss different types of thermocouples with their characteristics.

• Type K Thermocouple
• The K-type thermocouple is the most common type of thermocouple, and it has the widest temperature
measuring range.
• The positive lead of Type K thermocouple is composed of approximately 90% nickel and 10% chromium. The
negative lead is composed of approximately 95% nickel, 2% aluminum, 2% manganese, and 1% silicon.
• The positive lead is colored yellow and it is a non-magnetic material. The negative lead is colored red and it
is a magnetic material. And the overall jacket is colored yellow.
• The temperature range of type K thermocouple is -200˚C to +1260˚C (-328 F to +2300 F). It is inexpensive
and widely used in general-purpose applications where temperature sensitivity requires approximately
41μV/˚C.
• The accuracy of type K thermocouple is ±2.2 C% (0.75%). The accuracy of thermocouples also depends on
the deviation in alloys.
• Type K thermocouple performs best in a clean oxidizing atmosphere. It is not recommended to use for
partially oxidizing conditions in a vacuum.

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• Type T Thermocouple
• This type of thermocouple is suitable to measure low temperature. The positive lead is composed of copper and the negative lead
is composed of constantan (45% nickel and 55% copper).
• The sensitivity of the type T thermocouple is 43 µV/°C. This thermocouple is suitable to works in an oxidizing atmosphere. The
temperature range of this thermocouple is between -200°C to 350°C.
• Type J Thermocouple
• This type of thermocouple is a low-cost and most used thermocouple. The positive lead is made of iron and a negative lead is
made of constantan (45% nickel and 55% copper).
• The positive lead is colored white and the negative terminal is colored red. And the overall jacket is colored black.
• The temperature range of type J thermocouple is between -210˚C to 750˚C (-346F to 1400F). This type of thermocouple has a
smaller temperature range and short life span compared to type K thermocouple. But this type of thermocouple is well suited for
oxidizing atmospheres.
• The accuracy of this type of thermocouple is ±2.2˚C (0.75%). This type of thermocouple is not recommended for lower-
temperature applications. And the sensitivity of this type of thermocouple is approximately 50μV/˚C.
• Type E Thermocouple
• This type of thermocouple has higher accuracy and stronger signal than type K and J thermocouple at moderate temperature
ranges. And it is a more stable type thermocouple than type K. The type E thermocouple produces the highest EMF per degree
than other types of thermocouple.
• The positive lead is composed of nickel-chromium (90% nickel and 10% chromium) and a negative terminal is composed of
constantan (95% nickel, 2% aluminum, 2% manganese, and 1% silicon). The positive lead is colored purple and the negative lead-
colored red.
• The temperature range of this type of thermocouple is between -270˚C to 870˚C (454 to 1600F). And standard accuracy is ±1.7˚C%.
• This type of thermocouple is used where high accuracy and fast response are required. It is not used for vacuum or low oxygen
applications and Sulphuric environments. The cost of type E thermocouples is more than the type J and K thermocouples.

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• Type N Thermocouple
• Type N thermocouple is designed by the Defense Science and Technology Organization (DSTO) of Australia, by Noel A. Burley. The
accuracy and temperature limits of type N thermocouple is the same as the type K thermocouple.
• The temperature range of type N thermocouples is between -270 °C and 1300 °C. Sensitivity is slightly lower than type K
thermocouple and it is 39μV/˚C.
• Type N thermocouple is composed of Nicrosil and Nisil. Where Nicrosil is a combination of Nickel, Chromium, and Silicon. And it
made positive wire. The Nisil is a combination of Nickel and Silicon. And it made negative wire.
• This thermocouple is the best alternative to type K thermocouples for low oxygen conditions. This type of thermocouple is suitable
to use in vacuum, oxidizing atmosphere, inert atmosphere, or dry atmosphere.
• Type S Thermocouple
• Type S thermocouples are used for higher temperature applications. Because of high accuracy and stability, sometimes it is used for
low temperature also.
• The temperature range of type S thermocouples is between 630 °C to 1064 °C. The positive lead is composed of 90% platinum, 10%
Rhodium, and the negative led is composed of Platinum.
• Generally, this type of thermocouple is used in the application like Pharmaceutical and Biotech industries where the high
temperature should be measure with high accuracy.
• Type R Thermocouple
• Type R thermocouple is also composed of Platinum and Rhodium. But the output range and stability of the type R thermocouple is
slightly more than the type S thermocouple.
• The positive lead pf type R thermocouple is composed of 87% Platinum and 13% Rhodium. And the negative lead is composed of
Platinum. The temperature range of this thermocouple is between 0 °C to 1600 °C.
• Type B Thermocouple
• Type B thermocouples are also made up of a combination of Platinum and Rhodium. The positive lead of a thermocouple is
composed of 70% Platinum and 30% Rhodium. And the negative lead is composed of 94% Platinum and 6% Rhodium.
• Type B thermocouple is used to measure the temperature up to 1800°C. But the output of this thermocouple is lower compared to
type R and S thermocouples.
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• Thermocouple Applications
• It is used to monitor the temperature in the steel and iron industries. For,
this type of application, type B, S, R, and K thermocouples are used in the
electric arc furnace.
• The principle of a thermocouple is used to measure the intensity of incident
radiation (especially visible and infrared light). This instrument is known as
a thermopile radiation sensor.
• It is used in the temperature sensors in thermostats to measure the
temperature of the office, showrooms, and homes.
• The thermocouple is used to detect the pilot flame in the appliances that
are used to generate heat from gas like a water heater.
• To test the current capacity, it is installed to monitor the temperature while
testing the thermal stability of switchgear equipment.
• The number of thermocouples is installed in the chemical production plant
and petroleum refineries to measure and monitor temperature at different
stages of the plant.

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Thermistor
• The Thermistor or simply Thermally Sensitive Resistor is a
temperature sensor that works on the principle of varying
resistance with temperature. They are made of semiconducting
materials.
• Construction of Thermistor:
• A thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as Nickel,
Manganese, Cobalt, Copper, Uranium etc. It is available in a
variety of shapes and sizes. Commonly used for configurations
are Disk type, Bead type and Rod type.
• The disc type thermistor and rod type thermistor is used when
greater power dissipation is required. The rod type thermistor
has high power handling capacity.
• The smallest thermistor in these configurations is the bead type
thermistor. its diameter is low as 0.15 mm.
• The measurement element is typically encapsulated in a glass
probe. It is commonly used for measuring the temperature of
liquids.

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• Working Principle of Thermistors

• The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in resistance due to a change in
temperature.
• When the ambient temperature changes the thermistor starts self-heating its elements. its
resistance value is changed with respect to this change in temperature.
• This change depends on the type of thermistor used. The resistance temperature
characteristics of different types of thermistors are given in the following section.

• Types of Thermistors
• NTC Thermistor
• NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are ceramic semiconductors that
have a high Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance.
• The resistance of an NTC will decrease with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner.
• PTC Thermistor
• PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors and are made of
polycrystalline ceramic materials.
• The resistance of a PTC will increase with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner.
The PTC thermistor shows only a small change of resistance with temperature until the
switching point(TR) is reached.
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• Advantages of thermistors
• Less expensive.
• More sensitive than other sensors.
• Fast response.
• Small in size.
• Dis-advantages of thermistors
• Limited Temperature range.
• Resistance to temperature ratio correlation is non-linear.
• An inaccurate measurement may be obtained due to the self-heating effect.
• Fragile.
• Applications of thermistors
• NTC Thermistor Application
• Digital Thermostats.
• Thermometers.
• Battery pack temperature monitors.
• In-rush-current limiting devices
• PTC Thermistor Application
• Over-current protection
• In-rush-current protection

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Pyrometer
• Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer
or Radiation thermometer or non-contact
thermometer used to detect the temperature of an
object’s surface temperature, which depends on the
radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the object.
• Pyrometers act as photodetector because of the
property of absorbing energy and measuring of EM
wave intensity at any wavelength.
• These are used to measure high-temperature
furnaces. These devices can measure the temperature
very accurately, precisely, pure visually and quickly.
• Pyrometers are available in different spectral ranges (
since metals – short wave ranges and non-metals-long
wave ranges).

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Working Principle of Pyrometer

• Pyrometers are the temperature measuring devices used to detect the object’s temperature and
electromagnetic radiation emitted from the object.
• These are available in different spectral ranges. Based on the spectral range, pyrometers are
classified into 1-color pyrometers, 2-color pyrometers, and high-speed pyrometers.
• The basic principle of the pyrometer is, it measures the object’s temperature by sensing the
heat/radiation emitted from the object without making contact with the object.
• It records the temperature level depending upon the intensity of radiation emitted. The
pyrometer has two basic components like optical system and detectors that are used to measure
the surface temperature of the object.
• When any object is taken whose surface temperature is to be measured with the pyrometer, the
optical system will capture the energy emitted from the object.
• Then the radiation is sent to the detector, which is very sensitive to the waves of radiation. The
output of the detector refers to the temperature level of the object due to the radiation. Note
that, the temperature of the detector analyzed by using the level of radiation is directly
proportional to the object’s temperature.
• The radiation emitted from every targeted object with its actual temperature goes beyond the
absolute temperature ( -273.15 degrees Centigrade ).
• This emitted radiation is referred to as Infrared, which is above the visible red light in the
electromagnetic spectrum. The radiated energy is used for detecting the temperature of the
object and it is converted into electrical signals with the help of a detector.

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Optical Pyrometers
• These are one of the types of pyrometers used
to detect thermal radiation of the visible
spectrum.
• The temperature of the hot objects measured
will depend on the visible light they emit.
• Optical pyrometers are capable of providing a
visual comparison between a calibrated light
source and the targeted object’s surface.
• When the temperature of the filament and the
object’s surface is the same, then the thermal
radiation intensity caused due to the filament
merges and into the targeted object’s surface
and becomes invisible.
• When this process happens, the current
passing through the filament is converted into
a temperature level.

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Infrared or Radiation Pyrometers

• These pyrometers are designed to detect
thermal radiation in the infrared region,
which is usually at a distance of 2-14um.
• It measures the temperature of a targeted
object from the emitted radiation.
• This radiation can be directed to a
thermocouple to convert into electrical
signals.
• Because the thermocouple is capable of
generating higher current equal to the heat
emitted.
• Infrared pyrometers are made up of
pyroelectric materials like polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF), triglycine sulfate (TGS), and
lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).
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• The advantages of pyrometer are

• It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the object. This is called Non-contact measurement.
• It has a fast response time
• Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
• It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances.

The disadvantages of pyrometer are

• Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive
• Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like dust, smoke, and thermal radiation.

Applications
• Pyrometers are used in different applications such as,
• To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater distance.
• In metallurgy industries
• In smelting industries
• Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the ballon
• Steam boilers to measure steam temperature
• To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.
• To measure furnace temperature.

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Speed Measurement
• A Tachometer is a device that is useful in measuring the operating speed of an
engine at the revolution of RPM and is helpful for planes, both cars, and other
types of vehicles.
• These device Gauges come in analog and digital forms. It indicates the engine
speed, which plays a vital role in determining the engine’s power output. It helps
measure the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, frequently that of a machine.
• It is usually measured in rotations per minute (RPM) and sometimes in
revolutions per second (RPS).
• We can use Tachometers to view the RPMs on cars, boats, motorcycles, and other
machines with engines. There are several types of Tachometers, including
mechanical, electronic, and magnetic.
• A digital meter helps measure and indicate the speed of a rotating object. It is an
optical encoder that helps determine the velocity of the motor for the rotating
shaft and is helpful in automobiles, medical instruments applications, and more.
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Types of Tachometers:
1. Electrical/ Electronic Tachometer:
• An Electrical/ Electronic Tachometer Is a valuable component that helps measure the
engine’s speed in RPM. It is a device that is available in the car’s dashboard to measure
the driving speed.
• This device uses a magnetic pickup that you can find here the rotating engine. It
generates electric pulses. The pulses that this device causes has a frequency proportional
to the engine speed.

2. Mechanical Tachometer or Analog Tachometer :

• A simple portable device uses the governor principle to obtain a measurement of speed.
Two masses are fixed on leaf springs which are fastened to the driven shaft at one end
and a sliding collar at the other.
• The sliding collar, through a link mechanism, moves a pointer over a scale. As the driven
shaft increases in speed the weights move out under centrifugal force, causing an axial
movement of the sliding collar. This in turn moves the pointer to give a reading of speed.

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Mechanical Tachometer

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Drag cup generator tachometer

• The drag cup generator device uses an
aluminium cup which is rotated in a laminated
iron electromagnet stator (Figure below).
• The stator has two separate windings at right
angles to eaeh other.
• An a.c. supply is provided to one winding and
eddy currents are set up in the rotating
aluminium cup.
• This results in an induced e.m.f. in the other
stator winding which is proportional to the
speed of rotation.
• The output voltage is measured on a voltmeter
calibrated to read in units of speed.

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Inductive & capacitive pick-up tachometer

• Various pick-up devices can be used in
conjunction with a digital counter to give a
direct reading of speed.
• An inductive pick-up tachometer is shown in
Figure (a). As the individual teeth pass the
coil they induce an e.m.f. pulse which is
appropriately modified and then fed to a
digital counter.
• A capacitive pick-up tachometer is shown in
Figure (b). As the rotating vane passes
between the plates a capacitance change
occurs in the form of a pulse. This is
modified and then fed to the digital counter.

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Stroboscope
• A stroboscope or strobe is an instrument that works
on the phenomenon of stroboscopic effect.
• It creates a stop motion effect of a rotating object by
flashing a high-intensity light on it.
• This appearance of a moving object to be stationary
can be used to study rotating, oscillating or vibrating
objects.
• Hence, a stroboscopic instrument can be used for
the measurement of rotational speed or rotary
motion or angular velocity (RPM) of a motor or any
rotating object.
• Angular speeds ranging between 600 to 20000 rpm
can be measured with the help of a stroboscope
tachometer.
• A stroboscope tachometer uses a variable frequency
flashing light called strobotron.

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• A stroboscope or stroboscopic tachometer is

also called a flashlight stroboscope used for
the measurement of angular velocity or
rotational speed by the stroboscopic
method.
• It consists of a flashing light of variable
frequency in which the flashing frequency of
the stroboscope light can be adjusted.
• A variable frequency oscillator is employed
to control the flashing frequency of the light.
By adjusting the oscillator frequency the
angular speed can be measured.
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• In order to measure the angular velocity of a shaft or any

rotating body.
• A disc with distinctive marks is mounted to the rotating
shaft whose angular velocity is to be measured.
• The stroboscope is provided with a neon gas discharge
bulb. The stroboscope is adjusted such that the light
flashes directly on the reference marks.
• The frequency of these flashes is varied and adjusted by
means of a frequency adjustment knob until the reference
marks on the disc appear to be stationary.
• This occurs when the frequency of the flash lamp is equal
to the speed of rotation of the reference marks on the
disk and hence the shaft.
• Thus, the frequency of flashing light of stroboscope gives
the angular velocity or speed when calibrated in terms of
speed.

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Hot Wire Anemometer

• Hot Wire Anemometer works When an
electrically heated wire is placed in a
flowing gas stream, heat is transferred
from the wire to the gas and hence the
temperature of the wire reduces, and
due to this, the resistance of the wire
also changes.
• This change in resistance of the wire
becomes a measure of flow rate.

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• Types of Hot wire Anemometer

A constant current is passed through the sensing wire. That The electrical current required in bringing back the
is, the voltage across the bridge circuit is kept constant, that resistance and hence the temperature of the wire to its
is, not varied. initial condition becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas
deflection of the galvanometer becomes a measure of flow when calibrated.
rate of the gas when calibrated.
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Liquid level measurement

• The measurement of liquid level in tanks and vessels is essential
requirement of processing industries.
• This can be achieved through mechanical means by employing float and
measuring the displacement.
• In another method provides the direct conversion to liquid level position to
electrical signal.
• In this case the liquid level is determined indirectly. The measurement is
generally done by two conversions; the first conversion usually is liquid
level to a displacement through a float in a liquid or a spring loaded plate in
contact with the surface in the case of granular solids.
• This displacement is then converted into an electrical signal by a secondary
transducer connected to float or plate.
• There are, however, many applications other methods like optical or
economic means or gamma rays are used.

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• Float Type Level Indicator

• It consists of a float which rests on the surface of the
liquid. The movement of the float is transmitted to a
pointer through suitable mechanism.
• The pointer indicates the liquid level on a calibrated
scale. Various types of floats are used which include
hollow metal spheres, cylindrical or disc shaped floats.
• The float type level indicators are low in cost, reliable
and operate over a large temperature range.
• As the liquid level rises in the tank, the float is raised.
• Its arm causes the wiper to move over the potential
divider whose output terminals are connected to a
voltmeter.
• As a float rises, a greater part of the potential divider is
included in the output circuit giving an increased output
voltage.
• Therefore, the output voltage is proportional to the
liquid level.
• The output terminals from the potential divider may
also be taken to a remote for display and control. 39

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• Sight Glass or Gauge Glass

• Sight glass is used for continuous indication of liquid level in a tank.
• As shown in Fig., it consists of a graduated tube made up of toughened glass
which is connected to the interior of the tank in which level is to be measured
at the bottom.
• The level of liquid in the sight glass is at the same level of that of liquid in the
tank.
• As the liquid in the tank rises or falls, the level in the sight glass also rise or falls
accordingly. Thus the level of liquid in the sight glass gives the level of the liquid
in the tank.
• Any other liquid in the sight glass can also be used. The standard practice is not
to use the glass tube of length more than 90 cm.
• The use of sight glass is common in boilers to indicate the liquid level. The only
drawback is that the reading of the level is only available at the tank, which is
sometimes not convenient.
• The viscous liquid may sometime clog the sight glass tube.
• Since sight glasses are located outside the tanks, the liquid in the sight glass
may freeze in clod weather even though the liquid inside the tank does not,
and thus, it may cause error in the reading.
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• Accuracy and readability depends on cleanliness of glass and fluid.

Pressure measurement
• The devices that are used for measuring pressure are called pressure gauges.
• Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. For the pressures above
atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure is positive.
• For the pressures below atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure is negative.
• The pressure gauge is also known as pressure meters or vacuum gauges.
• A device that uses the surface area and weight of a liquid column to measure and indicate
pressure is known as a manometer.
• Most gauges calculate the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point. Hence, this
form of reading is known as gauge pressure. Pressure gauges are analog as well as digital.
• The pressure difference between the system and the atmosphere is given by the formula:
• P=Pa+ ρgh (Where, P= pressure at any point, Pa = atmospheric pressure)
• From this, we can make out that the pressure at any point is always greater than the atmospheric
pressure by ρgh amount.
• When P-Pa=ρgh
• Where, P =pressure of the system, Pa=atmospheric pressure, (P-Pa) = pressure difference between
the system and atmosphere, hρg = Gauge pressure
• The difference between two pressures measured using the gauge is known as gauge pressure.
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Types of Pressure Gauges

• Depending on the usability and purpose whether it is for commercial
purpose or industrial purpose, most common pressure gauges are
designed.
• Some of the pressure gauges are:
• Manometer/ Pitot tube
• Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
• Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
• Capsule Pressure Gauge
• Absolute Pressure Gauge
• Differential Pressure Gauge
• Bellows Pressure Gauge
• Manometer Pressure Gauge
• Piezometer Pressure Gauge

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Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

• A bourdon tube is the most commonly used
pressure gauge.
• It is a mechanical instrument that measures the
pressure without an electric supply.
• It is made of steel to resist wear and corrosion. A
bourdon tube pressure gauge can measure
pressure from 0.6 to 7000 bar (8 to 10000 psi).
• It is compatible with liquid or gaseous media for
vacuum, as well as low and high-pressure
applications.
• It is a compact instrument that is ideal for heavy
vibration application and dynamic pressure load.
The bourdon tube pressure gauge is as shown
below.
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Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

• Advantages
• Simple in construction, less costly.
• It can be used for the wide pressure range.
• It gives high accuracy for high pressure.
• It has good sensitivity.
• It gives continuous output.
• It can be used for the vacuum measurement.
• Disadvantages
• It is subjected to hysteresis.
• Slowly respond to changes in pressure.
• It is sensitive to shock & vibration.
• Applications
• On the pressure vessel.
• On the Air tank.
• on the Gas pipelines.
• on the material/Fluid pipelines.
• Boilers.
• Vacuum gauges.
• High pressure reservoirs.
• Fire extinguishers tank.
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Dead Weight Pressure Gauge

• A dead weight tester is a standard calibration
instrument used in almost every industry for
calibration purposes.
• The dead weight tester works simply by
comparing the pressure exerted by a known
weight.
• In a dead weight tester, a primary piston is
present which carries a known weight, an oil
reservoir chamber containing oil (oil is used
because it is incompressible), an isolation valve
for the oil reservoir, known weights with
different magnitude, and a secondary piston to
pressurize the oil filled in the chamber.
• This secondary piston is also called a pumping
piston. A pressure gauge or a pressure
transmitter or a pressure switch that is to be
calibrated is installed on the place

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Dead Weight Pressure Gauge

• The scientific law behind the working of the dead weight tester is Pascal’s law
which says that pressure applied in any closed container or the vessel is exerted
equally on every part of the closed container or the vessel.
• Pressure = Force / Area
• The force is applied to the system using an adjusting piston. This adjusting piston
transfers the force to the oil and oil transfers the force equal to the whole chamber.
This equal distribution of oil is because of Pascal’s Law. Because of this, the weight
starts floating and the same amount of pressure is seen on the pressure device.
• Dead Weight Tester comes with a calibrator unit and can detect all ambient
parameters and make real-time accuracy adjustments.
• An important advantage of using the dead weight tester is that it helps to
accurately control and measure the pressure.
• Also, when it comes to measuring secondary pressure devices or measuring
unknown pressure where a high level of accuracy is required, a dead weight tester
provides the most accurate and least expensive solution.

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McLeod pressure gauges

• Mcleod Gauge is an instrument used to measure very low pressures nearly 10-6 Torr. This
device is named after its inventor Herbert Mcleod. It was invented by Herbert Mcleod in
the year 1874.
• The shape of the Mcleod Gauge is similar to the mercury manometer which is the most
common instrument used for the measurement of pressure.
• This Mcleod Gauge also has mercury inside it and the pressure measurement is done by
seeing the changes in the mercury level.
• In today’s world, these gauges are replaced largely by electronic vacuum gauges.
• Principle of Mcleod Gauge:
• A known volume of gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final value provides an
indication of the applied pressure.
• Mcleod Gauge works on the principle of Boyle’s Law.
• Boyle’s Law states that if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged, the
absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume
it occupies.
• According to Boyle’s Law: P1V1 = P2V2

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McLeod pressure gauges

• The McLeod Gauge measures the vacuum
pressure in the range between 10-1 and 10-5
torr.
• This can be used as a primary standard
device for calibrating other low-pressure
gauges.
• McLeod gauge is essentially a mercury
manometer in which a volume of gas is
compressed before measurement.
• It operates by compressing a low-pressure
gas of known volume into a smaller volume
so that its pressure is sufficiently higher
enough to be read.
• The resultant final volume and pressure
provide the indication of applied low
pressure.
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• The McLeod gauge consists of a reservoir

containing mercury.
• A plunger is attached on the top of the
reservoir which is used to raise or lower the
level of mercury into the reference column and
bulb. Above the reservoir, there is a bulb and
reference column.
• The point of connection of bulb and reference
column is the opening or cut-off point.
• The other end of the reference column is open
to vacuum pressure and it has a reference
capillary.
• The reference capillary has a zero reference
point up to which the mercury is raised.
• The mercury rises in the capillary as much as it
rises in the column but only the volume differs.
• The reference column is attached to a
measuring capillary which is a sealed chamber
and from which the final volume of gas is read.
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• Advantages
1. McLeod gauge is an inexpensive standard that measures vacuum pressure without
any electronics or sophisticated equipment.
2. It is used for calibrating other low pressure measuring gauges.
3. It is not influenced by gas composition.
4. The readings obtained from McLeod gauge do not require any correction.

• Disadvantages
1. The McLeod gauge is useful for measuring pressures of true gases that obey Boyle’s
law.
2. Condensable gases cannot be used.
3. The gauge is to be handled only by skilled technicians.
4. It cannot give continuous output.
5. Precautions are to be taken to remove any condensable vapors present inside
otherwise the gauge will show a false low reading.
6. There are chances for the gauge to get contaminated.

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Load cells
• A load cell is a force gauge that consists
of a transducer that is used to create an
electrical signal whose magnitude is
directly proportional to the force being
measured.
• Different Types of Load Cells
• There are four common types of these
sensors; they are:
– Pneumatic
– Hydraulic
– Strain gauge
– Capacitance
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• A pneumatic load cell consists of an

elastic diaphragm which is attached to
a platform surface where the weight
will be measured.
• There will be an air regulator that will
limit the flow of air pressure to the
system and a pressure gauge. Thus,
when an object is placed on a
pneumatic load cell it uses pressurized
air or gas to balance out the weight of
the object. Pneumatic Load Cells
• The air required to balance out the
weight will determine how heavy the
object weights. The pressure gauge
can convert the air pressure reading
into an electrical signal.
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• The word hydraulic should let us know that this

sensor will work by using fluid, whether water or
oil.
• These load cells are similar to pneumatic load cells
but instead of air, they use the pressurized liquid.
• Hydraulic load cells are consisting of:
– An elastic diaphragm
– A piston with a loading platform on top of the
diaphragm
– Oil or water that will be inside the piston
– A bourdon tube pressure gauge
• When a load is placed on the loading platform the
piston applies pressure to the liquid contained
inside it. The pressure increase of the liquid is Hydraulic Load Cells
proportional to the applied force or weight.
• After calibrating the pressure, you can accurately
measure the force or weight applied to the
hydraulic load cell.
• The pressure reading can be read as an analog
gauge or it can be converted into an electric signal
from a pressure sensor.
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• A strain gauge load cell is a transducer that

changes in electrical resistance when under
stress or strain.
• The electrical resistance is proportional to the
stress or strain placed on the cell making it easy
to calibrate into an accurate measurement.
• The electrical resistance from the strain gauge is
linear therefore it can be converted into a force
and then a weight if needed.
• A strain gauge load cell is made up of 4 strain Strain gauge Load Cells
gauges in a “Wheatstone” bridge configuration.
• A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit that
measures unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one of the
legs contains the unknown component.
• The “Wheatstone bridge” circuit provides
incredibly accurate measurements. The strain
gauges that are in the Wheatstone bridge are
bonded onto a beam which deforms when
weight is applied.

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• Capacitive load cells work on the principle of

capacitance, which is the ability of a system to store a
charge.
• The load cell is made up of two flat plates parallel to
each other. The plates will have a current applied to
them and once the charge is stable it gets stored
between the plates.
• The amount of charge stored, the capacitance,
depends on how large of a gap between the plates.
• When a load is placed on the plate the gap shrinks
giving us a change in the capacitance which can be
calculated into a weight.
Strain gauge Load Cells
• The load cell is made up of two flat plates parallel to
each other. The plates will have a current applied to
them and once the charge is stable it gets stored
between the plates.
• The amount of charge stored, the capacitance,
depends on how large of a gap between the plates.
• When a load is placed on the plate the gap shrinks
giving us a change in the capacitance which can be
calculated into a weight.

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